Tunable down-hole stimulation array

[0001] The invention relates generally to oilfield systems and subsystems. These include (1) frac pump fluid ends and (2) down-hole equipment for well completion. Particularly demanding applications include high-pressure hydraulic stimulation on intervals along horizontal wellbores in ultralow-permeability (unconventional) formations. The invention is related to copending application Ser. No. 14/168,147 (filed 30 Jan. 2014); Ser. No. 14/248,360 (filed 9 Apr. 2014); Ser. No. 14/340,634 (filed 25 Jul. 2014) and Ser. No. 14,524,093 (filed 27 Oct. 2014).

[0002] New designs described herein incorporate innovative applications of well-known technical principles for improved stimulation system performance (termed herein: tunable stimulation). Both adverse and beneficial aspects of the technical principles are represented in relationships between mechanical shocks and their impulse-generated vibration spectra. Adverse aspects of these relationships are strikingly manifest, for example, in the troubling fluid-end failure rates of even the most modern conventional high-pressure well-stimulation (frac) pumps. Beneficial aspects of analogous relationships can alternatively be employed to increase frac pump reliability and enhance well productivity through more efficient and localized stimulation.

[0003] Specific examples are cited in the following paragraphs to illustrate how frac pump reliability improvements have evolved from a better understanding of causes and effects of shock and vibration in fluid ends. First, remarkably strong and repetitive energy impulses (associated with mechanical shocks) commonly originate in frac pump fluid end valves. Second, both the bandwidth and amplitude of impulse-generated vibration produced by repetitive high-pressure closure of conventional fluid end check valves can be reduced through innovative design changes. Third, without such design changes, fatigue-related damage is exacerbated and frac pumps are predisposed to fluid end failures (an increasingly common problem).

[0004] Tunable stimulation systems as described herein effectively address frac-pump fluid-end fatigue failures by (1) altering check valve closure mechanics to reduce mechanical shock and (2) shifting vibration spectra to reduce the deleterious effects of resonance excitation by impulse-generated vibration. *** Further, tunable stimulation systems tailor broad-spectrum impulse-generated vibration for customized down-hole stimulation in widely-variable unconventional geologic formations. ***

[0005] Broad-spectrum impulse-generated vibration simultaneously has a plurality of vibration frequencies. It therefore has the potential to excite a range of destructive resonances in a fluid end or an entire frac pump as a whole. The excited resonances predispose various pump parts to fatigue-related cracking and ultimate failure. A variety of designs shown and described in the following materials explain how these damaging vibration resonances can be controlled (e.g., suppressed) using a hierarchy of tunable systems, tunable subsystems, tunable components and design elements. Controlling destructive resonance excitation, in turn, limits vibration-induced cracking.

[0006] But resonance vibration excitation shouldn't always be limited in well stimulation systems; sometimes it should be enhanced! Specifically, broad-spectrum impulse-generated vibration originating in tunable down-hole stimulators can be tailored. For example, power spectral densities or PSD's of the vibration frequency spectra can be shifted to maximize stimulation efficiency. Such tailoring begins by directing (tuned) broad-spectrum stimulation vibration to geologic material (e.g., rocks adjacent to a wellbore). The simultaneous presence of high down-hole hydraulic pressures predictably increases rock fracturing (with associated fragmentation), throughout a range of rock particle sizes. So by combining high hydraulic pressures with tuned vibration, well stimulation can accomplish two complementary objectives: (1) to fracture rock adjacent a wellbore (thereby opening channels in it), and (2) to prop the channels open with rock fragments that are self-generated in situ by tuned stimulation vibration during the high-pressure fracturing process.

[0007] To optimize these complementary well-stimulation functions, the extent of geologic fracturing is periodically assessed in near-real time. Assessment begins with detection of band-limited backscatter vibration corresponding to the broad-spectrum stimulation vibration. Such backscatter vibration emanates from the stimulated geologic fragments as they are formed. And assessment proceeds continuously as signals representing the backscatter vibration are processed in programmable controllers to produce feedback data for controlling one or more tunable hydraulic stimulators. Note that signal processing in programmable controllers is carried out using empirically-derived software algorithms (broadly termed herein: frac diagnostics).

[0008] In addition to feedback data from the above signal processing, supplemental geologic data may be obtained from frac diagnostics using signals from conventional well-logging apparatus and/or measurement while drilling (MWD) tools. Further, data-science techniques applied to studies of differences between broad-spectrum stimulation vibration and corresponding band-limited backscatter vibration can reveal structural information on stimulated geologic material that is both highly-desirable and otherwise unobtainable.

[0009] Note particularly that use of broad-spectrum impulse-generated stimulation vibration confers substantial advantages in characterizing geologic material adjacent to the wellbore. First, the broad spectrum of applied vibration ensures that a broad range of rock particle sizes will resonate (and hence tend to fragment) with each burst of stimulation vibration energy. Backscatter vibration accurately reflects the extent of this desired fragmentation. Second, due to the electro-mechanical mode of stimulation vibration generation described herein, the bandwidth, phase and amplitude of individual vibration spectra will vary slightly from burst-to-burst. Inherently then, the likelihood of missing critical geologic resonance vibration frequencies in stimulation vibration spectra is reduced. Third, the down-hole stimulation generators described herein can be tuned: e.g., their output PSD's can be adjusted via closed-loop control systems. Stimulation energy may thus be electively directed to progressively higher frequency ranges as stimulation-induced geologic fragmentation progresses through a range from large pieces to smaller (proppant-sized) fragments. And Fourth, the direction of stimulation energy to frequency ranges likely to induce desired degrees of geologic fragmentation results in higher efficiency. Energy thus applied minimizes unproductive heat loss because the relative amount of stimulation energy transmitted in less productive frequency ranges is reduced.

[0010] Another advantage of tunable stimulation stems from the fact that backscatter vibration, processed via frac diagnostics to yield feedback data, provides geologic information that is otherwise unobtainable. Functions of these data, in the form of control signals from programmable controllers, allow tailoring the process of closed-loop geologic stimulation to individual (unconventional) formations. Such closed-loop stimulation control incorporates feedback of a portion of the controlled-system output (i.e., backscatter vibration from stimulated geologic material) to the controlled-system input (i.e., tuned stimulation vibration generated via mechanical shock). In other words, backscatter vibration data are used to alter the mechanical shocks themselves, thus re-tuning stimulation vibration as needed for quick convergence on optimal stimulation vibration frequencies and end-points.

[0011] Closed-loop control of mechanical shocks as described herein implies control of the kinetic energy impulses corresponding to a moving hammer (or mass) element striking, and rebounding from, a fluid interface in a tunable hydraulic vibration generator. At least one such generator resides within each tunable down-hole stimulator. And at least a portion of a generator's initial kinetic energy for each hammer strike is converted to broad-spectrum impulse-generated vibration energy. So with each hammer strike and rebound, the vibration spectrum's power spectral density (PSD) can be detected and adjusted as desired under closed-loop control.

[0012] Closed-loop PSD control for tunable down-hole stimulation systems means that transmitted vibration spectra from a tunable hydraulic vibration generator are tuned at their source (e.g., by altering the rebound cycle time for each hammer element strike). Such tuning effectively shapes a transmitted vibration spectrum's PSD to concentrate stimulation vibration power in predetermined frequency ranges. The predetermined frequency ranges for any stage of stimulation are those that maximize transmission of vibration resonance excitation power to the adjacent geologic materials.

[0013] The geologic materials themselves, after a short time delay, report their actual absorption of stimulation vibration power (i.e., resonance excitation) in the form of backscatter vibration. Feedback data are then derived therefrom, and calculated control signals (which are based on the feedback data) close the loop in closed-loop shock control. Like the feedback data, control signals are also calculated using a programmable controller running frac diagnostic software. And the control signals are then applied (e.g., via feedback control link) to one or more tunable hydraulic vibration generators to optimize stimulation in near-real time.

[0014] Note that evaluation of backscatter vibration data detected via one or more down-hole stimulators may optionally be enhanced in light of, e.g., corresponding down-hole temperature and/or hydraulic pressure data. These parameters, electively combined with associated well-logging data, may be sensed at one or more down-hole stimulators. Such enhanced evaluation may then be carried out, e.g., via frac diagnostics in a programmable controller for the relevant tunable down-hole stimulation system.

[0015] Enhanced evaluation can support, for example, estimation of down-hole hydraulic pressure effects on fluid flow (e.g., liquid hydrocarbons) from stimulated geologic material. As stimulation proceeds, channels for such fluid flow are opened, but flow may be blocked by relatively higher down-hole hydraulic pressure. If the hydraulic pressure is sufficiently (temporarily) lowered, fluid flow from the stimulated geologic material ensues, carrying with it, e.g., small particulates with a capacity to alter backscatter vibration. Altered backscatter vibration, in turn, may reflect Doppler shifts proportional to particulate flow velocity (i.e., an early indicator of the wellbore stage's productivity potential).

[0016] To acquire the benefits of backscatter vibration data as described above, tunable down-hole stimulators must transmit impulse-generated broad-spectrum stimulation vibration to geologic materials adjacent to their wellbore stages or location(s). Geologic access is via, e.g., casing perforations and/or slots (i.e., ports or access openings). (See, e.g., U.S. patent application number 2014/0000909 A1, incorporated by reference). Since optimal resonance excitation frequencies necessarily change as stimulation progresses, closed-loop shock control in the stimulator(s) causes the PSD of stimulation vibration energy to be correspondingly shifted in near-real time to optimize stimulation of, and thus generate the corresponding backscatter vibration from, individual producing zones or stages within a wellbore. (See, e.g., U.S. patent application number 2014/0041876 A1, incorporated by reference). *** Optimization thus means: (1) more effective stimulation; (2) for more productive wells; (3) achieved with higher energy efficiency; (4) in less time. ***

[0017] The following background materials support this introduction by discussing the vibration spectrum of an impulse in greater detail, highlighting its importance with examples of deleterious effects of mechanical shock and vibration in conventional applications. Analogous-in-part vibration-related issues in the automotive industry are also described. They illustrate that *** positive or negative aspects of vibration in mechanical systems may become economically important, or even evident, only at certain frequencies and/or above certain energy levels. *** Building on the background, subsequent sections describe how selected alternative designs for high-pressure pump components (e.g., tunable check valves and tunable vibration dampers) and associated well-stimulation equipment (including, e.g., tunable down-hole stimulators) transform the overall process of well completion through substantive improvements in reliability, efficiency, and efficacy.

[0018] The necessity for modified designs (e.g., as described herein and in related patents) may be better appreciated after first considering: (1) the remarkably high failure rates of conventional reciprocating high-pressure pumps (especially their fluid ends), and (2) the substantial uncertainties (e.g., in cost/benefit analysis and technical complexity/reproducibility) associated with multistage well stimulation in unconventional formations. Pump-related issues will be considered initially.

[0019] Frac pumps (also commonly called fracking or well-service pumps) are typically truck-mounted for easy relocation from well-to-well. And they are usually designed in two sections: the (proximal) power section (herein “power end”) and the (distal) fluid section (herein “fluid end”). Each pump fluid end comprises at least one subassembly, and commonly three or more, in a single fluid end housing. Each subassembly comprises a suction valve, a discharge valve, a plunger or piston, and a portion of (or substantially the entirety of) a pump fluid end subassembly housing (shortened herein to “pump housing” or “fluid end housing” or “housing”, depending on the context).

[0020] For each pump fluid end subassembly, its fluid end housing comprises a pumping chamber in fluid communication with a suction bore, a discharge bore, and a piston/plunger bore. A suction valve (i.e., a check valve) within the suction bore, together with a discharge valve (i.e., another check valve) within the discharge bore, control bulk fluid movement from suction bore to discharge bore via the pumping chamber. Note that the term “check valve” as used herein refers to a valve in which a (relatively movable) valve body can cyclically close upon a (relatively stationary) valve seat to achieve substantially unidirectional bulk fluid flow through the valve.

[0021] Pulsatile fluid flow results from cyclical pressurization of the pumping chamber by reciprocating plunger or piston strokes within the plunger/piston bore. Suction and pressure strokes alternately produce wide pressure swings in the pumping chamber (and across the suction and discharge check valves) as the reciprocating plunger or piston is driven by the pump power end.

[0022] Such pumps are rated at peak pumped-fluid pressures in current practice up to about 22,000 psi, while simultaneously being weight-limited due to the carrying capacity of the trucks on which they are mounted. (See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,513,759 B1, incorporated by reference).

[0023] Due to high peak pumped-fluid pressures, suction check valves experience particularly wide pressure variations between a suction stroke, when the valve opens, and a pressure stroke, when the valve closes. For example, during a pressure stroke with a rod load up to 350,000 pounds, a conventionally rigid/heavy check valve body may be driven longitudinally (by pressurized fluid behind it) toward metal-to-metal impact on a conventional frusto-conical valve seat at closing forces of about 50,000 to over 250,000 pounds (depending on valve dimensions). A portion of total check-valve closure impulse energy (i.e., the total kinetic energy of the moving valve body and fluid at valve seat impact) is thus converted to a short-duration high-amplitude valve-closure energy impulse (i.e., a mechanical shock). As described below, each such mechanical shock is associated with transmission of broad-spectrum vibration energy, the range of vibration spectrum frequencies being an inverse function of valve-closure energy impulse duration.

[0024] Repeated application of dual valve-closure shocks with each pump cycle (i.e., one shock from the suction valve and another shock from the discharge valve) predisposes each check valve, and the pump as a whole, to vibration-induced (e.g., fatigue) damage. (Recall the well-documented progressive cracking of the Liberty Bell with repeated strikes of the clapper, particularly noting the sites of crack progression being significantly distant from the sites of clapper impact). Thus, cumulative valve-closure shocks significantly degrade frac pump reliability, proportional in part to the rigidity and weight of each check valve body.

[0025] The increasing importance of fatigue-related frac pump reliability issues has paralleled the inexorable rise of peak pumped-fluid pressures in new fracking applications. And insight into fatigue-related failure modes has been gained through review of earlier shock and vibration studies, data from which are cited herein. For example, a recent treatise on the subject describes a mechanical shock in terms of its inherent properties in the time domain and in the frequency domain, and also in terms of its effects on structures when the shock acts as the excitation. (see p. 20.5 of Harris' Shock and Vibration Handbook, Sixth Edition, ed. Allan G. Piersol and Thomas L. Paez, McGraw Hill (2010), hereinafter Harris).

[0026] References to time and frequency domains appear frequently in descriptions of acquisition and analysis of shock and vibration data. And these domains are mathematically represented on opposite sides of equations generally termed Fourier transforms. Further, estimates of a shock's structural effects are frequently described in terms of two parameters: (1) the structure's undamped natural frequency and (2) the fraction of critical structural damping or, equivalently, the resonant gain Q (see Harris pp. 7.6, 14.9-14.10, 20.10). (See also, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,859,733 B2, incorporated by reference).

[0027] Digital representations of time and frequency domain data play important roles in computer-assisted shock and vibration studies. In addition, shock properties are also commonly represented graphically as time domain impulse plots (e.g., acceleration vs. time) and frequency domain vibration plots (e.g., spectrum amplitude vs. frequency). Such graphical presentations readily illustrate the shock effects of metal-to-metal valve-closure, wherein movement of a check valve body is abruptly stopped by a valve seat. Relatively high acceleration values and broad vibration spectra are prominent, because each valve-closure impulse response primarily represents a violent conversion of a portion of kinetic energy (of the moving valve body and fluid) to other energy forms.

[0028] Since energy cannot be destroyed, and since a conventional valve can neither store nor convert (i.e., dissipate) more than a small fraction of the valve-closure impulse's kinetic energy, a portion of that energy is necessarily transmitted to the pump housing in the form of broad-spectrum vibration energy. This relationship of (frequency domain) vibration energy to (time domain) kinetic energy, is mathematically represented by a Fourier transform. Such transforms are well-known to those skilled in the art of shock and vibration mechanics. For others, a graphical representation (i.e., plots) rather than a mathematical representation (i.e., equations) may be preferable.

[0029] For example, in a time domain plot, the transmitted energy appears as a high-amplitude impulse of short duration. And a corresponding frequency domain plot of transmitted energy reveals a relatively broad-spectrum band of high-amplitude vibration. *** The breadth of the vibration spectrum is generally inversely proportional to the impulse duration. ***

[0030] Thus, as noted above, a portion of the check valve's cyclical valve-closure kinetic energy is converted to relatively broad-spectrum vibration energy. The overall effect of cyclical check valve closures may therefore be compared to the mechanical shocks that would result from repeatedly striking the valve seat with a commercially-available impulse hammer, each hammer strike being followed by a rebound. Such hammers are easily configured to produce relatively broad-spectrum high-amplitude excitation (i.e., vibration) in an object struck by the hammer. (See, e.g., Introduction to Impulse Hammers at http://www.dytran.com/img/tech/a11.pdf, and Harris p. 20.10).

[0031] Summarizing then, relatively broad-spectrum high-amplitude vibration predictably results from a typical high-energy valve-closure impulse. And frac pumps with conventionally-rigid valves can suffer hundreds of these impulses per minute. Note that the number of impulses per minute (for example, 300 impulses per minute) corresponds to pump plunger strokes or cycles, and this number may be converted to impulses-per-second (i.e., 300/60=5). In this example, the number 5 is sometimes termed a frequency because it is given the dimensions of cycles/second or Hertz (Hz). But the “frequency” thus attributed to pump cycles themselves differs from the spectrum of vibration frequencies resulting from each individual pump cycle energy impulse. The difference is that impulse-generated (e.g., valve-generated) vibration occurs in bursts having relatively broad spectra (i.e., simultaneously containing many vibration frequencies) ranging from a few Hz to several thousand Hz (kHz).

[0032] In conventional frac pumps, nearly all of the (relatively broad-spectrum) valve-generated vibration energy must be transmitted to proximate areas of the fluid end or pump housing because vibration energy cannot be efficiently dissipated in the (relatively rigid) valves themselves. Based on extensive shock and vibration test data (see Harris) it can be expected to excite damaging resonances that predispose the housing to fatigue failures. (See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,979,242, incorporated by reference). If, as expected, a natural vibration resonance frequency of the housing coincides with a frequency within the valve-closure vibration spectrum, fluid end vibration amplitude may be substantially increased and the corresponding vibration fatigue damage made much worse. (See Harris, p. 1.3).

[0033] Opportunities to limit fluid end damage can reasonably begin with experiment-based redesign to control vibration-induced fatigue. That is, spectra of the equipment vibration frequencies measured after application of test shocks can reveal structural resonance frequencies likely to cause trouble in a particular fluid end. These revealed frequencies are herein termed critical frequencies. For example, a test shock may comprise a half-sine impulse of duration one millisecond, which has predominant spectral content up to about 2 kHz (see Harris, p. 11.22). This spectral content likely overlaps, and thus will excite, a plurality of a fluid end's structural resonance (i.e., critical) frequencies. Excited critical frequencies are then identified with appropriate instrumentation, so attention can be directed to limiting operational vibration at those critical frequencies. This process is tailored to each fluid end, with an appropriate test shock and instrumentation to provide at least one “tested fluid end vibration resonant frequency” to support further reliability improvements.

[0034] Limiting vibration at critical frequencies through use of the above shock tests can be particularly beneficial in blocking progressive fatigue cracking in a structure. If vibration is not appropriately limited, fatigue cracks may grow to a point where fatigue crack size is no longer limited (i.e., the structure experiences catastrophic fracture). The size of cracks just before the point of fracture has been termed the critical crack size. Note that stronger housings are not necessarily better in such cases, since increasing the housing's yield strength causes a corresponding decrease in critical crack size (with consequent earlier progression to catastrophic fracture). (See Harris, p. 33.23).

[0035] It might be assumed that certain valve redesigns proposed in the past (including relatively lighter valve bodies) would have alleviated at least some of the above fatigue-related failure modes. (See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,222,837 B1, incorporated by reference). But such redesigns emerged (e.g., in 2005) when fluid end peak pressures were generally substantially lower than they currently are. In relatively lower pressure applications (e.g., mud pumps), rigid/heavy valve bodies performed well because the valve-closure shocks and associated valve-generated vibration were less severe compared to shock and vibration experienced more recently in higher pressure applications (e.g., fracking) Thus, despite their apparent functional resemblance to impulse hammers, relatively rigid/heavy valves have been pressed into service as candidates for use in frac pump fluid ends. Indeed, they have generally been among the valves most commonly available in commercial quantities during the recent explosive expansion of well-service fracking operations. Substantially increased fluid end failure rates (due, e.g., to cracks near a suction valve seat deck) have been among the unfortunate, and unintended, consequences.

[0036] Under these circumstances, it is regrettable but understandable that published data on a modern 9-ton, 3000-hp well-service pump includes a warranty period measured in hours, with no warranty for valves or weld-repaired fluid ends.

[0037] Such baleful vibration-related results in fluid ends might usefully be compared with vibration-related problems seen during the transition from slow-turning two-cylinder automobile engines to higher-speed and higher-powered inline six-cylinder engines around the years 1903-1910. Important torsional-vibration failure modes suddenly became evident in the new six-cylinder engines, though they were neither anticipated nor understood at the time. Whereas the earlier engines had been under-powered but relatively reliable, torsional crankshaft vibrations in the six-cylinder engines caused objectionable noise (“octaves of chatter from the quivering crankshaft”) and unexpected catastrophic failures (e.g., broken crankshafts). (Quotation cited on p. 13 of Royce and the Vibration Damper, Rolls-Royce Heritage Trust, 2003). Torsional-vibration was eventually identified as the culprit and, though never entirely eliminated, was finally reduced to a relatively minor maintenance issue after several crankshaft redesigns and the development of crankshaft vibration dampers pioneered by Royce and Lanchester.

[0038] Reducing the current fluid end failure rates related to valve-generated vibration in frac pumps requires an analogous modern program of intensive study and specific design changes. The problem will be persistent because repeatedly-applied valve-closure energy impulses cannot be entirely eliminated in check-valve-based fluid end technology. So the valve-closing impulses must be modified, and their associated vibrations damped, meaning that at least a portion of the total vibration energy is converted to heat energy and dissipated (i.e., the heat is rejected to the surroundings). A reduction in total vibration energy results in reduced excitation of destructive resonances in valves, pump housings, and related fluid end structures.

[0039] Alternate materials, applied via innovative designs, illuminate the path forward now as they have in the past. Broad application of such improvements promises higher frac pump reliability, an important near-term goal. Simultaneously, inhibition of corrosion fatigue throughout analogous fluid circuits (e.g., piping systems) would be advanced, a longer-term benefit in refineries, hydrocarbon crackers and other industrial venues that are also subjected to shock-related vibration.

[0040] Further, when considering vibration in well stimulation systems comprising frac pumps together with down-hole equipment, additional opportunities for increased efficiency arise. Concentration of stimulation resources near wellbore fluid collection sites, together with feedback-controlled application of stimulation energy, conserves time and money. And tailoring the forms of stimulation vibration energy to well-specific geologic parameters contributes to operational flexibility, efficiency, and efficacy.

[0041] Tunable down-hole stimulation arrays feature closed-loop control of spatial arrays (i.e., arrays in which several connected stimulators are spaced apart in three-dimensional space). A linear array, as schematically illustrated herein (see FIG. 18), is a type of spatial array. Each stimulator periodically transmits (in response to a timed activation signal) an impulse-generated vibration burst comprising a plurality of vibration frequencies. And each vibration burst has an adjustable power spectral density (adjustable PSD). Connected array stimulators are periodically activated as a group (e.g., timed activation signals may be transmitted as a signal group from a programmable controller, one timed activation signal for each stimulator). Transmitted activation signals in a signal group may be either simultaneous or sequential. Sequential activation signals are separated from each other by discrete time intervals within a signal group.

[0042] Further, each stimulator's adjustable PSD may be shifted for tuning via that stimulator's adjustable rebound cycle time. Shifting of an adjustable PSD means that relative transmitted vibration power within a vibration burst may be shifted toward relatively higher or lower frequencies for tuning a single stimulator. Analogous tuning of one or more stimulators in a stimulation array thus tunes the down-hole stimulation array as a whole. Stimulator vibration burst adjustable PSD's are typically adjusted in order to tune a stimulation array for resonance excitation and fracturing of adjacent geologic materials.

[0043] Note that changes in rebound cycle times also affect vibration interference among stimulators within an array (see “interference” below), while changes in stimulator activation times (e.g. either simultaneous or sequential) affect directional propagation of combined vibration wave fronts from a stimulator array (resulting in, e.g., a directionally propagated array vibration wave front).

[0044] Feedback for closed-loop control of stimulation includes acquisition and analysis of backscatter vibration from stimulated geologic material. As fracturing proceeds to smaller (proppant-sized) fragments having higher resonant frequencies, adjustable PSD's are up-shifted, increasing relative power in higher vibration frequencies (e.g., by reducing rebound cycle time as a function of increases in the backscatter vibration's higher frequency content). Progressive geologic stimulation is thus optimized, with inherent potential for plain-water fracs completed with self-generated proppant.

[0045] A relatively broad vibration frequency spectrum (e.g., comprising a plurality of transmitted frequencies) is characteristic of the above impulse-generated stimulators. A broad vibration spectrum, together with controlled directional propagation of combined vibration wave fronts from a stimulator array (e.g., via simultaneous or sequential timed activation signals), allows repeated scanning and characterization (via analysis of backscatter vibration) of geologic materials adjacent to an array. Stimulation may thus be tailored to local down-hole geologic conditions in near-real time.

[0046] Initial geologic fracturing is associated with relatively high (frac-pump-driven) down-hole hydraulic pressure environments and relatively large geologic fragment sizes. In view of the relatively low resonant frequencies of relatively large geologic fragments, the power spectral density (PSD) of transmitted stimulation vibration energy is initially down-shifted (i.e., tuned). This will increase the relative power (within a vibration burst) of vibration transmitted at those relatively lower frequencies. Such vibration tuning of impulse-generated feedback-controlled vibration stimulators (e.g., stimulators featuring closed-loop feedback-controlled hammer strike and rebound) is generally applied to vibration output from one or more stimulators in an array. And such tuning may vary among stimulators depending, e.g., on their location in the array.

[0047] As stimulation-induced geologic fragmentation progresses toward smaller (proppant-size) fragments with higher resonant frequencies, corresponding increases in relatively higher-frequency backscatter vibration power are fed back (as part of a closed-loop) to a programmable controller. The controller then derives feedback data from the backscatter vibration, and transmits at least one control signal (as a function of the backscatter vibration data) to at least one downhole hydraulic stimulator to cause progressive up-shifting of the stimulator's transmitted stimulation vibration energy PSD. That is, the PSD of the stimulator's transmitted vibration energy is changed by shifting the distribution of vibration power toward relatively higher frequencies). *** Overall stimulator power requirements are thereby minimized because available stimulation vibration energy is efficiently shifted toward (and thus relatively concentrated in) the bands of resonant frequencies to which the geologic material is most susceptible at every stage of stimulation. *** Through closed-loop control, progressive geologic fragmentation (with inherent production of self-generated proppant) is optimized at minimum energy levels.

[0048] The geologic fragmentation associated with self-generated proppant contributes to wellbore stimulation for increased productivity. So operational success of geologic fracturing in general, and in situ creation of self-generated proppant in particular, are closely related to closed-loop control of tunable down-hole stimulation array system embodiments as described herein.

[0049] Broad-spectrum impulse-generated stimulation vibration energy is generated and modified down-hole (i.e., in the wellbore) in part to minimize transmission losses as the energy travels to adjacent geologic material. On striking geologic material, portions of the broad vibration energy spectrum immediately excite resonant vibrations in geologic features whose resonant frequencies were not precisely known initially. By the mechanism of resonance, the variously-sized geologic fragments themselves automatically extract their own portions of vibration energy from the broad range of impulse-generated stimulation vibration frequencies available. The extracted energy, in turn, leads to further vibration-induced geologic fractures and fragmentation.

[0050] Backscatter vibration originating from the stimulated geologic materials reveals the stimulation status and the nature of those materials. Backscatter vibration is sensed in near-real time by detectors on one or more tunable down-hole stimulators. Analysis of backscatter vibration (in one or more programmable controllers) is followed by transmission of one or more control signals to one or more down-hole hydraulic stimulators. This ensures that stimulation vibration energy remains efficiently concentrated (i.e., via feedback-controlled PSD's) for creating specific desired geologic responses (i.e., fractures and fragmentation to a predetermined end point), rather than being dissipated as wasteful heat. Beneficial geologic stimulation is thus obtained using a combination of: (1) minimum applied vibration energy, plus (2) resonance vibration effects assessed via detection of backscatter vibration from the stimulated geologic material.

[0051] Note that plasma sources (e.g., an electric arc and mechanical or electro-mechanical stimulators) are described elsewhere as producing wide-band stimulation vibration energy. But such vibration sources do not incorporate the feedback-control of stimulation vibration PSD described herein. Thus the associated benefits of closed-loop stimulation vibration energy concentration, as described herein, are not available using such vibration sources. Efficient allocation of stimulation energy over the entire size range therefore requires near-real-time feedback data regarding the relative proportions of fragment or particle sizes within the fractured geologic material. (See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,535,250 B2 and 8,731,848 B2, incorporated by reference).

[0052] Note that the compositions of geologic fragments, and their reactions to stimulation vibration, demonstrate wide variations. And supplemental data bearing on geologic composition may be usefully extracted in programmable controllers (e.g., via empirically-derived frac diagnostics software) from parameters considered in combination with backscatter vibration, such as ambient (down-hole) pressure and temperature.

[0053] It is known by those skilled in the art that accurately characterizing the overall geologic composition of shale reservoirs is difficult. Such reservoirs are substantially different from conventional and other types of unconventional reservoirs. (See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 8,731,889 B2, incorporated by reference). Thus various embodiments of the present invention reflect choices among a variety of different functional relationships relating the stimulation vibration parameters. Such choices bear on the necessarily time-dependent modifications of (initially broad-spectrum) stimulation vibration for each application. The manner in which each functional relationship among parameters bears on stimulation vibration modifications is determined, as noted above, via one or more frac diagnostic tools (i.e., software) residing in one or more programmable controllers connected to each tunable down-hole stimulation system.

[0054] Certain of the above functional relationships are manifest in the frac pumps that create and maintain a down-hole hydraulic environment in which down-hole stimulation arrays operate. In such pumps, valve-generated vibration spectra are suppressed using tunable components to limit fatigue-related fracturing of pump structures aggravated by destructive excitation of pump resonances. Vibration suppression, as described herein, includes damping (i.e., dissipation as heat) and/or shifting of the vibration's PSD. The desired effect in each case is to decrease the amount of valve-generated vibration power present at a pump's critical frequencies.

[0055] Further, certain tunable down-hole stimulation array embodiments may comprise one or more relatively higher-pressure pumps for fluid (e.g., plain water) that contains no proppant (schematically illustrated and labeled herein as frac pumps). One or more such frac pumps may be combined with one or more relatively lower-pressure pumps for fluid containing exogenous proppant (schematically illustrated and labeled herein as proppant pumps). Such system embodiments facilitate pulsed proppant placement or PPP (see below) in previously fractured geologic material.

[0056] In an example scenario for initial geologic fracturing (e.g., involving relatively large rock fragments), one or more frac pumps provide relatively high hydraulic down-hole pressure environment. Simultaneously, the PSD of broad-spectrum tunable down-hole stimulator vibration is down-shifted (i.e., PSD is pre-tuned to shift the distribution of stimulation vibration power toward relatively lower frequencies). This pre-tuned stimulation vibration predominantly provides relatively lower vibration frequencies for synergistic combination with relatively high pumped-fluid (hydraulic down-hole) pressures to optimize initial geologic stimulation. As stimulation progresses, PSD up-shifting is carried out (i.e., stimulation vibration PSD is re-tuned to shift the distribution of stimulation vibration power toward relatively higher frequencies). Such higher frequencies are needed to maintain progressive stimulation as fracturing proceeds to smaller rock fragments with relatively higher resonant frequencies (e.g., fragments approaching proppant particles in size).

[0057] As noted above, the extent of geologic fragmentation is periodically assessed in near-real time via analysis (of, e.g., backscatter vibration) in programmable controllers running empirically-derived algorithms (broadly termed herein: frac diagnostics). Frac diagnostics may operate not only on band-limited backscatter vibration energy from the rock fragments themselves, but also on optionally-sensed down-hole pressure, temperature, and/or related parameters. The degree of rock fragmentation for each stimulation stage is thus periodically assessed for optimized flowback (e.g., substantial flow equalization within a cluster of analogous stages).

[0058] Further, data-science techniques applied to studies of differences between broad-spectrum stimulation vibration and corresponding band-limited backscatter vibration will undoubtedly reveal information on stimulated geologic material that is both highly-desirable and otherwise unobtainable. Optimal conduct of such studies requires capabilities for (1) locally (i.e., down-hole) transmitted and detected broad-spectrum stimulation vibration, and (2) locally (i.e., down-hole) detected corresponding (time-displaced) backscatter vibration, both capabilities achieved as described herein via tunable down-hole stimulation arrays.

[0059] Preplanned stimulation of each wellbore stage for self-generation of proppant-sized particles is thus individually controlled via adjustment of: (1) down-hole hydraulic pressures, and/or (2) the PSD's of transmitted tunable down-hole stimulator resonance excitation vibrations, and/or (3) the phase relationships of stimulation vibration pulses from a plurality of down-hole hydraulic stimulators in connected arrays. Inherent production of self-generated proppant from the stimulated geologic material is thus facilitated to support long-term stable productivity of each stage and cluster.

[0060] Such combined data may be used to guide intermittent (e.g., pulsed) addition of exogenous proppant to a wellbore, optionally under reduced pressure, between proppant-free (e.g., plain water) fracs under relatively higher pressures. Pulsed-proppant placement (PPP) minimizes the total amount of exogenous proppant needed to supplement in situ or self-generated proppant resulting from tunable down-hole stimulation. Thus, the task of stimulation (including proppant placement) is performed step-wise, with each step under closed-loop control for fast convergence on one or more optimal end points.

[0061] Note certain differences between PPP as described herein and the industry practice of pumping different types of slurries or fluids in discrete intervals, that is, as slugs or stages. (See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 8,540,024 B2, incorporated by reference). First, proppant addition in PPP is under closed-loop control; it is a function, in part, of backscatter vibration sensed down-hole in near-real time by one or more detectors on each tunable down-hole stimulator. Second, in PPP the proppant-laden fluid may be injected into a wellbore (via one or more separate proppant pumps) at lower pressures than proppant-free fluid associated with the frac pump(s). And Third, proppant provided via the PPP closed-loop system is supplemental to self-generated proppant which is continuously created anew through stimulation vibration transmitted by one or more tunable down-hole stimulators.

[0062] A tunable down-hole stimulation system embodiment to accomplish such PPP is schematically illustrated herein to emphasize certain advantages stemming from separation of the relatively high-pressure frac pump from the (optionally) relatively lower-pressure proppant pump. The absence of proppant in the relatively high-pressure fluid end means longer life for high-pressure valves, with resultant improvements in fluid end reliability. Even in proppant pumps, valve life-cycles and fluid-end reliability would improve because the valves would (optionally) be operating at relatively lower pressures, thereby producing relatively less-energetic valve-generated vibration having narrowed (and less damaging) vibration spectra.

[0063] In the following paragraphs, both generation of broad-spectrum vibration in tunable down-hole stimulators, and incorporation of the stimulators in tunable down-hole stimulation systems, are considered before control of valve-generated vibration in tunable fluid ends. This is to emphasize the role of induced-resonance-excitation vibration and fragmentation in geologic materials for maximizing well productivity.

[0064] Suppression of resonance excitation in tunable fluid ends, on the other hand, limits the destructive effects of valve-generated vibration (for maximizing fluid end reliability). Comparisons will be noted between the related-in-part methods for inducing or suppressing a desired range of resonance-related power spectral densities in systems comprising both tunable down-hole stimulators and tunable fluid ends.

[0065] The desirability of tunable down-hole stimulators in tunable down-hole stimulation systems stems in part from the well-known vertical and horizontal heterogeneity of unconventional reservoirs. Wide variability of geologic materials adjacent to wellbores is common, meaning that consistently-beneficial stimulation design has been difficult to achieve. In current practice, some fracture stages are typically found to be substantially more productive than others, while the cost of fracking varies little from stage-to-stage. Thus, stimulation design currently reflects compromises between the efficiency of a single customized fracture stage and the degraded performance of multiple one-size-fits-all stages that include a variety of geologic materials having different productive potentials.

[0066] Such currently unavoidable inefficiencies are substantially reduced by the advent of new tunable down-hole stimulation systems as described herein. With the new systems, progressive series of customized fracture stages can be realized in near-real time through productive integration of: (1) pumps (optionally having tunable fluid ends), (2) tunable down-hole stimulators, and (3) programmable controllers. Each fracture stage is electively customized in turn, through use of frac diagnostics operating on near-real-time backscatter vibration. Relatively productive stages can be readily identified for optimal stimulation, followed by combination of such stages into strategically important productive clusters.

[0067] And the twin keys to creation of productive clusters in horizontal wellbores are (1) sensing backscatter vibration to generate feedback data collected in different portions of a tunable down-hole stimulation system and (2) processing these and related data (e.g., pressure and/or temperature) in the system's programmable controller to create control signals. Control signals, in turn, direct the operations of subsystems for pumping and/or generating broad-spectrum vibration to optimize stimulation. Control signals can also (optionally) facilitate accurate placement and adjustment of inflow control devices within a tunable down-hole stimulation system.

[0068] Embodiments of tunable down-hole stimulation array systems may optionally comprise a plurality of tunable subsystems (e.g., tunable fluid ends and tunable down-hole stimulator arrays). And each subsystem may comprise tunable components, e.g., tunable valves, tunable valve seats, tunable hydraulic vibration generators. Functions of tunable subsystems are coordinated via control elements including, for example, down-hole pressure and/or temperature sensors, detectors for both transmitted and backscatter vibration, and programmable computers running various frac diagnostic software programs. Communication pathways (e.g., the control links schematically illustrated herein) connect control elements, as well as tunable components and subsystems.

[0069] Communication pathways carry information (e.g., data, electronic signals for analog or digital encoded variables, and parameters such as frequency, time, amplitude, pressure values, and/or temperature values). Communication pathways include, e.g., mechanical links, electrical cables, wireless links, and/or fluid-filled spaces. While example embodiments of tunable subsystems, tunable components, control elements and control links are described and schematically illustrated herein, the following examples are intended to be merely representative of certain functional groupings to enhance the clarity of overall system description.

[0070] One such functional grouping concerns sensing (i.e., detection), analysis and modification of vibration. In either closed-loop or open-loop embodiments, a single (wide dynamic range) accelerometer can function as a detector of vibration at a fluid interface, whether transmitted as broad-spectrum stimulation vibration energy or received in the form of band-limited backscatter vibration energy. But since the typical energy levels of (relatively high-energy) transmitted vibration and (relatively low-energy) backscatter vibration may differ substantially, two or more separate accelerometers may be preferred for greater accuracy. Regardless of their arrangement in a tunable down-hole stimulation system, one or more vibration detectors initiate the flow of feedback data necessary for closed-loop control.

[0071] An illustration of such closed-loop control is seen in a first embodiment of a tunable down-hole stimulation system. The system comprises at least one frac pump for creating down-hole hydraulic pressure, together with at least one tunable down-hole stimulator, each stimulator comprising a tunable hydraulic vibration generator for transmitting vibration hydraulically to adjacent geologic material. The system further comprises a programmable controller for creating a plurality of control signals and transmitting at least one control signal to each frac pump and at least one control signal to each tunable down-hole stimulator. Additionally, each tunable down-hole stimulator comprises at least one accelerometer for sensing both transmitted and backscatter vibration and for transmitting an electrical signal derived therefrom (i.e., for transmitting an electrical signal which is a function of the vibration as sensed by the accelerometer through change in one or more accelerometer electrical parameters such as capacitance, inductance and/or resistance). And the programmable controller is responsive to that electrical signal (i.e., the programmable controller creates at least one control signal as a function of that electrical signal).

[0072] Each tunable down-hole hydraulic stimulator comprises a hammer (or mass) element longitudinally movable within a hollow cylindrical housing having a longitudinal axis, a first end, and a second end, the first end being closed by a fluid interface, and the second end being closed by a driver element. The driver element comprises at least one field emission structure for moving the hammer (or mass) element to strike, and rebound from, the fluid interface to generate broad-spectrum vibration.

[0073] Each of the above field emission structures is responsive to at least one control signal, meaning that one or more field parameters (e.g., magnetic field polarity and/or magnetic field strength) changes as a result of corresponding changes in the control signal(s). Further, the generated broad-spectrum vibration has a predetermined PSD responsive to at least one control signal (meaning that the PSD changes as a result of corresponding changes in the control signal(s)). Additionally, each tunable hydraulic vibration generator has a characteristic rebound frequency, and each accelerometer is responsive to that characteristic rebound frequency.

[0074] The characteristic rebound frequency is substantially influenced by the driver element. Examples include driver elements that may comprise, e.g., one or more magnetic field emission structures and/or one or more electric field emission structures. A hammer element (i.e., a mass) is longitudinally movable within the cylindrical housing between the driver element and the fluid interface. Such movement is influenced (i.e., controlled in an open-loop or closed-loop manner) by forces exerted on the hammer via the magnetic and/or electrical fields of the field emission structure(s). (See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 8,760,252 B2, incorporated by reference). To facilitate hammer element movement, the hammer element may comprise, e.g., one or more permanent magnets, and the driver element's field emission structure(s) may comprise, e.g., one or more electromagnets, at least one with reversible polarity and variable field strength. See the '252 patent for other examples of field emission structures.

[0075] By design, the hammer element periodically moves toward impact on the fluid interface (analogous in part to the impact of a fluid end valve closure), followed by movement away from the fluid interface (i.e., rebounding from the impact). More specifically, the hammer element moves (under the influence of the driver element's electric and/or magnetic fields) to strike, and rebound from, the fluid interface, thus generating broad-spectrum vibration. In other words, the cylindrical housing, driver element, hammer element, and fluid interface function together as a tunable hydraulic vibration generator for stimulation.

[0076] Note that the hammer element is responsive to the driver element both for striking, and rebounding from, the fluid interface. That is, the hammer element may be, e.g., subject to magnetic attraction during certain portions of its longitudinal travel, and subject to magnetic repulsion during other portions of its longitudinal travel. Responsiveness of the hammer element may be achieved via open-loop control (using empirically-derived predictions of hammer element direction and velocity based, e.g., on field emission strength) or closed-loop control (using, e.g., feedback data on hammer element position to calculate direction and velocity of hammer element movement). The latter data may be obtained, e.g., via an electric field sensor on the fluid interface interacting with an electret electric field emission structure on the hammer element.

[0077] Note further that a block diagram of a tunable down-hole stimulator is schematically illustrated herein as having an internal stimulator interconnect which connects two sections: (1) a section comprising an optional down-hole pressure sensor with a tunable hydraulic vibration generator as described above and (2) a section comprising one or more optional temperature sensors combined with one or more detectors for transmitted and backscatter vibration. The separate (and more numerous) functions of these two sections with their detectors and optional sensors may be compared with the internal structural features shown in the separate schematic illustration of a tunable hydraulic stimulator. Taken together, the two schematic illustrations and the written description herein explain how the relatively less-complex tunable hydraulic stimulator might be used in a relatively-simple open-loop system, while the functionally more-complex tunable down-hole stimulator is adapted to the greater demands of a closed-loop feedback control system.

[0078] Regardless of a stimulator's configuration, stimulation vibration energy may preferably be transmitted from down-hole stimulators in relatively short bursts that are spaced apart in time. Time-delayed backscatter vibration energy may then be sensed at the same or different down-hole stimulators in the periods between bursts of transmitted vibration. But both transmitted and backscatter vibration energy can thus be detected at the fluid interface because they will be present at different times. And one or more accelerometers may provide data on both transmitted and backscatter vibration energy, as well as on the delay time inherent in backscatter vibration.

[0079] Delay time, in turn, may be interpreted (e.g., using frac diagnostics) to indicate the stimulation depth or total distance traveled by the backscatter vibration energy. Further, changes in the backscatter vibration's power spectral density (see below) may also (again using frac diagnostics) be used to characterize the geologic material along a wellbore. Thus, vibration information detected by one or more detectors at a fluid interface, as well as estimates of related parameters (e.g., Doppler shift) that can be extracted therefrom, may be particularly useful when determining the preferred directions, depths and lengths of multiple wellbores to be placed in a relatively confined geologic space.

[0080] The importance of vibration information is reflected in the schematic illustrations herein of tunable down-hole stimulation systems. Each illustration includes a block-diagram of at least one tunable down-hole stimulator, each diagram schematically separating the functions of generating and transmitting broad-spectrum vibration for stimulation from the functions of detecting both transmitted vibration energy and band-limited (and time-shifted) backscatter vibration energy. The separated functions schematically emphasize, for example, that changes in backscatter vibration's frequency band limits are reflected as shifts in the vibration energy's PSD plot. That is, an up-shift in PSD will reveal that relatively lower frequencies represent a smaller fraction of the plot's total vibration energy. And relatively higher frequencies will be seen to represent a greater portion of the plot's total vibration energy. Such an up-shift could occur naturally as stimulation of geologic material progresses, with backscatter vibration arising in ever-smaller stimulated particles having relatively higher resonant frequencies.

[0081] Since backscatter vibration emanates from particles experiencing vibration resonance excitation (i.e., stimulation), changes in the backscatter vibration's PSD can reveal changes in the particles' resonance frequencies. And since particles' resonance frequencies are functions of, among other things, particle size and composition (e.g., hardness), analysis of PSD data can directly indicate the local effects of stimulation. In other words, frac diagnostics applied during the stimulation process can provide near-real time information on the changing nature of the stimulated geologic material. *** Specifically, the extent and range of stimulation-generated fragmentation can be estimated through analysis of sequential PSD shifts in band-limited backscatter vibration energy. ***

[0082] Note that the influence of absolute power levels on backscatter vibration calculations may be substantially reduced through scaling of power measurements (including PSD) to local maxima.

[0083] Note also that periodic estimates of the degree of shift in PSD may be used to estimate progress (in near-real time) toward a desired end point for stimulation. Thus, stimulation may be optimized via control of vibration energy to achieve a predetermined degree of fragmentation. If more fragmentation is desired, one may up-shift (or re-tune) the power spectral density of the originally-transmitted vibration to make more total high-frequency stimulation energy available. A tunable down-hole stimulator facilitates this up-shift through responsiveness of its hammer element's rebound cycle time to its driver element's field emission structure(s).

[0084] Responsiveness of a hammer element to a driver element of a tunable down-hole stimulator may be achieved via, e.g., a field emission structure comprising an electromagnet/controller having programmable magnetic field polarity reversal and variable magnetic field strength, as seen, e.g., in linear reversible motors. Control of magnetic field strength is optionally via open-loop and/or closed-loop networks associated with the electromagnet/controller. Note that such magnetic field strength control allows the driver to influence hammer element movement before, during and after each impact via attractive or repelling forces. See. e.g., the '252 patent for further discussion of such forces.

[0085] Note that cyclical changes in magnetic field strength may be characterized by a polarity reversal frequency responsive to the accelerometer signal mentioned earlier and/or to a control signal from a tunable down-hole stimulator system programmable controller. Longitudinal movement of the hammer element is thus responsive in part (e.g., via electromagnetic attraction and repulsion) to the driver element's cyclical magnetic polarity reversal. For example, longitudinal movement of the hammer element striking, and subsequently rebounding from, the fluid interface may be substantially in phase with the polarity reversal frequency to generate vibration transmitted by the fluid interface.

[0086] Thus, for example, each hammer strike is at least in part a function of magnetic field polarity and strength, and it is followed by a rebound which is at least in part a function of flexure due to elastic properties (e.g., modulus of elasticity) of the hammer and fluid interface. The rebound may also be a function of the driver element's magnetic field polarity and strength. The duration of the hammer element's entire flexure-rebound cycle is thus controllable; it is termed herein “rebound cycle time” and is measured in seconds. The inverse of rebound cycle time has the same dimensions as frequency (e.g., cycles per second) and is termed “characteristic rebound frequency” herein.

[0087] Each hammer strike & rebound applies a mechanical shock to the fluid interface which generates a (relatively-broad) spectrum of stimulation vibration frequencies that are transmitted hydraulically via the fluid interface (and the surrounding down-hole fluid) to the adjacent geologic material. (See the Background section above). The breadth of the generated stimulation vibration spectrum is a reflection of a mechanical shock's duration (i.e., the rebound cycle time). Shortening the rebound cycle time broadens the generated-vibration spectrum (i.e., the spectrum extends to include relatively higher frequencies). The power spectral density is therefore up-shifted, meaning that more of the total power of the transmitted spectrum is represented in the higher frequencies. In this manner, additional stimulation energy (i.e., rock-fracturing energy) may be directed to relatively smaller rock fragments because these fragments have resonances at the relatively-higher stimulation vibration frequencies. Thus, a tunable down-hole stimulator's transmitted stimulation vibration energy may be controlled so as to encourage continued geologic fragmentation to a predetermined fragment size (e.g., to a size for effective function as a proppant).

[0088] Summarizing the above example, hammer rebound movement may be either augmented or impeded by the driver element's magnetic field polarity and strength, thereby changing rebound cycle time and thus changing the character of stimulation vibration spectra generated. That is, the driver element's field emission structure comprising an electromagnet/controller can effectively, and in near-real time, tune each stimulation vibration spectrum transmitted by the fluid interface for application to geologic material adjacent to a wellbore. Such tuning may comprise, for example, altering a transmitted vibration spectrum's bandwidth and/or changing the relative magnitudes of the vibration spectrum's frequency components (i.e., changing the spectrum's power spectral density). In other words, stimulation energy in the form of vibration spectra transmitted by a tunable down-hole stimulator's fluid interface may be subject (in near-real time) to alterations in response to ongoing results of frac diagnostic calculations operating on backscatter vibration to generate feedback data.

[0089] Note that alternative embodiments of a down-hole stimulation vibration generator may be described as having the form of a linear electrical motor, the hammer element acting as an armature. One such form is seen in railguns, with the armature providing the conducting connection between (parallel) rails. In this case, opposing currents in the rails (and thus the hammer movement) would be controlled by the driver to achieve the desired characteristic rebound frequency. (See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,371,205 B2 and 8,677,877 B2, both incorporated by reference).

[0090] Progressive alterations in the character of stimulation vibration energy applied to down-hole geologic material may include, for example, changes in vibration frequencies present, changes in relative energy levels of vibration frequency components, and/or changes in the total power of a burst of stimulation vibration comprising a plurality of transmitted frequencies. Such changes may be desirable while stimulation proceeds through a continuum of fracturing of the geologic material. Progress of stimulation is reflected in backscatter vibration, the character of which changes with continued fracturing and/or fragmentation of the geologic material. That is, the geologic material's absorption of stimulation vibration energy, and its radiation of backscatter vibration, changes in a time-varying manner. Changes in absorbed stimulation energy, in turn, cause changes in backscatter vibration that may be detected (e.g., by an accelerometer) at the tunable hydraulic stimulator's fluid interface. The resulting accelerometer signal may then be fed back to the driver (e.g., by cable or wireless link) as described herein, and/or transmitted to a programmable controller for further processing via frac diagnostics.

[0091] The invention thus facilitates a form of closed-loop (feedback) control of the stimulation process that may be optimized (i.e., to yield better results from less stimulation). One might choose, for example, to emphasize relatively higher down-hole pressure and lower frequency stimulation vibration energy initially. One might then choose to adaptively decrease the down-hole pressure and increase relatively higher frequency stimulation vibration spectrum components as stimulation progresses. Individual tunable down-hole stimulators of the invention can support such an optimization strategy inherently because they naturally produce relatively broad vibration spectra (rather than single-frequency vibration like an aviation black-box pinger). Should a greater frequency range be desired than that obtainable from a single tunable down-hole stimulator, a plurality of such stimulators may be interconnected in a *** tunable down-hole stimulation array ***. Operation of such an array may be controlled via, for example, a programmable controller as part of a tunable down-hole stimulation system, the controller having one or more control links to the driver of each stimulator of a tunable down-hole stimulator array. Stimulation vibration emanating from such an array may excite location-dependent resonances using, e.g., techniques related to those known in ultrasonic imaging. (See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 8,764,661 B2 and 8,571,829 B2, both incorporated by reference).

[0092] In such a tunable down-hole stimulation array, the driver element polarity reversal frequency, instant of hammer strike, and/or characteristic rebound frequency of each down-hole stimulator may be made a function of a predetermined signal (e.g., a band-limited portion of backscatter vibration represented in one accelerometer signal). Constructive or destructive interference of stimulation vibration emanating from tunable down-hole stimulators in such an array may occur throughout the range of stimulation vibration. Alternatively or additionally, stimulation vibration frequencies and/or amplitudes transmitted by the array may be subject to control via programmable devices elsewhere in a wellbore and/or at the wellhead.

[0093] An alternate first embodiment of a tunable down-hole stimulation array embodiment (alternate first embodiment) comprises a frac pump for creating a down-hole hydraulic environment, plus a plurality of down-hole stimulators connected in an array. Each down-hole stimulator transmits, in response to a timed activation signal, vibration having a corresponding adjustable power spectral density. A programmable controller periodically transmits one timed activation signal for each down-hole stimulator. Each down-hole stimulator comprises a hollow cylindrical housing having a longitudinal axis, a first end, and a second end, the first end being closed by a fluid interface for transmitting and receiving vibration, and the fluid interface comprising at least one accelerometer for producing an accelerometer feedback signal representing vibration transmitted and received by the fluid interface. A driver element reversibly seals the second end, and a hammer element is longitudinally movable within the housing between the driver element and the fluid interface, the hammer element being responsive to the driver element for striking the fluid interface and rebounding therefrom during a corresponding adjustable rebound cycle time to transmit a corresponding vibration burst comprising a plurality of transmitted frequencies via the hydraulic environment.

[0094] Note that each driver element comprises an electromagnet/controller having its corresponding cyclical magnetic polarity reversal characterized by its corresponding variable polarity reversal frequency. Longitudinal movement of the hammer element corresponding to each driver element is responsive to the corresponding cyclical magnetic polarity reversal, and longitudinal movement of that hammer element striking, and rebounding from, the corresponding fluid interface is in phase with the corresponding variable polarity reversal frequency. Each corresponding adjustable power spectral density is responsive to the corresponding adjustable rebound cycle time.

[0095] In an alternate first embodiment tunable down-hole stimulation array each corresponding adjustable rebound cycle time may be responsive to one accelerometer feedback signal. Further, each corresponding adjustable power spectral density may change in phase with a corresponding adjustable rebound cycle time. The down-hole stimulation array may be tunable via at least one corresponding adjustable power spectral density to shift relative transmitted vibration power within a corresponding vibration burst. In such an embodiment, decreasing at least one adjustable rebound cycle time causes up-shift of at least one adjustable power spectral density to shift relative transmitted vibration power within a vibration burst to relatively higher frequencies for tuning the down-hole stimulation array.

[0096] Further in an alternate first embodiment tunable down-hole stimulation array, the frac pump may comprise a fluid end, the fluid end having at least one tested fluid end vibration resonant frequency. The fluid end may additionally comprise at least one tunable vibration damper, each tunable vibration damper being tuned to at least one tested fluid end vibration resonant frequency.

[0097] A second embodiment of a tunable down-hole stimulation system is similar in several respects to the above first embodiment, comprising at least one frac pump for creating down-hole hydraulic pressure. But the second embodiment differs in that at least one frac pump is combined with at least one proppant pump connected in parallel with the frac pump for adding exogenous proppant. The system further comprises at least one tunable down-hole stimulator, each stimulator comprising a tunable hydraulic vibration generator having a characteristic rebound frequency. A programmable controller is included for creating a plurality of control signals and transmitting at least one control signal to each frac pump, each proppant pump, and each tunable down-hole stimulator. Each tunable down-hole stimulator comprises at least one accelerometer for sensing vibration and for transmitting an electrical signal derived therefrom (i.e., for transmitting an electrical signal which is a function of the vibration as sensed by the accelerometer through change in one or more accelerometer electrical parameters such as capacitance, inductance and/or resistance). And each accelerometer is responsive to the characteristic rebound frequency (i.e., the accelerometer transmits at least one electrical signal which is a function of the characteristic rebound frequency). Finally, the programmable controller is responsive to the electrical signal (i.e., the programmable controller creates at least one control signal as a function of that electrical signal). Further, longitudinal hammer element movement, as noted above, is associated with the tunable hydraulic vibration generator's characteristic rebound frequency. In certain embodiments, the characteristic rebound frequency may be similar to the magnetic field's polarity reversal frequency to aid control of the hammer's longitudinal displacement.

[0098] An alternate second embodiment tunable down-hole stimulation array comprises a frac pump for creating a down-hole hydraulic environment, plus a plurality of down-hole stimulators connected in an array, each down-hole stimulator transmitting vibration in response to a timed activation signal. A programmable controller periodically transmits a plurality of said timed activation signals as a signal group, each signal group including one said timed activation signal for each down-hole stimulator. Each down-hole stimulator comprises a hollow cylindrical housing having a longitudinal axis, a first end, and a second end, the first end being closed by a fluid interface for transmitting and receiving vibration, and the fluid interface comprising at least one accelerometer for producing an accelerometer feedback signal representing vibration transmitted and received by the fluid interface. A driver element reversibly seals the second end, and a hammer element is longitudinally movable within the housing between the driver element and the fluid interface. The hammer element is responsive to the driver element for striking the fluid interface and rebounding therefrom during an adjustable rebound cycle time to transmit a vibration burst comprising a plurality of transmitted frequencies as part of a directionally propagated array vibration wavefront via the hydraulic environment.

[0099] In an alternate second embodiment tunable down-hole stimulation array, each driver element comprises an electromagnet/controller having corresponding cyclical magnetic polarity reversal characterized by a corresponding variable polarity reversal frequency, and longitudinal movement of the corresponding hammer element is responsive to the corresponding cyclical magnetic polarity reversal. Longitudinal movement of the corresponding hammer element striking, and rebounding from, the corresponding fluid interface is in phase with the corresponding variable polarity reversal frequency, and the timed activation signals within each signal group are simultaneous signals. The directionally propagated array vibration wave front is responsive to the simultaneous signals, and each driver element is responsive to one timed activation signal. Each adjustable rebound cycle time is responsive to one accelerometer feedback signal.

[0100] Further, the frac pump of an alternate second embodiment comprises a tunable valve, each tunable valve comprising a valve body and a valve seat. The valve body comprises a peripheral valve seat interface having a convex curvature which undergoes a substantially elastic concave flexure with slight circular rotation as the valve body seats against the valve seat. The valve seat, in turn, has a concave mating surface with correspondingly less curvature than the peripheral valve seat interface. So the peripheral valve seat interface achieves a circular rolling contact seal with the concave mating surface of the valve seat. As described elsewhere herein, a circular rolling contact seal increases longitudinal compliance of a tunable valve, constituting tuning of the valve to absorb and convert (e.g., via hysteresis loss) a portion of valve closure impact (i e, kinetic) energy to heat energy. Dissipation of valve closure impact energy as heat rather than excitation of destructive pump vibration resonance(s) tends to improve the reliability of a second alternate array as a whole.

[0101] In an alternate second embodiment tunable down-hole stimulation array, each vibration burst comprising a plurality of transmitted frequencies is characterized by a corresponding adjustable power spectral density, which makes a second alternate array tunable via the adjustable power spectral density by shifting relative transmitted vibration power within one or more vibration bursts. For example, increasing at least one adjustable rebound cycle time causes down-shift of the corresponding adjustable power spectral density to shift relative transmitted vibration power within the corresponding vibration burst to relatively lower frequencies within the plurality of transmitted frequencies. Thus, the array is tuned. Further tuning may focus on the frac pump, which comprises a fluid end. Each fluid end has at least one tested fluid end vibration resonant frequency, as well as at least one tunable vibration damper. Each tunable vibration damper is tuned to at least one tested fluid end vibration resonant frequency via, for example, a tunable check valve assembly in the fluid end. In this example, the tunable check valve assembly comprises a valve body having a central viscoelastic element coupled to a peripheral groove viscoelastic element via a plurality of radial viscoelastic elements in tension to form a tuned radial array having at least one tested fluid end vibration resonant frequency.

[0102] A third embodiment of a tunable down-hole stimulation system differs from the above first and second embodiments in part because it comprises a wellbore which itself comprises a vertical wellbore, a kickoff point, a heel, and a toe. At least one frac pump creates down-hole hydraulic pressure in the wellbore, and at least one tunable down-hole stimulator is located within the wellbore (and between the heel and toe). Each stimulator comprises a tunable hydraulic vibration generator, and a programmable controller creates a plurality of control signals and transmits at least one control signal to each frac pump and each tunable down-hole stimulator. Each tunable down-hole stimulator comprises at least one accelerometer for sensing vibration and for transmitting an electrical signal derived therefrom, and the programmable controller is responsive to the electrical signal.

[0103] An alternate third embodiment of a tunable down-hole stimulation array (alternate third embodiment) comprises a frac pump for creating a down-hole hydraulic environment, plus a plurality of down-hole stimulators connected in an array. Each down-hole stimulator comprises an impulse vibration generator responsive to a timed activation signal, each impulse vibration generator being tuned via a corresponding adjustable rebound cycle time to transmit a vibration burst comprising a plurality of vibration frequencies and having a corresponding adjustable power spectral density via the down-hole hydraulic environment. A programmable controller transmits a plurality of the timed activation signals as a signal group, each signal group including one said timed activation signal for each down-hole stimulator. The timed activation signals within each said signal group are sequential, and the adjustable rebound cycle times are non-uniform. Further, each down-hole stimulator comprises at least one accelerometer for sensing vibration and transmitting an accelerometer feedback signal derived therefrom, and each adjustable power spectral density is responsive to at least one accelerometer feedback signal via the programmable controller.

[0104] In an alternate third embodiment the frac pump comprises a tunable valve, each tunable valve comprising a valve body and a valve seat. The valve seat comprises a mating surface having a concave curvature that forms a circular rolling contact seal with the valve body as the valve body seats against the mating surface. The valve body has a convex peripheral valve seat interface with a correspondingly greater curvature than the mating surface. Thus, the mating surface concave curvature causes the valve seat interface to undergo a substantially elastic concave flexure with slight circular rotation to form the circular rolling contact seal.

[0105] Further in the alternate third embodiment, each corresponding adjustable rebound cycle time is responsive to the programmable controller. Decreasing at least one adjustable rebound cycle time causes up-shift of the corresponding adjustable power spectral density to shift relative transmitted vibration power to relatively higher frequencies within the corresponding vibration burst's plurality of transmitted frequencies for tuning the down-hole stimulation array. On the other hand, increasing at least one adjustable rebound cycle time causes down-shift of the adjustable power spectral density to shift relative transmitted vibration power to relatively lower frequencies within the plurality of transmitted vibration frequencies for re-tuning the down-hole stimulation array.

[0106] As noted above, part of the vibration sensed at the fluid interface typically includes time-delayed backscatter vibration. It also may contain temperature data related to the degree of rock fracturing and/or fragmentation, including the size of rock fragments. Fracturing-related temperature changes may be induced in part by mechanical inefficiencies secondary to vibration earlier transmitted from the fluid interface. (See U.S. Pat. No. 8,535,250 B2, incorporated by reference). Hence, temperature-related well-stimulation data can be used to augment control of fracturing resulting from transmitted stimulation vibration.

[0107] One determinant of imposed stimulation is the hammer element's striking face, which has a predetermined modulus of elasticity that may be relatively high (approximately that of mild steel, for example) if a relatively broad spectrum of stimulation vibration is desired. Conversely, a lower modulus of elasticity may be chosen to reduce the highest frequency components of stimulation vibration spectra.

[0108] The spectra of stimulation vibration desired for a particular application will generally be chosen to encompass one or more of the (estimated) resonant frequencies of the geologic structures being stimulated (including resonant frequencies before, during, and after stimulation). For example, it has been reported that vibration frequencies in the ultrasound range (i.e., >20 kHz) can improve the permeability of certain porous media surrounding a well. On the other hand, vibration frequencies <20 kHz may propagate with less loss, while still significantly increasing well flow rates. (See, e.g., U.S. patent publication number 2014/0027110 A1, incorporated by reference). Optimization of the stimulation process may be facilitated using estimates obtained via (1) one or more programmable microprocessors in the tunable down-hole stimulator and/or (2) one or more programmable microprocessors in the tunable down-hole stimulation system programmable controller. Such estimates may be based in part, e.g., on the portion(s) of the backscatter vibration energy from stimulated porous media.

[0109] Note that a tunable down-hole stimulator is intended for down-hole use within a fluid environment maintained in the wellbore via (1) fluids collected through explosively-formed perforations or preformed slots in the wellbore casing from the surrounding geologic formations and/or via (2) addition of fluid at the wellhead to equal or exceed the filtration rate (sometimes termed the leakoff rate). (See U.S. Pat. No. 8,540,024 B2, incorporated by reference). The fluid surrounding a stimulator may comprise water and/or petroleum oil, and it may be passively pressurized by the well's hydraulic head alone, or with additional pressure provided by one or more frac pumps. Since the tunable down-hole stimulator (i.e., a tunable hydraulic stimulator) can be completely sealed from internal contact with surrounding fluid, its use is not subject to dielectric strength and conductivity limitations (e.g., “compensation dielectric liquid” as required in U.S. patent publication number 2014/0027110 A1 cited above) that are common in pulsed power apparatus. (See also U.S. Pat. No. 8,616,302 B2, incorporated by reference).

[0110] Note also that tunable resilient circumferential seals are electively provided to isolate predetermined explosively-formed perforations or preformed slots in portions of the wellbore casing (analogous in part to swell packers). (See, e.g., U.S. patent application number 2014/0051612 A1, incorporated by reference). Such tunable seals can provide a tuned coupling of the stimulator to the wellbore casing. The circumferential seal comprises a circular tubular area which may contain at least one shear-thickening fluid to assist tuning to a preferred frequency range. And the fluid may further comprise nanoparticles which, in conjunction with the shear-thickening fluid, also facilitate tuning of the seal as well as heat scavenging.

[0111] As noted above, tunable down-hole stimulators transmit and receive vibration in a hydraulic environment provided in-part by one or more frac pumps. Each frac pump comprises a power end and a fluid end, and one focus in fluid ends is on control of valve-generated vibration for minimizing excitation of fluid end and/or pump resonances to avoid fatigue-mediated failures.

[0112] Tunable fluid ends described herein reduce valve-generated vibration to increase fluid-end reliability. Tunable fluid end embodiments comprise a housing with at least one installed tunable component chosen from: tunable check valve assemblies, tunable valve seats, tunable radial arrays and/or tunable plunger seals. Each tunable component, in turn, contributes to blocking excitation of fluid end resonances by absorbing vibration and converting it to heat in tunable components, thereby reducing the total vibration energy available for exciting fluid end resonances.

[0113] Frequency domain down-shifting (e.g., by increasing longitudinal compliance) and damping (e.g., via viscoelastic and/or shear-thickening materials) both assist vibration control by converting valve-closure energy to heat and dissipating it in each tunable component present in a tunable fluid end embodiment. Effects of down-shifting on a valve-closure impulse shock include frequency-selective spectrum-narrowing that is easily seen in the frequency domain plot of each shock. That is, down-shifting effectively attenuates and/or limits the bandwidth(s) of valve-generated vibration. Subsequent (coordinated) damping assists in converting a portion of this band-limited vibration to heat.

[0114] Both down-shifting and damping are dependent in part on constraints causing shear-stress alteration (that is, “tuning”) imposed on one or more viscoelastic and/or shear-thickening materials in each tunable component. Additionally, hysteresis or internal friction (see Harris, p. 5.7) associated with mechanical compliance of certain structures (e.g., valve bodies or springs) may aid damping by converting vibration energy to heat (i.e., hysteresis loss). (See Harris, p. 2.18).

[0115] Tunable component resonant frequencies may be shifted (or tuned) via changes in longitudinal compliance to approximate predetermined values corresponding to measured or estimated pump or fluid end housing resonant frequencies. Such coordinated tuning predisposes valve-generated vibration at critical frequencies to excite the tunable component (and thus be damped and dissipated as heat) rather than exciting the housing itself (and thus predispose it to vibration fatigue-related cracking).

[0116] Mechanical compliance is manifest, for example, in elastic valve body flexures secondary to repetitive longitudinal compressive forces (i.e., plunger pressure strokes). Each such flexure is followed by a hysteresis-limited elastic rebound, the duration of the entire flexure-rebound interval being termed herein rebound cycle time. The inverse of rebound cycle time is termed herein “characteristic rebound frequency.” Cumulative rebound cycle energy loss in the form of heat (e.g., hysteresis loss plus friction loss) is continuously transported for redistribution within the valve body and eventual rejection to the valve body surroundings (including, e.g., the pumped fluid). This heat loss represents a reduction in the available energy content (and thus the damage-causing potential) of the valve-closure energy impulse.

[0117] Note that lengthening rebound cycle time to beneficially narrow the valve-generated vibration spectrum is substantially influenced by a tunable valve assembly's increased longitudinal compliance associated with rolling seal contact (i.e., comprising valve body flexure and rebound) described herein between the valve body's peripheral valve seat interface and the tunable valve seat's mating surface.

[0118] Briefly summarizing, as each tunable component present in a tunable fluid end embodiment absorbs, converts and redistributes (i.e., dissipates) a portion of valve closing impulse shock energy, only a fraction of the original closing impulse energy remains at critical frequencies capable of exciting destructive resonant frequencies in the fluid end. Following vibration down-shifting, a significant portion of valve-closure energy has been shifted to lower frequency vibration through structural compliance as described above. This attenuated vibration is then selectively damped (i.e., dissipated as heat) at shifted frequencies via one or more of the tunable components. While tunable components may be relatively sharply tuned (e.g., to act as tuned mass dampers for specific frequencies), they may alternately be more broadly tuned to account for a range of vibration frequencies encountered in certain pump operations. Flexibility in tuning procedures, as described herein with material and adjustment choices, is therefore desirable.

[0119] Note that vibration absorption at specific frequencies (e.g., via dynamic or tuned absorbers) may have limited utility in frac pumps because of the varying speeds at which the pumps operate and the relatively broad bandwidths associated with valve-closing impulse shocks. In contrast, the process of down-shifting followed by damping is more easily adapted to changes inherent in the pumps' operational environment. Damping may nevertheless be added to a dynamic absorber to increase its effective frequency range for certain applications. (See, e.g., tuned vibration absorber and tuned mass damper in ch. 6 of Harris).

[0120] Selective damping of vibration frequencies near the resonant frequencies of fluid ends is desirable for the same reason that soldiers break step when they march over a bridge—because even relatively small amounts of vibration energy applied at the bridge's resonant frequency can cause catastrophic failure. Similar reasoning underlies the functions of selective vibration down-shifting and damping in tunable fluid ends. Various combinations of the tunable components described herein are particularly beneficial because they focus the functions of vibration-limiting resources on minimization of vibration energy present in a fluid end near its housing's critical frequencies. Cost and complexity of tunable components are thus minimized while the efficacy of each tunable component's function (i.e., vibration limitation at particular frequencies) is enhanced.

[0121] Note that a variety of optimization strategies for vibration attenuation and damping may be employed in specific cases, depending on parameters such as the Q (or quality) factor attributable to each fluid end resonance. The fluid end response to excitation of a resonance may be represented graphically as, for example, a plot of amplitude vs. frequency. Such a Q response plot typically exhibits a single amplitude maximum at the local fluid end resonance frequency, with decreasing amplitude values at frequencies above and below the resonance. At an amplitude value about 0.707 times the maximum value (i.e., the half-power point), the amplitude plot corresponds not to a single frequency but to a bandwidth between upper and lower frequency values on either side of the local fluid end resonance. The quality factor Q is then estimated as the ratio of the resonance frequency to the bandwidth. (See, e.g., pp. 2-18, 2-19 of Harris). (See also U.S. Pat. No. 7,113,876 B2, incorporated by reference).

[0122] Lower Q connotes the presence of more damping and a wider bandwidth (i.e., a relatively broader band of near-resonant frequencies). And higher Q connotes less damping and a narrower bandwidth (ideally, zero damping and a single resonant frequency). Since ideal fluid end resonances are not encountered in practice, optimization strategies typically include choice of the peak resonant frequency and Q of the tunable component in light of the peak resonant frequency and Q of the fluid end resonance of interest. Tunable component resonant frequencies identified herein as “similar” to fluid end or pump housing resonances are thus understood to lie generally in the frequency range indicated by the upper and lower frequency values of the relevant Q response half-power bandwidth.

[0123] Note that the peak (or representative) frequency of a tunable component or a fluid end resonance may not be unambiguously obtainable. Thus, optimization of tunable component vibration damping may be an iterative empirical process and may not be characterized by a single-valued solution. Note also that tunable component resonant frequencies may be intentionally “detuned” (i.e., adjusted to slightly different values from nominal resonant or peak frequencies) in pursuit of an overall optimization strategy. The critical frequencies proximate to a fluid end suction bore may differ, for example, from the critical frequencies proximate to the same fluid end's plunger bore due to the different constraints imposed by structures proximate the respective bores.

[0124] What follows are descriptions of the structure and function of each tunable component that may be present in a tunable fluid end embodiment comprising a housing (e.g., a fluid end housing or pump housing with appropriate bores). Within each housing's respective bores are a suction valve, a discharge valve, and a plunger or piston. When a tunable fluid end comprises multiple subassemblies (which is the general case), the respective subassembly housings are typically combined in a single fluid end housing. And at least one subassembly has at least one tunable component. In specific tunable fluid end embodiments, tunable components may be employed singly or in various combinations, depending on operative requirements.

[0125] One tunable component described herein is a tunable check valve assembly (one being found in each tunable check valve). Installed in a fluid end for high pressure pumping, a tunable check valve assembly comprises at least one vibration damper or, in certain embodiments, a plurality of (radially-spaced) vibration dampers disposed in a valve body. Each vibration damper constitutes at least one tunable structural feature. Since the fluid end has at least a first fluid end resonance frequency, at least one vibration damper has (i.e., is tuned to) at least a first predetermined assembly resonant frequency similar to the first fluid end resonance (i.e., resonant frequency). If, for example, the fluid end has a second fluid end resonance frequency (a common occurrence), a single vibration damper and/or at least one of a plurality of vibration dampers may have (i.e., be tuned to) at least a second predetermined assembly resonant frequency similar to the second fluid end resonance frequency. In general, the specific manner of damping either one or a plurality of fluid end resonance frequencies with either one or a plurality (but not necessarily the same number) of vibration dampers is determined during the optimization process noted above.

[0126] Each of the sample embodiments of tunable check valve assemblies schematically illustrated herein comprises a check valve body having guide means (to maintain valve body alignment during longitudinal movement) and a peripheral valve seat interface. A peripheral groove spaced radially apart from a central reservoir is present in certain embodiments, and a viscoelastic structure may be present in the peripheral groove (i.e., the groove damping element). In one such embodiment, the assembly's vibration dampers comprise a plurality of radially-spaced viscoelastic body structures disposed in the groove and reservoir, the viscoelastic groove element comprising a groove circular tubular area. In alternative embodiments, the viscoelastic reservoir (or central) damping element may be replaced by a central spring-mass damper. A viscoelastic central damper may be tuned, for example, via a flange centrally coupled to the valve body. A spring-mass central damper may be tuned, for example, by adjusting spring constant(s) and/or mass(es), and may also or additionally be tuned via the presence of a viscous or shear-thickening liquid in contact with one or more damper elements.

[0127] A reservoir (or central) damping element tuning frequency may be, as noted above, a first predetermined assembly resonant frequency similar to a first fluid end resonance. Analogously, the groove circular tubular area may comprise at least one shear thickening material providing the means to tune the groove damping element to at least a second predetermined assembly resonant frequency similar, for example, to either a first or second fluid end resonant frequency. The choice of tuning frequencies for the reservoir and groove damping elements is not fixed, but is based on a chosen optimization strategy for vibration damping in each fluid end.

[0128] Note that phase shifts inherent in the (nonlinear) operation of certain vibration dampers described herein create the potential for a plurality of resonant frequencies in a single vibration damper.

[0129] Note also that the longitudinal compliance of a tunable check valve assembly affects its rebound cycle time and thus influences vibration attenuation (i.e., downshifting or spectrum narrowing), which constitutes a form of tuning. Further, vibration dampers in alternative tunable check valve assembly embodiments may comprise spring-mass combinations having discrete mechanical components in addition to, or in place of, viscoelastic and/or shear-thickening components. An example of such a spring-mass combination within a valve body central reservoir is schematically illustrated herein.

[0130] Another tunable component described herein is a tunable valve seat, certain embodiments of which may be employed with a conventional valve body or, alternatively, may be combined with a tunable check valve assembly to form a tunable check valve. A tunable valve seat in a fluid end for high pressure pumping comprises a concave mating surface and/or a lateral support assembly longitudinally spaced apart from a mating surface. A lateral support assembly, when present, is adjustably secured (e.g., on a lateral support mounting surface) or otherwise coupled to the mating surface. A lateral support assembly is a tunable structural feature for resiliently coupling the tunable valve seat to a fluid end housing (and thus damping vibrations therein). That is, a lateral support assembly (and thus a tunable valve seat of which it is a part) has at least one tunable valve seat resonant frequency similar to at least one fluid end resonant frequency. Further, a lateral support assembly may be combined with a concave mating surface to provide two tunable structural features in a single tunable valve seat. Tunability of the concave mating surface inheres in its influence on rebound cycle time through the predetermined orientation and degree of curvature of the concave mating surface. Since it constitutes a tunable structural feature, a concave mating surface may be present in a tunable valve seat without a lateral support assembly. In the latter case, the concave mating surface will be longitudinally spaced apart from a pump housing interface surface, rather than a lateral support mounting surface (examples of these two surfaces are schematically illustrated herein). In light of a tunable valve seat's potential for embodying either one or two tunable structural features, a plurality of tunable valve seat resonant frequencies may characterize a single tunable valve seat, with the respective frequencies being chosen in light of the fluid end resonance(s) and the valve closure impulse vibration spectrum.

[0131] A support assembly's one or more suitably-secured circular viscoelastic support elements resiliently couple the tunable valve seat to a fluid end housing (thus damping vibrations therein). At least one such viscoelastic support element comprises a support circular tubular area. And each support circular tubular area, in turn, comprises at least one shear thickening material having (i.e., being tuned to a resonance frequency similar to) at least one seat resonant frequency that may be chosen to be similar to at least one fluid end resonant frequency.

[0132] Still another tunable component described herein is a tunable radial array disposed in a valve body. In a schematically illustrated embodiment, the valve body comprises guide means, a peripheral valve seat interface, and a fenestrated peripheral groove spaced radially apart from a central reservoir. A viscoelastic body element disposed in the groove (the groove element) is coupled to a viscoelastic body element disposed in the reservoir (the reservoir element) by a plurality of viscoelastic radial tension members passing through a plurality of fenestrations in the peripheral groove. Each radial tension member comprises at least one polymer composite and functions to couple the groove element with the reservoir element, a baseline level of radial tension typically arising due to shrinkage of the viscoelastic elements during curing. The tensioned radial members, as schematically illustrated herein, assist anchoring of the coupled groove element firmly within the peripheral seal-retention groove without the use of adhesives and/or serrations as have been commonly used in anchoring conventional valve seals. Radial tension members also create a damped resilient linkage of groove element to reservoir element (analogous in function to a spring-mass damper linkage). This damped linkage can be “tuned” to approximate (i.e., have a resonance similar to) one or more critical frequencies via choice of the viscoelastic and/or composite materials in the damped linkage. Note that radial tension members also furnish a transverse preload force on the valve body, thereby altering longitudinal compliance, rebound cycle time (and thus characteristic rebound frequency), and vibration attenuation.

[0133] And another tunable component described herein is a tunable plunger seal comprising at least one lateral support assembly (analogous to that of a tunable valve seat) securably and sealingly positionable along a plunger. Typically, a lateral support assembly will be installed in a packing box (sometimes termed a stuffing box) or analogous structure. The tunable plunger seal's lateral support assembly is analogous in structure and function to that of a tunable valve seat, as are the tuning procedures described above.

[0134] Note that the lateral support assembly of either a tunable valve seat or a tunable plunger seal resiliently links the respective valve seat or plunger with adjacent portions of a fluid end housing, effectively creating a spring-mass damper coupled to the housing. This damped linkage can be “tuned” to approximate one or more critical frequencies via, e.g., shear-thickening materials in the respective circular tubular areas as described herein.

[0135] Analogous damped linkages between the housing and one or more auxiliary masses may be incorporated in tunable fluid end embodiments for supplemental vibration damping at one or more fluid end resonant frequencies (e.g., auxiliary tuned vibration absorbers and/or tuned-mass dampers). Additionally or alternatively, one or more damping surface layers (applied, e.g., as metallic, ceramic and/or metallic/ceramic coatings) may be employed for dissipating vibration and/or for modifying one or more fluid end resonant frequencies in pursuit of an overall optimization plan for fluid end vibration control. Such damping surface layers may be applied to fluid ends by various methods known to those skilled in the art. These methods may include, for example, cathodic arc, pulsed electron beam physical vapor deposition (EB-PVD), slurry deposition, electrolytic deposition, sol-gel deposition, spinning, thermal spray deposition such as high velocity oxy-fuel (HVOF), vacuum plasma spray (VPS) and air plasma spray (APS). The surface layers may be applied to the desired fluid end surfaces in their entirety or applied only to specified areas. Each surface layer may comprise a plurality of sublayers, at least one of which may comprise, for example, titanium, nickel, cobalt, iron, chromium, silicon, germanium, platinum, palladium and/or ruthenium. An additional sublayer may comprise, for example, aluminum, titanium, nickel, chromium, iron, platinum, palladium and/or ruthenium. One or more sublayers may also comprise, for example, metal oxide (e.g., zirconium oxide and/or aluminum oxide) and/or a nickel-based, cobalt-based or iron-based superalloy. (See e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 8,591,196 B2, incorporated by reference).

[0136] In addition to composite viscoelastic element inclusions, control mechanisms for alteration of tunable component resonant frequencies further include the number, size and spacing of peripheral groove fenestrations. When fenestrations are present, they increase valve assembly responsiveness to longitudinal compressive force while stabilizing viscoelastic and/or composite peripheral groove elements. Such responsiveness includes, but is not limited to, variations in the width of the peripheral groove which facilitate “tuning” of the groove together with its viscoelastic element(s).

[0137] Note that when a tunable check valve body distorts substantially elastically under the influence of a closing energy impulse, its associated viscoelastic element(s) simultaneously experience(s) shear stress in accommodating the distortion. The resulting viscoelastic shear strain, however, is at least partially time-delayed. And the time delay introduces a phase-shift useful in damping valve-generated vibration (i.e., reducing its amplitude). Analogous time-delay phase shift occurs in a mass-spring damper comprising discrete mechanical elements. Similarly, each instance of compliance takes place over a finite time interval. For example, the duration of a closing energy impulse is effectively increased (and the vibration spectrum correspondingly narrowed) as a function of compliance.

[0138] Compliance may be associated with distortions of both groove and reservoir viscoelastic body elements, resulting in viscoelastic stress and its associated time-dependent strain. But the mechanisms differ in the underlying distortions. In a peripheral groove, for example, proximal and distal groove walls respond differently to longitudinal compressive force on the tunable check valve assembly. They generally move out-of-phase longitudinally, thereby imposing time-varying compressive loads on the groove viscoelastic element. Thus the shape of the groove (and the overall compliance of the groove and its viscoelastic element) changes with time, making the groove as a whole responsive to longitudinal force on the assembly.

[0139] Peripheral groove fenestrations increase groove responsiveness to longitudinal force. As schematically illustrated herein, fenestrations increase groove responsiveness by changing the coupling of the proximal groove wall to the remainder of the valve body (see Detailed Description herein).

[0140] In the reservoir, in contrast, responsiveness to longitudinal force may be modulated by an adjustable preload flange centrally coupled to the valve body. The flange imposes a shear preload on the viscoelastic reservoir element (i.e., shear in addition to that imposed by the reservoir itself and/or by the closing energy impulse acting on the viscoelastic element via the pumped fluid). The amount of shear preload varies with the (adjustable) radial and longitudinal positions of the flange within the reservoir. The overall compliance and resonances of the reservoir and its viscoelastic element may be predictably altered by such a shear preload, which is imposed by the flange's partial constraint of the viscoelastic reservoir element. Note that when reservoir and groove viscoelastic body elements are coupled by a plurality of radial tension members, as in a tunable radial array, the radial tension members lying in groove wall fenestrations allow transmission of shear stress between the groove and reservoir viscoelastic elements.

[0141] As noted above, alterations in compliance (with its associated hysteresis loss) contribute to predetermined vibration spectrum narrowing. Such compliance changes (i.e., changes in displacement as a function of force) may be achieved through adjustment of constraint. Constraint, in turn, may be achieved, e.g., via compression applied substantially longitudinally by the adjustable preload flange to a constrained area of the viscoelastic reservoir element. In embodiments comprising a central longitudinal guide stem, the constrained area may be annular. And adjacent to such an annular constrained area may be another annular area of the viscoelastic reservoir element which is not in contact with the adjustable preload flange (i.e., an annular unconstrained area). This annular unconstrained area is typically open to pumped fluid pressure.

[0142] Preload flange adjustment may change the longitudinal compliance of the tunable check valve assembly by changing the effective flange radius and/or the longitudinal position of the flange as it constrains the viscoelastic reservoir element. Effective flange radius will generally exceed actual flange radius due to slowing of (viscous) viscoelastic flow near the flange edge. This allows tuning of the check valve assembly to a first predetermined assembly resonant frequency for maximizing hysteresis loss. Stated another way, by constraining a vibrating structure (e.g., an area of the viscoelastic reservoir element), it is possible to force the vibrational energy into different modes and/or frequencies. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,181,027, incorporated by reference.

[0143] The invention thus includes means for constraining one or more separate viscoelastic elements of a valve assembly, as well as means for constraining a plurality of areas of a single viscoelastic element. And such constraint may be substantially constant or time-varying, with correspondingly different effects on resonant frequencies. Peripherally, time-varying viscoelastic element constraint may be provided by out-of-phase longitudinal movement of peripheral groove walls. In contrast, time-varying viscoelastic element constraint may be applied centrally by a flange coupled to the valve body.

[0144] Note that in certain embodiments, the preload flange may comprise a substantially cylindrical periphery associated with substantially longitudinal shear. Other embodiments may comprise a non-cylindrical periphery for facilitating annular shear preload having both longitudinal and transverse components associated with viscoelastic flow past the flange. Such an invention embodiment provides for damping of transverse as well as longitudinal vibration. Transverse vibration may originate, for example, when slight valve body misalignment with a valve seat causes abrupt lateral valve body movement during valve closing.

[0145] Note also that one or more flanges may or may not be longitudinally fixed to the guide stem for achieving one or more predetermined assembly resonant frequencies.

[0146] Note further that when a nonlinear system is driven by a periodic function, such as can occur with harmonic excitation, chaotic dynamic behavior is possible. Depending on the nature of the nonlinear system, as well as the frequency and amplitude of the driving force, the chaotic behavior may comprise periodic oscillations, almost periodic oscillations, and/or coexisting (multistable) periodic oscillations and nonperiodic-nonstable trajectories (see Harris, p. 4-28).

[0147] In addition to a shift in the tunable check valve assembly's vibrating mode, incorporation of at least one circular tubular area containing at least one shear-thickening material within the viscoelastic groove element increases impulse duration by slightly slowing valve closure due to reinforcement of the viscoelastic groove element. Increased impulse duration, in turn, narrows the closing energy impulse vibration spectrum. And shear-thickening material itself is effectively constrained by its circular location within the viscoelastic groove element(s).

[0148] The shear-thickening material (sometimes termed dilatant material) is relatively stiff near the time of impact and relatively fluid at other times. Since the viscoelastic groove element strikes a valve seat before the valve body, complete valve closure is slightly delayed by the shear-thickening action. The delay effectively increases the valve-closure energy impulse's duration, which means that vibration which is transmitted from the tunable check valve assembly to its (optionally tunable) valve seat and pump housing has a relatively narrower spectrum and is less likely to excite vibrations that predispose a pump housing to early fatigue failure. The degree of spectrum narrowing can be tuned to minimize excitation of known pump housing resonances by appropriate choice of the shear-thickening material. Such vibration attenuation, and the associated reductions in metal fatigue and corrosion susceptibility, are especially beneficial in cases where the fluid being pumped is corrosive.

[0149] The functions of the viscoelastic groove element, with its circular shear-thickening material, are thus seen to include those of a conventional valve seal as well as those of a tunable vibration attenuator and a tunable vibration damper. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,026,776, incorporated by reference. Further, the viscoelastic reservoir element, functioning with a predetermined annular shear preload provided via an adjustable preload flange, can dissipate an additional portion of valve-closure impulse energy as heat while also attenuating and damping vibration. And viscoelastic fenestration elements, when present, may contribute further to hysteresis loss as they elastically retain the groove element in the seal-retention groove via coupling to the reservoir element. Overall hysteresis loss in the viscoelastic elements combines with hysteresis loss in the valve body to selectively reduce the bandwidth, amplitude and duration of vibrations that the closing impulse energy would otherwise tend to excite in the valve and/or pump housing.

[0150] Examples of mechanisms for such selective vibration reductions are seen in the interactions of the viscoelastic reservoir element with the adjustable preload flange. The interactions contribute to hysteresis loss in a tunable check valve assembly by, for example, creating what has been termed shear damping (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,670,006, incorporated by reference). With the preload flange adjustably fixed centrally to the check valve body (e.g., fixed to a central guide stem), valve-closure impact causes both the preload flange and guide stem to temporarily move distally with respect to the (peripheral) valve seat interface (i.e., the valve body experiences a concave-shaped flexure). The impact energy associated with valve closure causes temporary deformation of the check valve body; that is, the valve body periphery (e.g., the valve seat interface) is stopped by contact with a valve seat while the central portion of the valve body continues (under inertial forces and pumped-fluid pressure) to elastically move distally. Thus, the annular constrained area of the viscoelastic reservoir element (shown constrained by the preload flange in the schematic illustrations herein) moves substantially countercurrent (i.e., in shear) relative to the annular unconstrained area (shown radially farther from the guide stem and peripheral to the preload flange). That is, relative distal movement of the preload flange thus tends to extrude the (more peripheral) annular unconstrained area proximally. Energy lost (i.e., dissipated) in connection with the resulting shear strain in the viscoelastic element is subtracted from the total closing impulse energy otherwise available to excite destructive flow-induced vibration resonances in a valve, valve seat and/or pump housing. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,158,162, incorporated by reference.

[0151] Note that in viscoelastic and shear-thickening materials, the relationship between stress and strain (and thus the effect of material constraint on resonant frequency) is generally time-dependent and non-linear. So a desired degree of non-linearity in “tuning” may be predetermined by appropriate choice of viscoelastic and shear-thickening materials in a tunable check valve assembly or tunable check valve.

[0152] Another aspect of the interaction of the viscoelastic reservoir element with an adjustable preload flange contributes to vibration damping and/or absorption in a tunable check valve assembly. As a result of compliance in the viscoelastic element, longitudinal movement of a guide stem and a coupled preload flange results in a phase lag as shear stress develops within the viscoelastic material. This is analogous to the phase lag seen in the outer ring movement in an automotive torsional vibration damper or the antiphase movement of small masses in an automotive pendulum vibration damper. See, e.g., the '776 patent cited above. Adjusting the shear preload flange as described above effectively changes the tunable check valve assembly's compliance and thus the degree of phase lag. One may thus, in one or more limited operational ranges, tune viscoelastic element preload to achieve effective vibration damping plus dynamic vibration absorption at specific frequencies of interest (e.g., pump housing resonant frequencies).

[0153] To achieve the desired hysteresis loss associated with attenuation and vibration damping effects described herein, different viscoelastic and/or composite elements may be constructed to have specific elastic and/or viscoelastic properties. Note that the term elastic herein implies substantial characterization by a storage modulus, whereas the term viscoelastic herein implies substantial characterization by a storage modulus and a loss modulus. See, e.g., the '006 patent cited above.

[0154] Elastic longitudinal compliance of a tunable check valve assembly results in part from elastic properties of the materials comprising the tunable check valve assembly. Such elastic properties may be achieved through use of composites comprising reinforcement materials as, for example, in an elastic valve body comprising steel, carbon fiber reinforced polymer, carbon nanotube/graphene reinforced polymer, and/or carbon nanotube/graphene reinforced metal matrix. The polymer may comprise a polyaryletherketone (PAEK), for example, polyetheretherketone (PEEK). See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,847,057 B2, incorporated by reference.

[0155] Note that the description herein of valve body flexure as concave-shaped refers to a view from the proximal or high-pressure side of the valve body. Such flexure is substantially elastic and may be associated with slight circular rotation (i.e., a circular rolling contact) of the valve body's valve seat interface with the valve seat itself. When the degree of rolling contact is sufficient to justify conversion of the valve seat interface from a conventional frusto-conical shape to a convex curved shape (which may include, e.g., circular, elliptic and/or parabolic portions), a curved concave tunable valve seat mating surface may be used. In such cases, the valve seat interface has correspondingly greater curvature than the concave tunable valve seat mating surface (see Detailed Description herein). Such rolling contact, when present, augments elastic formation of the concave valve body flexure on the pump pressure stroke, reversing the process on the suction stroke.

[0156] The circular rolling contact described herein may be visualized by considering the behavior of the convex valve seat interface as the valve body experiences concave flexure (i.e., the transformation from a relatively flat shape to a concave shape). During such flexure the periphery of the valve seat interface rotates slightly inwardly and translates slightly proximally (relative to the valve body's center of gravity) to become the proximal rim of the concave-shaped flexure.

[0157] While substantially elastic, each such valve body flexure is associated with energy loss from the closing energy impulse due to hysteresis in the valve body. Frictional heat loss (and any wear secondary to friction) associated with any circular rolling contact of the convex valve seat interface with the concave tunable valve seat mating surface is intentionally relatively low. Thus, the rolling action, when present, minimizes wear that might otherwise be associated with substantially sliding contact of these surfaces. Further, when rolling contact between valve body and tunable valve seat is present during both longitudinal valve body flexure and the elastic rebound which follows, trapping of particulate matter from the pumped fluid between the rolling surfaces tends to be minimized.

[0158] Summarizing, an example invention embodiment includes a tunable check valve assembly in a fluid end for high pressure pumping, the fluid end having at least one fluid end resonant frequency. The tunable check valve assembly comprises a plurality of radially-spaced vibration dampers disposed in a valve body, wherein at least one vibration damper has at least a first predetermined assembly resonant frequency similar to at least one fluid end resonant frequency. Further, the valve body comprises a peripheral valve seat interface having a convex curvature. The valve seat interface undergoes a substantially elastic concave flexure with slight circular rotation as the valve body seats against a valve seat having a concave mating surface with correspondingly less curvature than the peripheral valve seat interface and achieves a circular rolling contact with the mating surface of the valve seat.

[0159] An alternative invention embodiment includes a tunable valve seat in a fluid end for high pressure pumping, the fluid end having at least one fluid end resonant frequency. The tunable valve seat comprises a lateral support assembly longitudinally-spaced from a mating surface, the lateral support assembly for resiliently coupling the valve seat to a fluid end housing. The tunable valve seat has at least one seat resonant frequency similar to at least one fluid end resonant frequency; and the mating surface has a concave curvature that forms a circular rolling contact seal with a valve body as the valve body seats against the mating surface. The valve body has a convex peripheral valve seat interface of a correspondingly greater curvature than the mating surface; and the curvature of the mating surface causes the valve seat interface to undergo a substantially elastic concave flexure with slight circular rotation to form the circular rolling contact seal.

[0160] Since rolling contact takes place over a finite time interval, it also assists in smoothly redirecting pumped fluid momentum laterally and proximally. Forces due to oppositely directed radial components of the resultant fluid flow tend to cancel, and energy lost in pumped fluid turbulence is subtracted (as heat) from that of the valve-closure energy impulse, thus decreasing both its amplitude and the amplitude of associated vibration.

[0161] In addition to the above described energy dissipation (associated with hysteresis secondary to valve body flexure), hysteresis loss will also occur during pressure-induced movements of the viscoelastic groove element (in association with the valve seal function). Note that pumped fluid pressure acting on a valve comprising an embodiment of the invention's tunable check valve assembly may hydraulically pressurize substantially all of the viscoelastic elements in a tunable check valve assembly. Although polymers suitable for use in the viscoelastic elements generally are relatively stiff at room ambient pressures and temperatures, the higher pressures and temperatures experienced during pump pressure strokes tend to cause even relatively stiff polymers to behave like fluids which can transmit pressure hydraulically. Thus, a viscoelastic element in a peripheral seal-retention groove is periodically hydraulically pressurized, thereby increasing its sealing function during the high-pressure portion of the pump cycle. Hydraulic pressurization of the same viscoelastic element is reduced during the low-pressure portion of the pump cycle when the sealing function is not needed.

[0162] Because of the above-described energy loss and the time required for valve body longitudinal deformation to take place, with the associated dissipation of closing impulse energy described above, a valve-closure energy impulse applied to a tunable check valve assembly or tunable radial array is relatively lower in amplitude and longer in duration (e.g., secondary to having a longer rise time) than an analogous valve-closure energy impulse applied to a conventionally stiff valve body which closes on a conventional frusto-conical valve seat. The combination of lower amplitude and increased duration of the valve-closure energy impulse results in a narrowed characteristic vibration bandwidth having reduced potential for induction of damaging resonances in the valve, valve seat, and adjacent portions of the pump housing. See, e.g., the above-cited '242 patent.

[0163] Note that in describing the fluid-like behavior of certain polymers herein under elevated heat and pressure, the term “polymer” includes relatively homogenous materials (e.g., a single-species fluid polymer) as well as composites and combination materials containing one or more of such relatively homogenous materials plus finely divided particulate matter (e.g., nanoparticles) and/or other dispersed species (e.g., species in colloidal suspension, graphene) to improve heat scavenging and/or other properties. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,432,320 B1, incorporated by reference.

[0164] In addition to heat scavenging, damping is a function of the viscoelastic elements in various embodiments of the invention. Optimal damping is associated with relatively high storage modulus and loss tangent values, and is obtained over various temperature ranges in multicomponent systems described as having macroscopically phase-separated morphology, microheterogeneous morphology, and/or at least one interpenetrating polymer network. See, e.g., the above-cited '006 patent and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,091,455; 5,238,744; 6,331,578 B1; and 7,429,220 B2, all incorporated by reference.

[0165] Summarizing salient points of the above description, recall that vibration attenuation and damping in a tunable check valve assembly, tunable valve seat, tunable plunger seal, or tunable radial array of the invention operate via four interacting mechanisms. First, impulse amplitude is reduced by converting a portion of total closing impulse energy to heat (e.g., via hysteresis and fluid turbulence), which is then ultimately rejected to the check valve body surroundings (e.g., the pumped fluid). Each such reduction of impulse amplitude means lower amplitudes in the characteristic vibration spectrum transmitted to the pump housing.

[0166] Second, the closing energy impulse as sensed at the valve seat is reshaped in part by lengthening the rebound cycle time (estimated as the total time associated with peripheral valve seal compression, concave valve body flexure and elastic rebound). Such reshaping may in general be accomplished using mechanical/hydraulic/pneumatic analogs of electronic wave-shaping techniques. In particular, lengthened rebound cycle time is substantially influenced by the valve body's increased longitudinal compliance associated with the rolling contact/seal and concave valve body flexure described herein between valve body and valve seat. The units of lengthened cycle times are seconds, so their inverse functions have dimensions of per second (or 1/sec), the same dimensions as frequency. Thus, as noted above, the inverse function is termed herein characteristic rebound frequency.

[0167] Lowered characteristic rebound frequency (i.e., increased rebound cycle time) corresponds to slower rebound, with a corresponding reduction of the impulse's characteristic bandwidth due to loss of higher frequency content. This condition is created during impulse hammer testing by adding to hammer head inertia and by use of softer impact tips (e.g., plastic tips instead of the metal tips used when higher frequency excitation is desired). In contrast, tunable check valve assemblies and tunable radial arrays achieve bandwidth narrowing (and thus reduction of the damage potential of induced higher-frequency vibrations) at least in part through increased longitudinal compliance. In other words, bandwidth narrowing is achieved in embodiments of the invention through an increase of the effective impulse duration (as by, e.g., slowing the impulse's rise time and/or fall time as the valve assembly's components flex and relax over a finite time interval).

[0168] Third, induced vibration resonances of the tunable check valve assembly, tunable valve seat, and/or other tunable components are effectively damped by interactions generating structural hysteresis loss. Associated fluid turbulence further assists in dissipating heat energy via the pumped fluid.

[0169] And fourth, the potential for excitation of damaging resonances in pump vibration induced by a closing energy impulse is further reduced through narrowing of the impulse's characteristic vibration bandwidth by increasing the check valve body's effective inertia without increasing its actual mass. Such an increase of effective inertia is possible because a portion of pumped fluid moves with the valve body as it flexes and/or longitudinally compresses. The mass of this portion of pumped fluid is effectively added to the valve body's mass during the period of flexure/rebound, thereby increasing the valve body's effective inertia to create a low-pass filter effect (i.e., tending to block higher frequencies in the manner of an engine mount).

[0170] To increase understanding of the invention, certain aspects of tunable components (e.g., alternate embodiments and multiple functions of structural features) are considered in greater detail. Alternate embodiments are available, for example, in guide means known to those skilled in the art for maintaining valve body alignment within a (suction or discharge) bore. Guide means thus include, e.g., a central guide stem and/or a full-open or wing-guided design (i.e., having a distal crow-foot guide).

[0171] Similarly, alteration of a viscoelastic element's vibration pattern(s) in a tunable fluid end is addressed (i.e., tuned) via adjustable and/or time-varying constraints. Magnitude and timing of the constraints are determined in part by closing-impulse-related distortions and/or the associated vibration. For example, a viscoelastic reservoir (or central) element is at least partially constrained as it is disposed in the central annular reservoir, an unconstrained area optionally being open to pumped fluid pressure. That is, the viscoelastic reservoir element is at least partially constrained by relative movement of the interior surface(s) of the (optionally annular) reservoir, and further constrained by one or more structures (e.g., flanges) coupled to such surface(s). Analogously, a viscoelastic groove (or peripheral) element is at least partially constrained by relative movement of the groove walls, and further constrained by shear-thickening material within one or more circular tubular areas of the element (any of which may comprise a plurality of lumens).

[0172] Since the magnitude and timing of closing-impulse-related distortions are directly related to each closing energy impulse, the tunable fluid end's overall response is adaptive to changing pump operating pressures and speeds on a stroke-by-stroke basis. So for each set of operating parameters (e.g. cycle time and peak pressure for each pressure/suction stroke cycle), one or more of the constrained viscoelastic elements has at least a first predetermined assembly resonant frequency substantially similar to an instantaneous pump resonant frequency (e.g., a resonant frequency measured or estimated proximate the suction valve seat deck). And for optimal damping, one or more of the constrained viscoelastic elements may have, for example, at least a second predetermined assembly resonant frequency similar to the first predetermined assembly resonant frequency.

[0173] Note that the adaptive behavior of viscoelastic elements is beneficially designed to complement both the time-varying behavior of valves generating vibration with each punp pressure stroke, and the time-varying response of the fluid end as a whole to that vibration.

[0174] Note also that a tunable check valve assembly and/or tunable valve seat analogous to those designed for use in a tunable suction check valve may be incorporated in a tunable discharge check valve as well. Either a tunable suction check valve or a tunable discharge check valve or both may be installed in a pump fluid end housing. Additionally, one or more other tunable components may be combined with tunable suction and/or discharge check valves. A pump housing resonant frequency may be chosen as substantially equal to a first predetermined resonant frequency of each of the tunable components installed, or of any combination of the installed tunable components. Or the predetermined component resonant frequencies may be tuned to approximate different pump housing resonant frequencies as determined for optimal vibration damping.

[0175] For increased flexibility in accomplishing the above tuning, fenestrations may be present in the groove wall to accommodate radial tension members. At least a portion of each fenestration may have a transverse area which increases with decreasing radial distance to said longitudinal axis. That is, each fenestration flares to greater transverse areas in portions closer to the longitudinal axis, relative to the transverse areas of portions of the fenestration which are more distant from the longitudinal axis. Thus, a flared fenestration is partly analogous to a conventionally flared tube, with possible differences arising from the facts that (1) fenestrations are not limited to circular cross-sections, and (2) the degree of flare may differ in different portions of a fenestration. Such flares assist in stabilizing a viscoelastic groove element via a plurality of radial tension members.

[0176] Note that in addition to the example alternate embodiments described herein, still other alternative invention embodiments exist, including valves, pump housings and pumps comprising one or more of the example embodiments or equivalents thereof. Additionally, use of a variety of fabrication techniques known to those skilled in the art may lead to embodiments differing in detail from those schematically illustrated herein. For example, internal valve body spaces may be formed during fabrication by welding (e.g., inertial welding or laser welding) valve body portions together as in the above-cited '837 patent, or by separately machining such spaces with separate coverings. Valve body fabrication may also be by rapid-prototyping (i.e., layer-wise) techniques. See, e.g., the above-cited '057 patent. Viscoelastic elements may be cast and cured separately or in place in a valve body as described herein. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 7,513,483 B1, incorporated by reference.

[0196] Tunable equipment associated with high-pressure well-stimulation comprises tunable down-hole stimulators (plus associated controllers, power supplies, etc.). Frac and/or proppant pumps optionally comprise tunable fluid ends (which include but are not limited to, e.g., tunable valve assemblies and/or vibration dampers) which facilitate selective attenuation of valve-generated vibration at or near its source to reduce fluid end fatigue failures. Tunable down-hole stimulation systems includes system controllers plus single or multiple tunable hydraulic stimulators, with optional inclusion of tunable fluid ends. FIGS. 1-16 relate to components and subsystems, while FIGS. 17 and 18 schematically illustrate various embodiments of down-hole stimulation systems.

[0197] FIGS. 1-14B schematically illustrate how adding multifunction rings, tunable valve seats, tunable radial arrays and/or plunger seals to tunable check valve assemblies in a fluid end further facilitates optimal damping and/or selective attenuation of vibration at one or more predetermined (and frequently-localized) fluid end resonant frequencies.

[0198] A tunable (suction or discharge) check valve of the invention may comprise, for example, a combination of a tunable check valve assembly/tunable radial array 99 (see, e.g., FIG. 1) and a tunable valve seat 20 or a tunable valve seat 389 (see, e.g., FIGS. 7 and 11). Details of the structure and functions of each component are provided herein both separately and as combined with other components to obtain synergistic benefits contributing to longer pump service life.

[0199] FIGS. 1 and 2 schematically illustrate an invention embodiment of a tunable check valve assembly/tunable radial array 99 substantially symmetrical about a longitudinal axis. Illustrated components include a valve body 10, an adjustable preload flange 30, and a plurality of viscoelastic body elements 50. Check valve body 10, in turn, comprises a peripheral groove 12 (see FIG. 2) spaced apart by an annular (central) reservoir 16 from a longitudinal guide stem 14, groove 12 being responsive to longitudinal compressive force. A plurality of viscoelastic body elements 50 comprises an annular (central) reservoir element 52 coupled to a (peripheral) groove element 54 by a plurality of (optional) radial fenestration elements 56 (in fenestrations 18) to form a tunable radial array. Groove element 54 functions as a vibration damper and valve seal, comprising at least one circular tubular area 58.

[0200] Responsiveness of groove 12 to longitudinal compressive force is characterized in part by damping of groove wall 11/13/15 vibrations. Such damping is due in part to out-of-phase vibrations in proximal groove wall 13 and distal groove wall 11 which are induced by longitudinal compressive force. Such out-of-phase vibrations will cause various groove-related dimensions to vary with longitudinal compressive force, thereby indicating the responsiveness of groove 12 to such force (see, for example, the dimension labeled A in FIG. 2). Each phase shift, in turn, is associated with differences in the coupling of proximal groove wall 13 to guide stem 14 (indirectly via longitudinal groove wall 15 and radial reservoir floor 19) and the coupling of distal groove wall 11 to guide stem 14 (directly via radial reservoir floor 19). Note that longitudinal groove wall 15 may comprise fenestrations 18, thereby increasing the responsiveness of groove 12 to longitudinal compressive force on tunable check valve assembly 99.

[0201] Referring to FIGS. 1-3, adjustable preload flange 30 extends radially from guide stem 14 (toward peripheral reservoir wall 17) over, for example, about 20% to about 80% of viscoelastic reservoir element 52 (see FIG. 3). Adjustable preload flange 30 thus imposes an adjustable annular shear preload over an annular constrained area 62 of viscoelastic reservoir element 52 to achieve at least a first predetermined assembly resonant frequency substantially replicating a (similar) measured or estimated resonant frequency (e.g., a pump housing resonant frequency). Note that an adjacent annular unconstrained area 60 of viscoelastic reservoir element 52 remains open to pumped fluid pressure. Note also that adjustable preload flange 30 may be adjusted in effective radial extent and/or longitudinal position.

[0202] Note further that annular constrained area 62 and annular unconstrained area 60 are substantially concentric and adjacent. Thus, for a tunable suction valve subject to longitudinal (i.e., distally-directed) compressive constraint applied via preload flange 30 to annular constrained area 62, annular unconstrained area 60 will tend to move (i.e., extrude) proximally relative to area 62. The oppositely-directed (i.e., countercurrent) movements of constrained and unconstrained annular areas of viscoelastic reservoir element 52 create a substantially annular area of shear stress.

[0203] Finally, each circular tubular area 58 is substantially filled with at least one shear-thickening material 80 (see FIG. 5) chosen to achieve at least a second predetermined assembly resonant frequency similar, for example, to the first predetermined assembly resonant frequency). Note that FIG. 5 schematically represents a partially-sectioned view of an instantaneous configuration of the shear-thickening material 80 within circular tubular area 58.

[0204] Referring to FIGS. 1 and 2 in greater detail, a tunable check valve assembly/tunable radial array embodiment 99 comprises viscoelastic body elements 50 which comprise, in turn, reservoir (central) element 52 coupled to groove (peripheral) element 54 via radial fenestration (tension) elements 56. Elements 52, 54 and 56 are disposed in (i.e., integrated with and/or lie substantially in) reservoir 16, groove 12 and fenestrations 18 respectively to provide a tuned radial array having at least a third predetermined resonant frequency. An adjustable preload flange 30 is coupled to guide stem 14 and contacts viscoelastic reservoir element 52 in reservoir 16 to impose an adjustable annular constraint on viscoelastic reservoir element 52 for achieving at least a first predetermined assembly resonant frequency substantially similar to, for example, a measured resonant frequency (e.g., a pump housing resonant frequency). Such adjustable annular constraint imposes an adjustable shear preload between constrained annular area 62 and unconstrained annular area 60. Tunable check valve assembly 99 may additionally comprise at least one circular tubular area 58 in groove element 54 residing in groove 12, each tubular area 58 being substantially filled with at least one shear-thickening material 80 chosen to achieve at least a second predetermined assembly resonant frequency similar, for example, to the first predetermined assembly resonant frequency).

[0205] The above embodiment may be installed in a pump housing having a measured housing resonant frequency; the measured housing resonant frequency may then be substantially replicated in the (similar) first predetermined resonant frequency of the tunable check valve assembly. Such a combination would be an application of an alternate embodiment. An analogous tuning procedure may be followed if the tunable check valve assembly of the second embodiment is installed in a pump having a (similar or different) resonant frequency substantially equal to the second predetermined resonant frequency. This synergistic combination would broaden the scope of the valve assembly's beneficial effects, being yet another application of the invention's alternate embodiment.

[0206] Note that preload flange 30 may have a non-cylindrical periphery 32 for imposing on viscoelastic reservoir element 52 an adjustable annular shear preload having both longitudinal and transverse components.

[0207] Note further that the periphery of adjustable preload flange 30, if cylindrical, predisposes a tunable check valve assembly to substantially longitudinal shear damping with each longitudinal distortion of check valve body 10 associated with valve closure. The character of such shear damping depends, in part, on the longitudinal position of the preload flange. Examples of different longitudinal positions are seen in FIG. 4, which schematically illustrates the flange 30′ longitudinally displaced from flange 30″. Further, as shown in FIG. 4, the convex periphery of a longitudinally adjusted preload flange 30′ or 30″ may introduce shear damping of variable magnitude and having both longitudinal and transverse components. Such damping may be beneficial in cases where significant transverse valve-generated vibration occurs.

[0208] To clarify the placement of viscoelastic body elements 50, labels indicating the portions are placed on a sectional view in FIGS. 2 and 3. Actual placement of viscoelastic body elements 50 in valve body 10 (see FIG. 1) may be by, for example, casting viscoelastic body elements 50 in place, or placing viscoelastic body elements 50 (which have been precast) in place during layer-built or welded fabrication. The tunable check valve assembly embodiment of the invention is intended to represent check valve body 10 and viscoelastic body elements 50 as complementary components at any stage of manufacture leading to functional integration of the two components.

[0209] To enhance scavenging of heat due to friction loss and/or hysteresis loss, shear-thickening material 80 and/or viscoelastic body elements 50 may comprise one or more polymers which have been augmented with nanoparticles and/or graphene 82 (see, e.g., FIG. 5). Nanoparticles and/or graphene may be invisible to the eye as they are typically dispersed in a colloidal suspension. Hence, they are schematically represented by cross-hatching 82 in FIG. 5. Nanoparticles may comprise, for example, carbon forms (e.g., graphene) and/or metallic materials such as copper, beryllium, titanium, nickel, iron, alloys or blends thereof. The term nanoparticle may conveniently be defined as including particles having an average size of up to about 2000 nm. See, e.g., the '320 patent.

[0210] FIG. 6 is a schematic illustration of an exploded partially-sectioned 2-dimensional view of major components of a pump fluid end subassembly 88, together with graphical aids and brief explanatory comments on component functions. The schematically-illustrated subassembly 88 comprises a pumping chamber 74 within a subassembly (pump) housing 78, the pumping chamber 74 being in fluid communication with a suction bore 76, a discharge bore 72, and a piston/plunger bore 70. Note that piston/plunger bore 70 comprises at least one recess (analogous to that labeled “packing box” in FIG. 6) in which at least one lateral support assembly 130 (see FIG. 8) may be sealingly positionable along the plunger as part of a tunable plunger seal embodiment. Schematic representations of a tunable suction valve 95 (illustrated for simplicity as a hinged check valve), a tunable discharge valve 97 (also illustrated for simplicity as a hinged check valve), and a piston/plunger 93 (illustrated for simplicity as a plunger) are shown in their respective bores. Note that longitudinally-moving valve bodies in check valve embodiments schematically illustrated herein (e.g., valve body 10) are associated with certain operational phenomena analogous to phenomena seen in hinged check valves (including, e.g., structural compliance secondary to closing energy impulses).

[0211] Regarding the graphical aids of FIG. 6, the double-ended arrows that signify fluid communication between the bores (suction, discharge and piston/plunger) and the pumping chamber are double-ended to represent the fluid flow reversals that occur in each bore during each transition between pressure stroke and suction stroke of the piston/plunger. The large single-ended arrow within the pumping chamber is intended to represent the periodic and relatively large, substantially unidirectional fluid flow from suction bore through discharge bore during pump operation.

[0212] Further regarding the graphical aids of FIG. 6, tunable suction (check) valve 95 and tunable discharge (check) valve 97 are shown schematically as hinged check valves in FIG. 6 because of the relative complexity of check valve embodiments having longitudinally-moving valve bodies. More detailed schematics of several check valve assemblies and elements are shown in FIGS. 1-11, certain tunable check valve embodiments comprising a tunable check valve assembly and a tunable valve seat. In general, the tunable check valve assemblies/tunable radial arrays of tunable suction and discharge valves will typically be tuned to different assembly resonant frequencies because of their different positions in a subassembly housing 78 (and thus in a pump housing as described herein). Pump housing resonant frequencies that are measured proximate the tunable suction and discharge valves will differ in general, depending on the overall pump housing design. In each case they serve to guide the choices of the respective assembly resonant frequencies for the valves.

[0213] Note that the combination of major components labeled in FIG. 6 as a pump fluid end subassembly 88 is so labeled (i.e., is labeled as a subassembly) because typical fluid end configurations comprise a plurality of such subassemblies combined in a single machined block. Thus, in such typical (multi-subassembly) pump fluid end designs, as well as in less-common single-subassembly pump fluid end configurations, the housing is simply termed a “pump housing” rather than the “subassembly housing 78” terminology of FIG. 6.

[0214] Further as schematically-illustrated and described herein for clarity, each pump fluid end subassembly 88 comprises only major components: a pumping chamber 74, with its associated tunable suction valve 95, tunable discharge valve 97, and piston/plunger 93 in their respective bores 76, 72 and 70 of subassembly housing 78. For greater clarity of description, common fluid end features well-known to those skilled in the art (such as access bores, plugs, seals, and miscellaneous fixtures) are not shown. Similarly, a common suction manifold through which incoming pumped fluid is distributed to each suction bore 76, and a common discharge manifold for collecting and combining discharged pumped fluid from each discharge bore 72, are also well-known to those skilled in the art and thus are not shown.

[0215] Note that the desired check-valve function of tunable check valves 95 and 97 schematically-illustrated in FIG. 6 requires interaction of the respective tunable check valve assemblies (see, e.g., FIGS. 1-5) with a corresponding (schematically-illustrated) tunable valve seat (see, e.g., FIGS. 7, 8, 10 and 11). The schematic illustrations of FIG. 6 are only intended to convey general ideas of relationships and functions of the major components of a pump fluid end subassembly. Structural details of the tunable check valve assemblies that are in turn part of tunable check valves 95 and 97 of the invention (including their respective tunable valve seats) are illustrated in greater detail in other figures as noted above. Such structural details facilitate a plurality of complementary functions that are best understood through reference to FIGS. 1-5 and 7-11.

[0216] The above complementary functions of tunable check valves include, but are not limited to, closing energy conversion to heat via structural compliance, energy redistribution through rejection of heat to the pumped fluid and pump housing, vibration damping and/or selective vibration spectrum narrowing through changes in tunable check valve assembly compliance, vibration frequency down-shifting (via decrease in characteristic rebound frequency) through increase of rebound cycle time, and selective vibration attenuation through energy dissipation (i.e., via redistribution) at predetermined assembly resonant frequencies.

[0217] FIG. 7 is a schematic illustration of two views of an exploded partially-sectioned 3-dimensional view including a check valve body 10 and its convex valve seat interface 22, together with concave mating surface 24 of tunable valve seat 20. Mating surface 24 is longitudinally spaced apart from a pump housing interface surface 21. A curved longitudinal section edge 28 of the tunable valve seat's mating surface 24, together with a correspondingly greater curved longitudinal section edge 26 of the valve body's valve seat interface 22, are shown schematically in detail view A to aid description herein of a rolling valve seal.

[0218] In summary, the valve body comprises a peripheral valve seat interface having a convex curvature. The valve seat interface undergoes a substantially elastic concave flexure with slight circular rotation as the valve body seats against a valve seat having a concave mating surface with correspondingly less curvature than the peripheral valve seat interface. As a result, the peripheral valve seat interface achieves a circular rolling contact with the mating surface of the valve seat.

[0219] Alternatively, the valve seat mating has a concave curvature that forms a circular rolling contact seal with a valve body as the valve body seats against the mating surface. The valve body has a convex peripheral valve seat interface with a correspondingly greater curvature than the mating surface. And the curvature of the mating surface causes the valve seat interface to undergo a substantially elastic concave flexure with slight circular rotation to form the circular rolling contact seal.

[0220] The correspondingly greater curvature of valve seat interface 22, as compared to the curvature of mating surface 24, effectively provides a rolling seal against fluid leakage which reduces wear on the surfaces in contact. The rolling seal also increases longitudinal compliance of a tunable suction or discharge valve of the invention, with the added benefit of increasing the rise and fall times of the closing energy impulse (thus narrowing the associated vibration spectrum). Widening the closing energy impulse increases rebound cycle time and correspondingly decreases characteristic rebound frequency.

[0221] Further regarding the terms “correspondingly greater curvature” or “correspondingly less curvature” as used herein, note that the curvatures of the schematically illustrated longitudinal section edges (i.e., 26 and 28) and the surfaces of which they are a part (i.e., valve seat interface 22 and mating surface 24 respectively) are chosen so that the degree of longitudinal curvature of valve seat interface 22 (including edge 26) exceeds that of (i.e., has correspondingly greater curvature than) mating surface 24 (including edge 28) at any point of rolling contact. In other words, mating surface 24 (including edge 28) has correspondingly less curvature than valve seat interface 22 (including edge 26). Hence, rolling contact (i.e., a rolling valve seal) between valve seat interface 22 and mating surface 24 is along a substantially circular line (i.e., mating surface 24 is a curved mating surface for providing decreased contract area along the circular line). The plane of the circular line is generally transverse to the (substantially coaxial) longitudinal axes of valve body 10 and tunable valve seat 20. And the decreased contract area along the circular line is so described because it is small relative to the nominal contact area otherwise provided by conventional (frusto-conical) valve seat interfaces and valve seat mating surfaces.

[0222] Note that the nominal frusto-conical contact area mentioned above is customarily shown in engineering drawings as broad and smooth. But the actual contact area is subject to unpredictable variation in practice due to uneven distortions (e.g., wrinkling) of the respective closely-aligned frusto-conical surfaces under longitudinal forces that may exceed 250,000 pounds. An advantage of the rolling valve seal along a substantially circular line as described herein is minimization of the unpredictable effects of such uneven distortions of valve seat interfaces and their corresponding mating surfaces.

[0223] Note also that although valve seat interface 22 and mating surface 24 (and other valve seat interface/mating surface combinations described herein) are schematically illustrated as curved, either may be frusto-conical (at least in part) in certain tuned component embodiments. Such frusto-conical embodiments may have lower fabrication costs and may exhibit suboptimal distortion, down-shifting performance and/or wear characteristics. They may be employed in relatively lower-pressure applications where other tunable component characteristics provide sufficient operational advantages in vibration control.

[0224] The above discussion of rolling contact applies to the alternate tunable valve seat 20′ of FIG. 8, as it does to the tunable valve seat 20 of FIG. 7. FIG. 8 schematically illustrates a 3-dimensional exploded and partially-sectioned view of a tunable valve seat showing a mating surface (analogous to mating surface 24 of FIG. 7) longitudinally spaced apart from a lateral support mounting surface 21′. But the lateral support mounting surface 21′ in FIG. 8 differs from pump housing interface surface 21 of FIG. 7 in that it facilitates adjustably securing a lateral support assembly 130 to alternate tunable valve seat 20′. Lateral support assembly 130 comprises first and second securable end spacers (110 and 124 respectively) in combination with a plurality of circular viscoelastic support elements (114, 118 and 122), each support element comprising a support circular tubular area (see areas 112, 116 and 120 respectively). Shear-thickening material in each support circular tubular area 112, 116 and 120 is chosen so each lateral support assembly 130 has at least one predetermined resonant frequency. Lateral support assemblies thus configured may be part of each tunable valve seat and each tunable plunger seal. When part of a tunable plunger seal, one or more lateral support assemblies 130 reside in at least one recess analogous to the packing box schematically illustrated adjacent to piston/plunger 93 (i.e., as a portion of piston/plunger bore 70) in FIG. 6.

[0225] Note also that in general, a tunable (suction or discharge) check valve of the invention may comprise a combination of a tunable check valve assembly 99 (see, e.g., FIG. 1) and a tunable valve seat 20 (see, e.g., FIG. 7) or a tunable valve seat 20′ (see, e.g., FIG. 8). Referring more specifically to FIG. 6, tunable suction check valve 95 is distinguished from tunable discharge check valve 97 by one or more factors, including each measured resonant frequency to which each tunable check valve is tuned so as to optimize the overall effectiveness of valve-generated vibration attenuation in the associated pump housing 78.

[0226] FIGS. 9-11 show schematic exploded views of a nonlinear spring-mass damper 227/228/229/230, which may be incorporated in a tunable check valve assembly embodiment 210. FIGS. 9-11 can each be understood as schematically illustrating a tunable check valve assembly with or without a peripheral groove viscoelastic element. That is, each figure may also be understood to additionally comprise a viscoelastic groove element analogous to groove element 54 (see FIG. 2) residing in groove 218′/218″ (see FIG. 9)—this groove element is not shown in exploded FIGS. 9-11 for clarity, but may be considered to comprise at least one circular tubular area analogous to tubular area 58 in groove element 54 (see FIG. 2), each tubular area 58 being substantially filled with at least one shear-thickening material 80 chosen to achieve at least one predetermined assembly resonant frequency.

[0227] Referring to FIG. 9, Belleville springs 227/228/229 are nonlinear, and they couple mass 230 to the valve body base plate 216 and the proximal valve body portion 214. Additionally, dilatant liquid 242 is optionally added (via sealable ports 222 and/or 220) to central internal cavity 224 to immerse nonlinear spring-mass damper 227/228/229/230. The nonlinear behavior of dilatant liquid 242 in shear (as, e.g., between Belleville springs 227 and 228) expands the range of tuning the nonlinear spring-mass damper 227/228/229/230 to a larger plurality of predetermined frequencies to reduce “ringing” of valve body 214/216 in response to a closing energy impulse.

[0228] To clarify the function of nonlinear spring-mass damper 227/228/229/230, mass 230 is shown perforated centrally to form a washer shape and thus provide a passage for flow of dilatant liquid 242 during longitudinal movement of mass 230. This passage is analogous to that provided by each of the Belleville springs 227/228/229 by reason of their washer-like shape.

[0229] FIG. 10 shows an exploded view of an alternate embodiment of a tunable check valve comprising the tunable check valve assembly 210 of FIG. 9, plus a tunable valve seat 250. FIGS. 10 and 11 schematically illustrate two views of an exploded partially-sectioned 3-dimensional view including a valve body 214/216 and its valve seat interface 234, together with mating surface 254 of tunable valve seats 250 and 250′. Mating surface 254 is longitudinally spaced apart from pump housing interface surface 252 in FIG. 10, and from lateral support mounting surface 252′ in FIG. 11. In FIG. 10, a curved longitudinal section edge 256 of the tunable valve seat's mating surface 254, together with a correspondingly greater curved longitudinal section edge 236 of valve seat interface 234, are shown schematically to aid description herein of a rolling valve seal along a substantially circular line.

[0230] Note that valve body 214/216 may be fabricated by several methods, including that schematically illustrated in FIGS. 9-11. For example, circular boss 215 on proximal valve body portion 214 may be inertia welded or otherwise joined to circular groove 217 on valve body base plate 216. Such joining results in the creation of peripheral seal-retention groove 218′/218″ having proximal groove wall 218′ and distal groove wall 218″.

[0231] To enhance scavenging of heat due to friction loss and/or hysteresis loss, liquid polymer(s) 242 may be augmented by adding nanoparticles which are generally invisible to the eye as they are typically dispersed in a colloidal suspension. Nanoparticles comprise, for example, carbon and/or metallic materials such as copper, beryllium, titanium, nickel, iron, alloys or blends thereof. The term nanoparticle may conveniently be defined as including particles having an average size of up to about 2000 nm. See, e.g., the '320 patent.

[0232] The correspondingly greater curvature of valve seat interface 234, as compared to the curvature of mating surface 254, effectively provides a rolling seal against fluid leakage which reduces frictional wear on the surfaces in contact. The rolling seal also increases longitudinal compliance of a tunable suction or discharge valve of the invention, with the added benefit of increasing the rise and fall times of the closing energy impulse (thus narrowing the associated vibration spectrum).

[0233] Further regarding the term “correspondingly greater curvature” as used herein, note that the curvatures of the schematically illustrated longitudinal section edges (i.e., 236 and 256) and the surfaces of which they are a part (i.e., valve seat interface 234 and mating surface 254 respectively) are chosen so that the degree of longitudinal curvature of valve seat interface 234 (including edge 236) exceeds that of (i.e., has correspondingly greater curvature than) mating surface 254 (including edge 256) at any point of rolling contact. Hence, rolling contact between valve seat interface 234 and mating surface 254 is always along a substantially circular line that decreases contact area relative to the (potentially variable) contact area of a (potentially distorted) conventional frusto-conical valve body/valve seat interface (see discussion above). The plane of the circular line is generally transverse to the (substantially coaxial) longitudinal axes of valve body 214/216 and tunable valve seat 250. (See notes above re frusto-conical valve seat interface shapes and mating surfaces).

[0234] The above discussion of rolling contact applies to the alternate tunable valve seat 250′ of FIG. 11, as it does to the tunable valve seat 250 of FIG. 10. But the lateral support mounting surface 252′ in tunable check valve 399 of FIG. 11 differs from pump housing interface surface 252 of FIG. 10 in that it facilitates adjustably securing a lateral support assembly 330 to alternate tunable valve seat 250′ to form tunable valve seat 389. Lateral support assembly 330 comprises first and second securable end spacers (310 and 324 respectively) in combination with a plurality of circular viscoelastic support elements (314, 318 and 322), each support element comprising a support circular tubular area (312, 316 and 320 respectively).

[0235] Note that in general, a tunable (suction or discharge) check valve of the invention may comprise a combination of a tunable check valve assembly 210 (see, e.g., FIG. 9) and a tunable valve seat 250 (see, e.g., FIG. 10) or a tunable valve seat 250′ (see, e.g., FIG. 11). Referring more specifically to FIG. 6, tunable suction valve 95 is distinguished from tunable discharge check valve 97 by one or more factors, including each measured or estimated resonant frequency to which each tunable check valve is tuned so as to optimize the overall effectiveness of valve-generated vibration attenuation in the associated pump housing 78.

[0236] FIG. 12 illustrates two schematic 3-dimensional longitudinally-sectioned views of an alternate tunable check valve assembly embodiment comprising a plurality of radially-spaced vibration dampers disposed in a valve body 410 having a resilient peripheral seal 470. Each of two radially-spaced vibration dampers comprises a circular tubular area (i.e., central circular tubular area 462 as seen in FIG. 12, and peripheral circular tubular area 472/474 as seen in FIG. 13). Note that peripheral circular tubular area 472/474 is so designated because it comprises a lateral circular tubular portion 472 and a medial circular tubular portion 474 (see FIG. 13). And further note that at least one of the radially-spaced vibration dampers is tunable via a fluid tuning medium in a tubular area (see, e.g., in FIG. 12 that a central fluid tuning medium 442 is being added to spaces including central circular tubular area 462). A fluid tuning medium may comprise, e.g., one or more shear-thickening materials, and the medium may further comprise nanoparticles.

[0237] Thus, each vibration damper comprises a circular tubular area (462/472), and at least one vibration damper is tunable to a predetermined frequency (e.g., a resonant frequency of a fluid end in which the assembly is installed). The tuning mechanisms may differ: e.g., via a fluid medium 442 (shown schematically being added in FIG. 12 via a sealable port 422 in valve body 410) in a tubular area 462 and/or via a fluid medium 482 (shown as an instantaneous shape 480) within tubular area 472. Control of variable fluid flow resistance and/or fluid stiffness (in the case of shear-thickening fluids) facilitates predetermination of resonant frequency or frequencies in the central and peripheral dampers.

[0238] In either case, tuning is function of responsiveness of the respective dampers to vibration secondary to valve closure impact (see above discussion of such impact and vibration). For example, longitudinal force on the closed valve will tend to reduce the distance between opposing fluid flow restrictors 466/468, simultaneously prompting flow of fluid tuning medium 442 from circular tubular area 462 to areas 464 and/or 460 (460 acting as a surge chamber). Flow resistance will be a function of fluid flow restrictors 466/468 and the fluid viscosity. Note that viscosity may vary with time in a shear-thickening liquid 442, thereby introducing nonlinearity for predictably altering center frequency and/or Q of the damper. Analogous predetermined viscosity variation in fluid tuning medium 482 is available for predictably altering the center frequency and/or Q (i.e., altering the tuning) of the peripheral damper 470/472/482 as the seal 470 distorts under the longitudinal load of valve closure.

[0239] Note that the peripheral seal vibration damper 470/472/482 comprises a medial flange 479 sized to closely fit within flange channel 419 of valve body 410, and medial flange 419 partially surrounds circular tubular area 472 within said seal 470. Those skilled in the art know that conventional peripheral seals tend to rotate within their retaining groove. The illustrated seal embodiment herein shows that such rotation will tend to be resisted by the combined action of medial flange 479 and flange channel 419. Further, the portion of circular tubular area 472 partially surrounded by medial flange 419 will tend to stiffen medial flange 479 in a nonlinear manner when circular tubular area 472 contains a shear-thickening fluid tuning medium.

[0240] FIG. 13 is a more-detailed schematic 3-dimensional longitudinally-sectioned exploded view analogous-in-part to that of the alternate tunable check valve assembly embodiment of FIG. 12. Detail breakout views include medial flange 479 of resilient peripheral seal 470, as well as the medial flange's corresponding flange channel 419. An instantaneous schematic view of peripheral fluid tuning medium 480 in the peripheral circular tubular area 472/474 is shown spaced apart in the exploded view of FIG. 13. Note that the longitudinally-sectioned (instantaneous shape) schematic illustration of peripheral fluid tuning medium 480 comprises a lateral fluid tuning medium portion 482 corresponding to lateral circular tubular portion 472. Analogously, a medial fluid tuning medium portion 484 corresponds to medial circular tubular portion 474. Hence, peripheral fluid tuning medium 480, which includes both lateral fluid tuning medium portion 482 and medial fluid tuning medium portion 484, may be referred to herein as peripheral fluid tuning medium 482/484.

[0241] A central fluid tuning medium 442 is shown schematically being added (see FIGS. 12 and 13) to spaces including central circular tubular area 462 (labeled in FIG. 12). Note in FIG. 13 that medial portion 474 of peripheral circular tubular area 472/474 (with its medial fluid tuning medium portion 484) extends into (i.e., is partially surrounded by) medial flange 479 of resilient peripheral seal 470. The central and peripheral circular tubular areas (462 and 472/474 respectively), with their respective central and peripheral fluid tuning media (442 and 482/484 respectively), constitute a first plurality of tunable vibration dampers in the form of a tunable radial array comprising two radially-spaced vibration dampers.

[0242] FIG. 14A illustrates a schematic 3-dimensional longitudinally-sectioned view of an alternate tunable check valve assembly embodiment comprising the valve body 410 (also shown in FIGS. 12, 13 and 14B), together with a tunable valve seat 450. Note that tapered mounting surface 452 of tunable valve seat 450 is intended for interfacing with a fluid end housing in which tunable valve seat 450 may be mounted. Detail breakout view A of FIG. 14 A shows that peripheral valve seat interface 434 is convex, having correspondingly greater curvature (as shown more clearly in section edge 436) than the concave mating surface 454 (as shown more clearly in section edge 456). The concave mating surface 454 has correspondingly less curvature than peripheral valve seat interface 434 to facilitate a circular rolling contact seal providing decreased contact area substantially along a circular line between the valve body's peripheral valve seat interface 434 and the tunable valve seat's concave mating surface 454. As noted above, the circular rolling contact seal also increases longitudinal compliance of a tunable suction or discharge valve of the invention, with the added benefit of increasing the rise and fall times of the closing energy impulse (thus widening the closing energy impulse and narrowing the associated vibration spectrum). Widening the closing energy impulse in the time domain is reflected in an increased rebound cycle time, with a corresponding decrease in characteristic rebound frequency. Rebound cycle time and characteristic rebound frequency may thus be tuned for optimal damping.

[0243] FIG. 14B illustrates a schematic 3-dimensional longitudinally-sectioned view of an alternate tunable check valve embodiment comprising the tunable check valve assembly embodiment of FIG. 13 (having the above-described first plurality of tunable vibration dampers), together with a tunable valve seat (the tunable valve seat having a second plurality of tunable vibration dampers). The tunable valve seat of FIG. 14B comprises a plurality of tunable vibration-damping structural features including, for example, tunable valve seat 450′ with a concave mating surface 454 (surface 454 also being present in tunable valve seat 450). Tunable valve seat 450′ has the prime designation due to the inclusion of an adjustable lateral support assembly 724/722/720/718/716/714/712/710, the lateral support assembly not being present in tunable valve seat 450. The lateral support assembly interfaces with a fluid end housing in which tunable valve seat 450′ may be mounted, creating tunable coupling to the fluid end housing which differs from the coupling provided via tapered mounting surface 452 (see FIG. 14A).

[0244] Considering the first plurality of tunable vibration dampers in greater detail, alternate tunable check valve assembly embodiment 442/410/470/480 (see, e.g., FIG. 13) is symmetrical about a longitudinal axis and comprises a plurality of radially-spaced vibration dampers (i.e., a tunable radial array of vibration dampers). A first vibration damper (i.e., a peripheral damper) is in the resilient peripheral seal 470 with its peripheral circular tubular area 472/474 and enclosed peripheral fluid tuning medium 482/484. Peripheral circular tubular area 472/474 is responsive to cyclical longitudinal compression of the assembly (as, for example, due to increased proximal fluid pressure due to a pump pressure stroke).

[0245] Responsiveness to cyclical longitudinal compression is in-part secondary, e.g., to compression of resilient peripheral seal 470 against a tunable valve seat 450 or 450′ (see, e.g., FIGS. 14A and 14B). Responsiveness to cyclical longitudinal compression is also in-part secondary, e.g., to alteration of the shape of peripheral seal groove 418 (see FIG. 13). The shape of peripheral seal groove 418 is imposed on resilient peripheral seal 470 due to relative movement of proximal and distal groove walls 418′ and 418″ (see FIG. 13) during longitudinal compression of the assembly against a tunable valve seat 450 or 450′ (see, e.g., FIGS. 14A and 14B respectively). Note, as above herein, that the proximal and distal designations assume a suction valve (as opposed to a discharge valve) configuration.

[0246] Note also that the valve body 410 comprises peripheral valve seat interface 434 having a convex curvature (see section edge 436 in FIG. 14A). Peripheral valve seat interface 434 undergoes a substantially elastic concave flexure with slight circular rotation as the valve body 410 seats against a tunable valve seat such as 450 or 450′ (see FIGS. 14A and 14B respectively), each tunable valve seat embodiment having a concave mating surface 454 with correspondingly less curvature (see, e.g., section edge 456 in FIG. 14A) than the peripheral valve seat interface (see e.g., section edge 436 in FIG. 14A). As a result, peripheral valve seat interface 434 achieves a circular rolling contact seal with concave mating surface 454 of either tunable valve seat 450 or tunable valve seat 450′. That is, the structures for achieving a circular rolling contact seal with peripheral valve seat interface 434 are identical in tunable valve seats 450 and 450′.

[0247] Further considering the first plurality of tunable vibration dampers in greater detail, a second damper (i.e., a central vibration damper) is schematically illustrated in valve body 410 (see FIG. 12). The second damper comprises surge chamber 460 and receiving area 464 in fluid communication with central circular tubular area 462 via longitudinally-opposing fluid flow restrictors 466/468. In the presence of central fluid tuning medium 442, central circular tubular area 462 and longitudinally-opposing fluid flow restrictors 466/468 are responsive to cyclical longitudinal compression of the assembly, resulting in cyclically reversible reductions of the internal volumes of central circular tubular area 462 and receiving area 464. Such reversible volume reductions in central circular tubular area 462 and receiving area 464 prompt flow of central fluid tuning medium 442 through the longitudinally-opposing fluid flow restrictors 466/468 to surge chamber 460 in association with valve closure shock and/or vibration. Such flow of central fluid tuning medium 442 reverses with each cycle of longitudinal compression.

[0248] Thus, each of the radially-spaced (i.e., peripheral and central) vibration dampers of the first plurality of tunable vibration dampers comprises a circular tubular area (e.g., peripheral circular tubular area 472/474 and central circular tubular area 462 respectively), and at least one such vibration damper is tunable to a predetermined frequency (e.g., a resonant frequency of a fluid end in which the assembly is installed). The tuning mechanisms may differ: e.g., via central fluid tuning medium 442 in central circular tubular area 462 and/or via peripheral fluid tuning medium 482/484 (shown combined as an instantaneous shape of peripheral fluid tuning medium 480) within peripheral circular tubular area 472/474. Note that central fluid tuning medium 442 is shown schematically being added in FIG. 12 via a sealable port 422 (see FIG. 13) through guide 412 in valve body 410. Control of variable fluid flow resistance and/or fluid stiffness (e.g., in the case of fluid tuning media comprising one or more shear-thickening fluids) facilitates predetermination of resonant frequency or frequencies in the central and peripheral vibration dampers.

[0249] Note also that central fluid tuning medium 442 might also or alternatively be added via sealable port 420 in (distal) base plate 416. And further note that proximal valve body portion 414 in FIG. 13 is separately identified to call attention to the possibility of fabricating base plate 416 and proximal valve body portion 414 separately and then welding them together to form valve body 410. The terms proximal and distal in this paragraph assume a suction valve configuration; in a discharge valve configuration the positions of the terms would be reversed.

[0250] In either case, tuning is a function of responsiveness of the respective vibration dampers to vibration generated by valve closure impact (see above discussion of the vibration spectrum of an impulse). For example, longitudinal force on the closed (suction) valve will tend to reduce the distance between longitudinally-opposing fluid flow restrictors 466/468, simultaneously prompting flow of central fluid tuning medium 442 from central circular tubular area 462 into receiving area 464 and, with sufficient longitudinal force, into surge chamber 460. When central fluid tuning medium 442 comprises one or more shear-thickening materials, vibration damping will be a nonlinear function of (the longitudinal-force-dependent) fluid flow resistance associated with longitudinally-opposing fluid flow restrictors 466/468.

[0251] Note that the viscosity of the central fluid tuning medium 442 may vary with time when shear-thickening material(s) are present in the central fluid tuning medium 442, thereby introducing nonlinearity for predictably altering the center frequency and/or the Q of the central vibration damper. Analogous predetermined viscosity variation associated with changes of instantaneous shape of peripheral fluid tuning medium 480 is available for predictably altering the center frequency and/or the Q (i.e., altering the tuning) of the peripheral seal vibration damper 470/472/474/480 as the resilient peripheral seal 470 distorts under the cyclical longitudinal compressive load of valve closure.

[0252] Note also that the peripheral seal vibration damper 470/472/474/480 comprises a medial flange 479 sized to fit within flange channel 419 of valve body 410. See detail breakout view A of FIG. 13 showing flange channel 419 and a peripheral valve seat interface 434 for sealing against concave mating surface 454 (see FIG. 14A). See also detail breakout view B of FIG. 13 showing medial flange 479 of resilient peripheral seal 470, medial flange 479 partially surrounding medial portion 474 of peripheral circular tubular area 472/474 within resilient peripheral seal 470. Those skilled in the art know that conventional peripheral valve body seals (analogous-in-part to resilient peripheral seal 470) tend to rotate within their retaining groove as a conventional valve body mates with a conventional valve seat. Considered as a whole, the peripheral seal vibration damper illustrated herein that comprises peripheral seal vibration damper 470/472/474/480 shows that such rotation will be resisted by the combined action of medial flange 479 within flange channel 419, together with rotation resistance inherent in the wedge-shape (seen in longitudinal cross-section as in FIG. 13) of peripheral circular tubular area 472/474 with its peripheral fluid tuning medium 480.

[0253] Facilitating such combined action, the medial portion 474 of peripheral circular tubular area 472/474 (portion 474 being partially surrounded by flange channel 419) will tend to stiffen medial flange 479 in a nonlinear manner. The stiffening of medial flange 479 is due in part to the presence of shear-thickening material in peripheral fluid tuning medium 480 (and particularly the medial fluid tuning medium portion 484 thereof) in peripheral circular tubular area 472/474. Thus, a schematically illustrated example (see FIG. 13) of peripheral circular tubular area 472/474 is shown as containing peripheral fluid tuning medium 480 (peripheral fluid tuning medium portions 482/484 being shown as having the instantaneous shape schematically illustrated in FIGS. 13 and 14B).

[0254] Combined action resisting rotation of peripheral seal vibration damper 470/472/474/480 is also facilitated by the wedge-shape (as shown schematically in longitudinal cross-section in FIG. 13) of the instantaneous representation of peripheral fluid tuning medium 480 within peripheral circular tubular area 472/474. The wedge-shape has a relatively thicker portion adjacent to lateral boundary 481 and a relatively thinner portion adjacent to medial boundary 483. As shown in FIG. 13, the wedge-shape of the instantaneous representation of peripheral fluid tuning medium 480 tapers monotonically in thickness from the relatively thicker portion adjacent to lateral boundary 481 to the relatively thinner portion adjacent to medial boundary 483.

[0255] Rotation of a peripheral seal vibration damper 470/472/474/480 as a whole would then necessarily require rotation of the instantaneous shape of peripheral fluid tuning medium 480, with the thicker lateral portion translating proximally and medially (relative to more central portions of the valve body and seal assembly) during closure of a suction valve and compression of resilient peripheral seal 470. Relative proximal translation of the more peripheral portion of resilient peripheral seal 470 occurs during valve closure for two reasons. The first reason (1) is: because the seal strikes the tunable valve seat first, causing the more peripheral seal portion to be distorted by the tunable valve seat contact, the peripheral seal portion being relatively free to move in relation to more central portions of the valve body and seal assembly due to the resilient character of the seal itself. The second reason (2) is: because of the elastic valve body concave flexure, with slight circular rotation, that accompanies valve closure (as described herein).

[0256] Note that slight circular rotation includes slight translation proximally and medially of the thicker lateral portion of the peripheral fluid tuning medium 480. And medially directed force exerted on the peripheral seal by the tunable valve seat adds to the tendency of the thicker portion of the wedge-shaped peripheral fluid tuning medium 480 to rotate medially. But this medial movement would require compression of the relatively thicker lateral portion of instantaneous shape of peripheral fluid tuning medium 480. Such thicker-portion compression of the peripheral fluid tuning medium 480 would be resisted nonlinearly, and relatively strongly, with consequent energy dissipation as heat in the shear-thickening material(s) within the fluid tuning medium. Thus, rotation resistance in peripheral seal vibration damper 470/472/474/480 as a whole contributes to dissipation of closing impulse energy. And such energy dissipation, in turn, contributes to vibration damping.

[0257] Further vibration damping in the illustrated alternate tunable check valve embodiment takes place in the second plurality of tunable vibration dampers. To support description of the damping in greater detail, alternate tunable check valve assembly embodiment 442/410/470/480 is shown in FIG. 14B combined with tunable valve seat lateral support assembly 4507724/722/720/718/716/714/712/710. The combination is analogous-in-part to that schematically illustrated in FIG. 11. Formation of a circular rolling contact seal between the tunable valve seat's concave mating surface 454 and the correspondingly greater curvature of peripheral valve seat interface 434 is described above. The lateral support assembly comprises first and second adjustable end spacers (710 and 724 respectively) in combination with a plurality of tunable circular viscoelastic support elements (714, 718 and 722). Each support element comprises a support circular tubular area (712, 716 and 720 respectively). At least one such tubular area being substantially filled with at least one shear-thickening material analogous to material 80 (see, e.g., FIG. 5). Each shear-thickening material is chosen to achieve at least one predetermined assembly resonant damping frequency.

[0258] FIGS. 15 and 16 illustrate partial schematic 3-dimensional views of a tunable hydraulic stimulator embodiment 599, FIG. 16 being an exploded view. Numerical labels may appear in only one view. A hollow cylindrical housing 590 has a longitudinal axis, a first end 594, and a second end 592. First end 594 is closed by fluid interface 520 for transmitting and receiving vibration. Fluid interface 520 comprises at least one accelerometer 518 for producing an accelerometer electrical signal (i.e., an accelerometer-generated feedback signal) representing vibration transmitted and received via fluid interface 520.

[0259] Driver element 560 (comprising a field emission structure which itself comprises electromagnet/controller 564/562) reversibly seals second end 592, and hammer (or movable mass) element 540 is longitudinally movable within housing 590 between driver element 560 and fluid interface 520. In some embodiments, hammer element 540 may itself be a field emission structure consisting of a permanent magnet (or consisting of a plurality of permanent magnets). Polarity of any such permanent magnets is not specified because it would be assigned in light of the electromagnet/controller 564/562. Alternatively, hammer element 540 may be analogous in part to the armature of a linear electric motor, as in a railgun. (See, e.g., the '205 and '877 patents noted above). Note that the above accelerometer-generated feedback electrical signal may be augmented by, or replaced by, sensorless control means (e.g., controlling operating parameters of electromagnet 564 such as magnetic field strength and polarity) in free piston embodiments of the tunable hydraulic stimulator. (See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,883,333 B2, incorporated by reference).

[0260] Thus, hammer element 540 is responsive to the magnetic field emitted by driver element 560 for striking, and rebounding from, fluid interface 520. The duration of each such striking and rebounding cycle (termed herein the “rebound cycle time”) has the dimension of seconds. And the inverse of this duration has the dimension of frequency. Hence, the term herein “characteristic rebound frequency” is the inverse of a rebound cycle time, and the rebound cycle time itself is inversely proportional to the bandwidth of transmitted vibration spectra resulting from each hammer strike and rebound from fluid interface 520.

[0261] Fluid interface 520 transmits vibration spectra generated by hammer impacts on fluid interface 520 as well as receiving backscatter vibration from geologic formations excited by stimulator 599. Fluid interface 520 comprises, for example, a MEMS accelerometer 518 for producing an accelerometer signal representing vibration transmitted and received by fluid interface 520. (See MicroElectro-Mechanical Systems in Harris, pp. 10-26, 10-27).

[0262] Hammer element 540 comprises a striking face 542 (see FIG. 16) which has a predetermined modulus of elasticity (e.g., that of mild steel, about 29,000,000 psi) which can interact with the modulus of elasticity of fluid interface 520 (again, e.g., that of mild steel). In an illustrative example, interaction of the two suggested moduli of elasticity predetermines a relatively short rebound cycle time for hammer element 540, which is associated with a corresponding relatively broad-spectrum of vibration to be transmitted by fluid interface 520. In other words, striking face 542 strikes fluid interface 520 and rebounds to produce a relatively short-duration, high-amplitude mechanical shock. (See, e.g., Harris p. 10.31).

[0263] Both FIGS. 15 and 16 schematically illustrate a tunable resilient circumferential seal 580 for sealing housing 590 within a wellbore, thus partially isolating vibration transmitted by fluid interface 520 within the wellbore. Seal 580 comprises at least one circular tubular area 582 which may contain at least one shear-thickening fluid 80 (see FIG. 5) which is useful in part for tuning purposes. And fluid 80 may comprise nanoparticles 82 for, e.g., facilitating heat scavenging.

[0264] FIG. 16 also schematically illustrates a first electrical cable 516 for carrying accelerometer electrical signals (schematically representing vibration data transmitted by and/or received by fluid interface 520) from accelerometer 518 to driver element 560. A second electrical cable 514 also connects to driver element 560 of each tunable hydraulic stimulator to schematically represent interconnection of two or more such stimulators (to form a tunable hydraulic stimulator array) and/or for connecting one or more down-hole tunable hydraulic stimulators to related equipment (e.g., a programmable controller as shown in FIG. 17) proximal in a wellbore and/or adjacent to the wellhead. Accelerometer electrical signals provide feedback on transmitted vibration and also on received backscatter vibration to driver element 560.

[0265] While accelerometer-mediated feedback may be desired for tailoring stimulation to specific geologic formations and/or to progress in producing desired degrees for fracture within a geologic formation, predetermined stimulation protocols may be used instead to simplify operations and/or lower costs.

[0266] In certain embodiments, frac diagnostic software and data to implement sensorless control via operating parameters (e.g., magnetic field strength and polarity) of electromagnet 564, or to implement feedback control incorporating accelerometer 518, are conveniently stored and executed in a microprocessor (located, e.g., in controller 562). (See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 8,386,040 B2, incorporated by reference). See FIGS. 5 and 6 of the '040 patent reference, for example, with their accompanying specification.

[0267] Note, however, that while certain of the electrodynamic control characteristics of a tunable hydraulic stimulator may be represented in earlier devices, the tunable hydraulic stimulator's reliance on mechanical shock (e.g., generated by hammer strike and rebound) to generate tuned vibration (i.e., vibration characterized by approximately predetermined magnitude and/or frequency and/or PSD) imposes unique requirements indicated by the dynamic responsiveness of certain mechanical structures (e.g., hammers and fluid interfaces) to electromagnetic effects of field-emitting components (e.g., electromagnets and electret materials) as described herein. Variability of stimulation vibration is further responsive to one or more programmable controllers via, e.g., the power/data cable 514, and/or an analogous communication medium or control link (see FIGS. 16 and 17). Such responsiveness may extend to other hydraulic stimulators and/or to wellhead or other auxiliary equipment (see, e.g., FIG. 17) that may 1) power the hydraulic stimulator, 2) receive and transmit stimulation-related data, 3) coordinate stimulator operation (e.g. vibration phase, frequency, amplitude and/or PSD) with related equipment, and/or 4) modify driver-related frac diagnostic software programs affecting tunable hydraulic stimulator operations.

[0268] Note also that in addition to individual applications of a tunable hydraulic stimulator, two or more such stimulators may operate in a combined tunable hydraulic stimulator array during a given stage of fracking (e.g., in a temporarily isolated section or stage of horizontal wellbore). Section isolation in a wellbore may be accomplished with swell packers, which may function interchangeably in part as the tunable resilient circumferential seals described herein. A single tunable hydraulic stimulator or an interconnected tunable hydraulic stimulator array may be programmed in near-real time to alter stimulation parameters in response to changing conditions in geologic materials adjacent to a wellbore. A record of such changes, together with results, guides future changes to increase stimulation efficiency.

[0269] In summary, the responsiveness of certain elements of a tunable hydraulic stimulator to other elements and/or to parameter relationships facilitates operational advantages in various alternative stimulator embodiments. Examples involving such responsiveness and/or parameter relationships include, but are not limited to: 1) driver element 560 comprises a field emission structure comprising an electromagnet/controller 564/562 having cyclical magnetic polarity reversal characterized by a variable polarity reversal frequency; 2) longitudinal movement of hammer (or movable mass) element 540 is responsive to the driver cyclical magnetic polarity reversal; 3) longitudinal movement of hammer element 540 striking, and rebounding from, fluid interface 520 may be substantially in phase with the polarity reversal frequency to generate vibration transmitted by fluid interface 520; 4) the driver element polarity reversal frequency may be responsive to accelerometer 518's electrical signal (and thus responsive to vibration sensed by accelerometer 518; 5) longitudinal movement of hammer element 540 may be substantially in phase with the polarity reversal frequency; 6) longitudinal movement of hammer element 540 striking, and rebounding from, fluid interface 520 has a characteristic rebound frequency which is the inverse of the rebound cycle time; 7) the hammer may rebound in phase with polarity reversal and; 8) the rebound cycle time is a function of i) the cyclical magnetic polarity of driver element 560 and/or; ii) the moduli of elasticity of hammer element 540 and fluid interface 520.

[0270] FIG. 17 schematically illustrates a 2-dimensional view of major components and interconnections of a tunable down-hole stimulation system 699, together with brief explanatory labels and comments on component functions. As aids to orientation, a schematic wellbore is shown, including surface pipe connections with pumps. Hydraulic pathways are illustrated for transmitting broad-spectrum vibration to, and receiving band-limited backscatter vibration from, down-hole geologic material adjacent to the wellbore. The hydraulic pathways are shown passing to and from geologic material via, e.g., a preformed casing slot or an explosively-formed casing perforation.

[0271] The tunable down-hole stimulation system 699 schematically illustrated in FIG. 17 is relatively sophisticated, employing several structures, functions and interactions that may appear in different invention embodiments (but that need not appear in all invention embodiments) and are described in greater detail below. To improve clarity, certain structures and functions inherent in the system of FIG. 17 are schematically represented in FIGS. 15-16. For example, references to specific elements (e.g., hammer element 540 or fluid interface 520) should be understood with reference to FIGS. 15-16. Further, the illustration of tunable down-hole stimulator 648 in FIG. 17 should be understood as including a tunable hydraulic vibration generator (labeled as such) which is analogous to the illustrated tunable hydraulic stimulator 599 in FIGS. 15-16. So while a portion of tunable down-hole stimulator 648 should be understood as schematically analogous to tunable hydraulic stimulator 599, it should also be recognized that stimulator 648 represents a different (expanded in part) subset of structures and functions not represented in stimulator 599.

[0272] A first example of a tunable down-hole stimulation system is one of the embodiments schematically illustrated in portions of FIGS. 15-17. The embodiment comprises at least one frac pump 688 for creating down-hole hydraulic pressure, together with at least one tunable down-hole stimulator 648. Each stimulator 648 comprises a tunable hydraulic vibration generator (labeled in FIG. 17) for transmitting vibration hydraulically, as well as a programmable controller 650 for creating a plurality of control signals and transmitting at least one control signal to each said frac pump 688 and each said tunable down-hole stimulator 648. Additionally, each tunable down-hole stimulator 648 comprises at least one accelerometer 518 for sensing vibration and for transmitting an electrical signal derived therefrom. And the programmable controller 650 is responsive to accelerometer 518 via the electrical signal derived therefrom.

[0273] A second example of a tunable down-hole stimulation system is one of the embodiments schematically illustrated in portions of FIGS. 15-17. The embodiment comprises at least one frac pump 688 for creating down-hole hydraulic pressure, together with at least one proppant pump 618 connected in parallel with at least one frac pump 688 for adding exogenous proppant. The system further comprises at least one tunable down-hole stimulator 648, each stimulator 648 comprising a tunable hydraulic vibration generator (labeled in FIG. 17) having a characteristic rebound frequency. A programmable controller 650 is included for creating a plurality of control signals and transmitting at least one control signal to each frac pump 688, each proppant pump 618, and each tunable down-hole stimulator 648. Each tunable down-hole stimulator 648 comprises at least one accelerometer 518 for detecting vibration and for transmitting an electrical signal derived therefrom, and each accelerometer 518 is responsive to the characteristic rebound frequency. Finally, the programmable controller 650 is responsive to accelerometer 518 via the electrical signal.

[0274] A third example of a tunable down-hole stimulation system is one of the embodiments schematically illustrated in portions of FIGS. 15-17. The embodiment comprises a wellbore comprising a vertical wellbore, a kickoff point, a heel, and a toe (all portions labeled in FIG. 17). At least one frac pump 688 creates down-hole hydraulic pressure in the wellbore, and at least one tunable down-hole stimulator 648 is located within the wellbore (and between the heel and toe as labeled in FIG. 17). Each stimulator comprises a tunable hydraulic vibration generator (labeled in FIG. 17), and a programmable controller 650 creates a plurality of control signals and transmits at least one control signal to each frac pump 688 and each tunable down-hole stimulator 648. Each tunable down-hole stimulator 648 comprises at least one accelerometer 518 for sensing vibration and for transmitting an electrical signal derived therefrom, and the programmable controller 650 is responsive to accelerometer 518 via the electrical signal.

[0275] An alternative embodiment included in the tunable down-hole stimulation system 699 of FIG. 17, for example, comprises at least one frac pump 688 for creating down-hole hydraulic pressure. System 699 further comprises at least one down-hole tunable hydraulic stimulator 648 for generation and transmission of broad-spectrum vibration, and for detection of backscatter vibration, stimulator 648 being hydraulically pressurized by frac pump 688. A programmable controller 650 is linked to at least one frac pump 688 and at least one tunable hydraulic stimulator 648 for controlling down-hole hydraulic pressure and vibration generation as functions of backscatter vibration sensed by one or more detectors on at least one tunable hydraulic stimulator 648. Each tunable hydraulic stimulator 648 comprises a movable mass or hammer element 540 (see FIGS. 15-16) which is movable via a field emission structure in the form of an electromagnet/controller 562/564 to strike, and rebound from, a fluid interface 520 (see FIGS. 15-16) for generating broad-spectrum vibration (see FIG. 17). At least one tunable hydraulic stimulator 648 detects the backscatter vibration via an accelerometer 518 coupled to fluid interface 520 (see FIGS. 15-16). An electric signal derived from accelerometer 518 is carried via link 516, link 514 and at least one additional link 654 (labeled in FIG. 17) to programmable controller 650. The broad-spectrum vibration indicated in FIG. 17 is characterized by a vibration spectrum having a predetermined power spectral density, and programmable controller 650 (see FIG. 17) alters the predetermined power spectral density during the course of stimulation as a function of the backscatter vibration.

[0276] The alternative embodiment of the tunable stimulation system 699 described above may be further described as follows: tunable down-hole hydraulic stimulator 648 comprises a hollow cylindrical housing 590 having a longitudinal axis, a first end 594, and a second end 592, first end 594 being closed by fluid interface 520 for transmitting and receiving vibration, and fluid interface 520 comprising at least one accelerometer 518 for producing an accelerometer signal representing vibration transmitted and received by fluid interface 520. A driver element 560 reversibly seals second end 592, and driver element 560 comprises a field emission structure comprising an electromagnet/controller 562/564 having cyclical magnetic polarity reversal characterized by a variable polarity reversal frequency.

[0277] The alternative embodiment of the tunable stimulation system 699 may additionally comprise at least one temperature sensor (labeled in FIG. 17). Down-hole hydraulic pressure may be sensed (as labeled in FIG. 17) and transmitted as a pressure signal derived therefrom. Programmable controller 650 (through change in one or more of the control signals it produces) is responsive to the pressure signal when present. Pressure may analogously be controlled as a function-in-part of both temperature and backscatter vibration sensed at tunable down-hole stimulator 648. And predetermined power spectral density may similarly be altered as a function-in-part of both temperature and backscatter vibration sensed at tunable down-hole stimulator 648.

[0278] In the above embodiments, a field emission structure may be responsive to at least one control signal. Such responsiveness to at least one control signal is achieved, e.g., by emitting one or more electric and/or magnetic fields which are functions of at least one control signal as sensed by the field emission structure through change in one or more field emission structure electrical parameters. Thus, a tunable hydraulic vibration generator may have a predetermined PSD which is dependent-in-part on one or more field emission structures that are themselves responsive to at least one control signal.

[0279] FIG. 18 schematically illustrates an embodiment 698 of a tunable down-hole stimulation array that differs from embodiment 699 of a tunable down-hole stimulation system in FIG. 17. A portion of the 2-dimensional stimulation system view of FIG. 17 is reproduced in FIG. 18, but differences between FIGS. 17 and 18 include replacement of a single tunable down-hole stimulator (in FIG. 17) with linear array 648 comprising three analogous tunable down-hole stimulators (638′, 638″ and 638′″) in FIG. 18. Descriptions of functional features of stimulators in FIG. 18 resemble (in-part) analogous descriptions of the stimulator in FIG. 17. Further, descriptions of structural features of stimulators in FIGS. 17 and 18 resemble (in-part) analogous descriptions associated with FIGS. 15 and 16. Thus, detailed labeling and/or annotating of stimulators in FIG. 18 is minimized to improve readability.

[0280] Timed activation of three down-hole stimulators in linear array 648 as schematically illustrated in FIG. 18 may behave in-part in a manner analogous to that of a phased array antenna. For example, discrete time delays among sequential activation times for vibration bursts from each stimulator in array 648 are controlled via activation signals from a programmable controller so as to exert control over the propagation direction of the stimulator array's combined vibration wave front (i.e., control over a directionally propagated array vibration wave front).

[0281] Vibration from each stimulator array stimulator will additionally reflect differences in the rebound cycle times among stimulators in the array. For example, one or more array stimulators may incorporate adjustable rebound cycle times reflecting predetermined changes in electrical parameters (e.g., magnetic field polarity, magnetic field strength, and/or the phase relationship of stimulator driver polarity reversal to hammer strike) affecting the rebound of the longitudinally movable element (e.g., hammer) of each stimulator. Vibration variability due to differences in adjustable rebound cycle times (e.g., non-uniform rebound cycle times) may result in vibration interference among stimulators in a spatial array. Both constructive interference (i.e., increase in amplitude) at one or more frequencies and destructive interference (i.e., decrease in amplitude) at other frequencies are likely, providing higher stimulation vibration energy levels at a plurality of discrete frequencies spaced apart within a vibration burst.