Enhanced parimutuel wagering

[0001] This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/660,400, filed Feb. 24, 2010; which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/640,656, filed Aug. 13, 2003, which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,742,972; which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/365,033, filed Feb. 11, 2003 now U.S. Pat. No. 8,126,794; which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/115,505, filed Apr. 2, 2002; which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/950,498, filed Sep. 10, 2001, which issued as U.S. Patent No. 7,996,296; which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/809,025, filed Mar. 16, 2001, which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,225,153; which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/744,816 initially filed Jan. 31, 2001 and attributed a filing date of Apr. 3, 2001, which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,389,262, and which is the U.S. national stage application under 35 U.S.C. §371 of Patent Cooperation Treaty Application No. PCT/US00/19447, filed Jul. 18, 2000; which claims priority to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 09/448,822, filed Nov. 24, 1999, which issued as U.S. Pat. No. 6,321,212; which claims the benefit, under 35 U.S.C. §119(e), of U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 60/144,890, filed Jul. 21, 1999. Each of the applications referred to in this paragraph is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0002] This document contains material that is subject to copyright protection. The applicant has no objection to the facsimile reproduction of this patent document, as it appears in the U.S. Patent and Trademark Office (PTO) patent file or records or in any publication by the PTO or counterpart foreign or international instrumentalities. The applicant otherwise reserves all copyright rights whatsoever.

[0003] This invention relates to systems and methods for enhanced parimutuel wagering and gaming. More specifically, this invention relates to methods and systems for enabling different types of bets to be offered in the same betting pool, and for determining the premiums and payouts of these different types of bets in the same betting pool, by configuring an equivalent combination of fundamental bets for each type of bet, and performing a demand-based valuation of each of the fundamental bets in the equivalent combination. This invention also relates to methods and systems for enabling and determining values for bets placed in the betting pool with limit odds on the selected outcome of the underlying wagering event. The bets with limit odds are not filled in whole or in part, unless the final odds on the selected outcome of the underlying event are equal to or greater than the limit odds.

[0004] With the rapid increase in usage and popularity of the public Internet, the growth of electronic Internet-based trading of securities has been dramatic. In the first part of 1999, online trading via the Internet was estimated to make up approximately 15% of all stock trades. This volume has been growing at an annual rate of approximately 50%. High growth rates are projected to continue for the next few years, as increasing volumes of Internet users use online trading accounts.

[0005] Online trading firms such as E-Trade Group, Charles Schwab, and Ameritrade have all experienced significant growth in revenues due to increases in online trading activity. These companies currently offer Internet-based stock trading services, which provide greater convenience and lower commission rates for many retail investors, compared to traditional securities brokerage services. Many expect online trading to expand to financial products other than equities, such as bonds, foreign exchange, and financial instrument derivatives.

[0006] Financial products such as stocks, bonds, foreign exchange contracts, exchange traded futures and options, as well as contractual assets or liabilities such as reinsurance contracts or interest-rate swaps, all involve some measure of risk. The risks inherent in such products are a function of many factors, including the uncertainty of events, such as the Federal Reserve's determination to increase the discount rate, a sudden increase in commodity prices, the change in value of an underlying index such as the Dow Jones Industrial Average, or an overall increase in investor risk aversion. In order to better analyze the nature of such risks, financial economists often treat the real-world financial products as if they were combinations of simpler, hypothetical financial products. These hypothetical financial products typically are designed to pay one unit of currency, say one dollar, to the trader or investor if a particular outcome among a set of possible outcomes occurs. Possible outcomes may be said to fall within “states,” which are typically constructed from a distribution of possible outcomes (e.g., the magnitude of the change in the Federal Reserve discount rate) owing to some real-world event (e.g., a decision of the Federal Reserve regarding the discount rate). In such hypothetical financial products, a set of states is typically chosen so that the states are mutually exclusive and the set collectively covers or exhausts all possible outcomes for the event. This arrangement entails that, by design, exactly one state always occurs based on the event outcome.

[0007] These hypothetical financial products (also known as Arrow-Debreu securities, state securities, or pure securities) are designed to isolate and break-down complex risks into distinct sources, namely, the risk that a distinct state will occur. Such hypothetical financial products are useful since the returns from more complicated securities, including real-world financial products, can be modeled as a linear combination of the returns of the hypothetical financial products. See, e.g., R. Merton, Continuous-Time Finance (1990), pp. 441 ff. Thus, such hypothetical financial products are frequently used today to provide the fundamental building blocks for analyzing more complex financial products.

[0008] In recent years, the growth in derivatives trading has also been enormous. According to the Federal Reserve, the annualized growth rate in foreign exchange and interest rate derivatives turnover alone is running at about 20%. Corporations, financial institutions, farmers, and even national governments and agencies are all active in the derivatives markets, typically to better manage asset and liability portfolios, hedge financial market risk, and minimize costs of capital funding. Money managers also frequently use derivatives to hedge and undertake economic exposure where there are inherent risks, such as risks of fluctuation in interest rates, foreign exchange rates, convertibility into other securities or outstanding purchase offers for cash or exchange offers for cash or securities.

[0009] Derivatives are traded on exchanges, such as the option and futures contracts traded on the Chicago Board of Trade (“CBOT”), as well as off-exchange or over-the-counter (“OTC”) between two or more derivative counterparties. On the major exchanges that operate trading activity in derivatives, orders are typically either transmitted electronically or via open outcry in pits to member brokers who then execute the orders. These member brokers then usually balance or hedge their own portfolio of derivatives to suit their own risk and return criteria. Hedging is customarily accomplished by trading in the derivatives' underlying securities or contracts (e.g., a futures contract in the case of an option on that future) or in similar derivatives (e.g., futures expiring in different calendar months). For OTC derivatives, brokers or dealers customarily seek to balance their active portfolios of derivatives in accordance with the trader's risk management guidelines and profitability criteria.

[0010] Broadly speaking then, there are two widely utilized means by which derivatives are currently traded: (1) order-matching and (2) principal market making. Order matching is a model followed by exchanges such as the CBOT or the Chicago Mercantile Exchange and some newer online exchanges. In order matching, the exchange coordinates the activities of buyers and sellers so that “bids” to buy (i.e., demand) can be paired off with “offers” to sell (i.e., supply). Orders may be matched both electronically and through the primary market making activities of the exchange members. Typically, the exchange itself takes no market risk and covers its own cost of operation by selling memberships to brokers. Member brokers may take principal positions, which are often hedged across their portfolios.

[0011] In principal market making, a bank or brokerage firm, for example, establishes a derivatives trading operation, capitalizes it, and makes a market by maintaining a portfolio of derivatives and underlying positions. The market maker usually hedges the portfolio on a dynamic basis by continually changing the composition of the portfolio as market conditions change. In general, the market maker strives to cover its cost of operation by collecting a bid-offer spread and through the scale economies obtained by simultaneously hedging a portfolio of positions. As the market maker takes significant market risk, its counterparties are exposed to the risk that it may go bankrupt. Additionally, while in theory the principal market making activity could be done over a wide area network, in practice derivatives trading is today usually accomplished via the telephone. Often, trades are processed laboriously, with many manual steps required from the front office transaction to the back office processing and clearing.

[0012] In theory—that is, ignoring very real transaction costs (described below)—derivatives trading is, in the language of game theory, a “zero sum” game. One counterparty's gain on a transaction should be exactly offset by the corresponding counterparty's loss, assuming there are no transaction costs. In fact, it is the zero sum nature of the derivatives market which first allowed the well-known Black-Scholes pricing model to be formulated by noting that a derivative such as an option could be paired with an exactly offsetting position in the underlying security so as to eliminate market risk over short periods of time. It is this “no arbitrage” feature that allows market participants using sophisticated valuation models to mitigate market risk by continually adjusting their portfolios. Stock markets, by contrast, do not have this zero sum feature, as the total stock or value of the market fluctuates due to factors such as interest rates and expected corporate earnings, which are “external” to the market in the sense that they cannot readily be hedged.

[0013] The return to a trader of a traditional derivative product is, in most cases, largely determined by the value of the underlying security, asset, liability or claim on which the derivative is based. For example, the value of a call option on a stock, which gives the holder the right to buy the stock at some future date at a fixed strike price, varies directly with the price of the underlying stock. In the case of non-financial derivatives such as reinsurance contracts, the value of the reinsurance contract is affected by the loss experience on the underlying portfolio of insured claims. The prices of traditional derivative products are usually determined by supply and demand for the derivative based on the value of the underlying security (which is itself usually determined by supply and demand, or, as in the case of insurance, by events insured by the insurance or reinsurance contract).

[0014] At present, market-makers can offer derivatives products to their customers in markets where:

• • [0015] Sufficient natural supply and demand exist
  • [0016] Risks are measurable and manageable
  • [0017] Sufficient capital has been allocated
    A failure to satisfy one or more of these conditions in certain capital markets may inhibit new product development, resulting in unsatisfied customer demand.

[0018] Currently, the costs of trading derivative securities (both on and off the exchanges) and transferring insurance risk are considered to be high for a number of reasons, including:

• [0019] (1) Credit Risk: A counterparty to a derivatives (or insurance contract) transaction typically assumes the risk that its counterparty will go bankrupt during the life of the derivatives (or insurance) contract. Margin requirements, credit monitoring, and other contractual devices, which may be costly, are customarily employed to manage derivatives and insurance counterparty credit risk.
• [0020] (2) Regulatory Requirements: Regulatory bodies, such as the Federal Reserve, Comptroller of the Currency, the Commodities Futures Trading Commission, and international bodies that promulgate regulations affecting global money center banks (e.g., Basle Committee guidelines) generally require institutions dealing in derivatives to meet capital requirements and maintain risk management systems. These requirements are considered by many to increase the cost of capital and barriers to entry for some entrants into the derivatives trading business, and thus to increase the cost of derivatives transactions for both dealers and end users. In the United States, state insurance regulations also impose requirements on the operations of insurers, especially in the property-casualty lines where capital demands may be increased by the requirement that insurers reserve for future losses without regard to interest rate discount factors.
• [0021] (3) Liquidity: Derivatives traders typically hedge their exposures throughout the life of the derivatives contract. Effective hedging usually requires that an active or liquid market exist, throughout the life of the derivative contract, for both the underlying security and the derivative. Frequently, especially in periods of financial market shocks and disequilibria, liquid markets do not exist to support a well-functioning derivatives market.
• [0022] (4) Transaction Costs: Dynamic hedging of derivatives often requires continual transactions in the market over the life of the derivative in order to reduce, eliminate, and manage risk for a derivative or portfolio of derivative securities. This usually means paying bid-offers spreads for each hedging transaction, which can add significantly to the price of the derivative security at inception compared to its theoretical price in absence of the need to pay for such spreads and similar transaction costs.
• [0023] (5) Settlement and Clearing Costs: The costs of executing, electronically booking, clearing, and settling derivatives transactions can be large, sometimes requiring analytical and database software systems and personnel knowledgeable in such transactions. While a goal of many in the securities processing industry is to achieve “straight-through-processing” of derivatives transactions, many derivatives counterparties continue to manage the processing of these transactions using a combination of electronic and manual steps which are not particularly integrated or automated and therefore add to costs.
• [0024] (6) Event Risk: Most traders understand effective hedging of derivatives transactions to require markets to be liquid and to exhibit continuously fluctuating prices without sudden and dramatic “gaps.” During periods of financial crises and disequilibria, it is not uncommon to observe dramatic repricing of underlying securities by 50% or more in a period of hours. The event risk of such crises and disequilibria are therefore customarily factored into derivatives prices by dealers, which increases the cost of derivatives in excess of the theoretical prices indicated by derivatives valuation models. These costs are usually spread across all derivatives users.
• [0025] (7) Model Risk: Derivatives contracts can be quite difficult to value, especially those involving interest rates or features which allow a counterparty to make decisions throughout the life of the derivative (e.g., American options allow a counterparty to realize the value of the derivative at any time during its life). Derivatives dealers will typically add a premium to derivatives prices to insure against the possibility that the valuation models may not adequately reflect market factors or other conditions throughout the life of the contract. In addition, risk management guidelines may require firms to maintain additional capital supporting a derivatives dealing operation where model risk is determined to be a significant factor. Model risk has also been a large factor in well-known cases where complicated securities risk management systems have provided incorrect or incomplete information, such as the Joe Jett/Kidder Peabody losses of 1994.
• [0026] (8) Asymmetric Information: Derivatives dealers and market makers customarily seek to protect themselves from counterparties with superior information. Bid-offer spreads for derivatives therefore usually reflect a built-in insurance premium for the dealer for transactions with counterparties with superior information, which can lead to unprofitable transactions. Traditional insurance markets also incur costs due to asymmetric information. In property-casualty lines, the direct writer of the insurance almost always has superior information regarding the book of risks than does the assuming reinsurer. Much like the market maker in capital markets, the reinsurer typically prices its ° informational disadvantage into the reinsurance premiums.
• [0027] (9) Incomplete Markets: Traditional capital and insurance markets are often viewed as incomplete in the sense that the span of contingent claims is limited, i.e., the markets may not provide opportunities to hedge all of the risks for which hedging opportunities are sought. As a consequence, participants typically either bear risk inefficiently or use less than optimal means to transfer or hedge against risk. For example, the demand by some investors to hedge inflation risk has resulted in the issuance by some governments of inflation-linked bonds which have coupons and principal amounts linked to Consumer Price Index (CPI) levels. This provides a degree of insurance against inflation risk. However, holders of such bonds frequently make assumptions as to the future relationship between real and nominal interest rates. An imperfect correlation between the contingent claim (in this case, inflation-linked bond) and the contingent event (inflation) gives rise to what traders call “basis risk,” which is risk that, in today's markets, cannot be perfectly insured or hedged.

[0028] Currently, transaction costs are also considerable in traditional insurance and reinsurance markets. In recent years, considerable effort has been expended in attempting to securitize insurance risk such as property-casualty catastrophe risk. Traditional insurance and reinsurance markets in many respects resemble principal market-maker securities markets and suffer from many of the same shortcomings and incur similar costs of operation. Typically, risk is physically transferred contractually, credit status of counterparties is monitored, and sophisticated risk management systems are deployed and maintained. Capitalization levels to support insurance portfolios of risky assets and liabilities may be dramatically out of equilibrium at any given time due to price stickiness, informational asymmetries and costs, and regulatory constraints. In short, the insurance and reinsurance markets tend to operate according to the same market mechanisms that have prevailed for decades, despite large market shocks such as the Lloyds crisis in the late 1980's and early 1990's.

[0029] Accordingly, a driving force behind all the contributors to the costs of derivatives and insurance contracts is the necessity or desirability of risk management through dynamic hedging or contingent claim replication in continuous, liquid, and informationally fair markets. Hedging is used by derivatives dealers to reduce their exposure to excessive market risk while making transaction fees to cover their cost of capital and ongoing operations; and effective hedging requires liquidity.

[0030] Recent patents have addressed the problem of financial market liquidity in the context of an electronic order-matching systems (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,845,266). The principal techniques disclosed to enhance liquidity are to increase participation and traded volume in the system and to solicit trader preferences about combinations of price and quantity for a particular trade of a security. There are shortcomings to these techniques, however. First, these techniques implement order-matching and limit order book algorithms, which can be and are effectively employed in traditional “brick and mortar” exchanges. Their electronic implementation, however, primarily serves to save on transportation and telecommunication charges. No fundamental change is contemplated to market structure for which an electronic network may be essential. Second, the disclosed techniques appear to enhance liquidity at the expense of placing large informational burdens on the traders (by soliciting preferences, for example, over an entire price-quantity demand curve) and by introducing uncertainty as to the exact price at which a trade has been transacted or is “filled.” Finally, these electronic order matching systems contemplate a traditional counterparty pairing, which means physical securities are frequently transferred, cleared, and settled after the counterparties are identified and matched. In other words, techniques disclosed in the context of electronic order-matching systems are technical elaborations to the basic problem of how to optimize the process of matching arrays of bids and offers.

[0031] Patents relating to derivatives, such as U.S. Pat. No. 4,903,201, disclose an electronic adaptation of current open-outcry or order matching exchanges for the trading of futures is disclosed. Another recent patent, U.S. Pat. No. 5,806,048, relates to the creation of open-end mutual fund derivative securities to provide enhanced liquidity and improved availability of information affecting pricing. This patent, however, does not contemplate an electronic derivatives exchange which requires the traditional hedging or replicating portfolio approach to synthesizing the financial derivatives. Similarly, U.S. Pat. No. 5,794,207 proposes an electronic means of matching buyers' bids and sellers' offers, without explaining the nature of the economic price equilibria achieved through such a market process.

[0032] The present invention is directed to systems and methods of trading, and financial products, having a goal of reducing transaction costs for market participants who hedge against or otherwise make investments in contingent claims relating to events of economic significance. The claims are contingent in that their payout or return depends on the outcome of an observable event with more than one possible outcome. An example of such a contingent claim is a digital option, such as a digital call option, where the investor receives a payout if the underlying asset, stock or index expires at or above a specified strike price and receives no payout if the underlying asset, stock or other index expires below the strike price. Digital options can also be referred to as, for example, “binary options” and “all or nothing options.” The contingent claims relate to events of economic significance in that an investor or trader in a contingent claim typically is not economically indifferent to the outcome of the event, even if the investor or trader has not invested in or traded a contingent claim relating to the event.

[0033] Intended users of preferred and other embodiments of the present invention are typically institutional investors, such as financial institutions including banks, investment banks, primary insurers and reinsurers, and corporate treasurers, hedge funds and pension funds. Users can also include any individual or entity with a need for risk allocation services. As used in this specification, the terms “user,” “trader” and “investor” are used interchangeably to mean any institution, individual or entity that desires to trade or invest in contingent claims or other financial products described in this specification.

[0034] The contingent claims pertaining to an event have a trading period or an auction period in order to finalize a return for each defined state, each defined state corresponding to an outcome or set of outcomes for the event, and another period for observing the event upon which the contingent claim is based. When the contingent claim is a digital option, the price or investment amount for each digital option is finalized at the end of the trading period, along with the return for each defined state. The entirety of trades or orders placed and accepted with respect to a certain trading period are processed in a demand-based market or auction. The organization or institution, individual or other entity sponsoring, running, maintaining or operating the demand-based market or auction, can be referred to, for example, as an “exchange,” “auction sponsor” and/or “market sponsor.”

[0035] In each market or auction, the returns to the contingent claims adjust during the trading period of the market or auction with changes in the distribution of amounts invested in each of the states. The investment amounts for the contingent claims can either be provided up front or determined during the trading period with changes in the distribution of desired returns and selected outcomes for each claim. The returns payable for each of the states are finalized after the conclusion of each relevant trading period. In a preferred embodiment, the total amount invested, less a transaction fee to an exchange, or a market or auction sponsor, is equal to the total amount of the payouts. In other words, in theory, the returns on all of the contingent claims established during a particular trading period and pertaining to a particular event are essentially zero sum, as are the traditional derivatives markets. In one embodiment, the investment amounts or prices for each contingent claim are finalized after the conclusion of each relevant trading period, along with the returns payable for each of the states. Since the total amount invested, less a transaction fee to an exchange, or a market or auction sponsor, is equal to the total amount of payouts, an optimization solution using an iteration algorithm described below can be used to determine the equilibrium investment amounts or prices for each contingent claim along with establishing the returns on all of the contingent claims, given the desired or requested return for each claim, the selection of outcomes for each claim and the limit (if any) on the investment amount for each claim.

[0036] The process by which returns and investment amounts for each contingent claim are finalized in the present invention is demand-based, and does not in any substantial way depend on supply. By contrast, traditional markets set prices through the interaction of supply and demand by crossing bids to buy and offers to sell (“bid/offer”). The demand-based contingent claim mechanism of the present invention sets returns by financing returns to successful investments with losses from unsuccessful investments. Thus, in a preferred embodiment, the returns to successful investments (as well as the prices or investment amounts for investments in digital options) are determined by the total and relative amounts of all investments placed on each of the defined states for the specified observable event.

[0037] As used in this specification, the term “contingent claim” shall have the meaning customarily ascribed to it in the securities, trading, insurance and economics communities. “Contingent claims” thus include, for example, stocks, bonds and other such securities, derivative securities, insurance contracts and reinsurance agreements, and any other financial products, instruments, contracts, assets, or liabilities whose value depends upon or reflects economic risk due to the occurrence of future, real-world events. These events may be financial-related events, such as changes in interest rates, or non-financial-related events such as changes in weather conditions, demand for electricity, and fluctuations in real estate prices. Contingent claims also include all economic or financial interests, whether already traded or not yet traded, which have or reflect inherent risk or uncertainty due to the occurrence of future real-world events. Examples of contingent claims of economic or financial interest which are not yet traded on traditional markets are financial products having values that vary with the fluctuations in corporate earnings or changes in real estate values and rentals. The term “contingent claim” as used in this specification encompasses both hypothetical financial products of the Arrow-Debreu variety, as well as any risky asset, contract or product which can be expressed as a combination or portfolio of the hypothetical financial products.

[0038] For the purposes of this specification, an “investment” in or “trade” or an “order” of a contingent claim is the act of putting an amount (in the units of value defined by the contingent claim) at risk, with a financial return depending on the outcome of an event of economic significance underlying the group of contingent claims pertaining to that event.

[0039] “Derivative security” (used interchangeably with “derivative”) also has a meaning customarily ascribed to it in the securities, trading, insurance and economics communities. This includes a security or contract whose value depends on such factors as the value of an underlying security, index, asset or liability, or on a feature of such an underlying security, such as interest rates or convertibility into some other security. A derivative security is one example of a contingent claim as defined above. Financial futures on stock indices such as the S&P 500 or options to buy and sell such futures contracts are highly popular exchange-traded financial derivatives. An interest-rate swap, which is an example of an off-exchange derivative, is an agreement between two counterparties to exchange series of cashflows based on underlying factors, such as the London Interbank Offered Rate (LIBOR) quoted daily in London for a large number of foreign currencies. Like the exchange-traded futures and options, off-exchange agreements can fluctuate in value with the underlying factors to which they are linked or derived. Derivatives may also be traded on commodities, insurance events, and other events, such as the weather.

[0040] In this specification, the function for computing and allocating returns to contingent claims is termed the Demand Reallocation Function (DRF). A DRF is demand-based and involves reallocating returns to investments in each state after the outcome of the observable event is known in order to compensate successful investments from losses on unsuccessful investments (after any transaction or exchange fee). Since an adjustable return based on variations in amounts invested is a key aspect of the invention, contingent claims implemented using a DRF will be referred to as demand-based adjustable return (DBAR) contingent claims.

[0041] In accordance with embodiments of the present invention, an Order Price Function (OPF) is a function for computing the investment amounts or prices for contingent claims which are digital options. An OPF, which includes the DRF, is also demand-based and involves determining the prices for each digital option at the end of the trading period, but before the outcome of the observable event is known. The OPF determines the prices as a function of the outcomes selected in each digital option (corresponding to the states selected by a trader for the digital option to be in-the-money), the requested payout for the digital option if the option expires in-the money, and the limit placed on the price (if any) when the order for the option is placed in the market or auction.

[0042] “Demand-based market,” “demand-based auction” may include, for example, a market or auction which is run or executed according to the principles set forth in the embodiments of the present invention. “Demand-based technology” may include, for example, technology used to run or execute orders in a demand-based market or auction in accordance with the principles set forth in the embodiments of the present invention. “Contingent claims” or “DBAR contingent claims” may include, for example, contingent claims that are processed in a demand-based market or auction. “Contingent claims” or “DBAR contingent claims” may include, for example, digital options or DBAR digital options, discussed in this specification. With respect to digital options, demand-based markets may include, for example, DBAR DOEs (DBAR Digital Option Exchanges), or exchanges in which orders for digital options or DBAR digital options are placed and processed. “Contingent claims” or “DBAR contingent claims” may also include, for example, DBAR-enabled products or DBAR-enabled financial products, discussed in this specification.

[0043] Preferred features of a trading system for a group of DBAR contingent claims (i.e., group of claims pertaining to the same event) include the following: (1) an entire distribution of states is open for investment, not just a single price as in the traditional markets; (2) returns are adjustable and determined mathematically based on invested amounts in each of the states available for investment, (3) invested amounts are preferably non-decreasing (as explained below), providing a commitment of offered liquidity to the market over the distribution of states, and in one embodiment of the present invention, adjustable and determined mathematically based on requested returns per order, selection of outcomes for the option to expire in-the-money, and limit amounts (if any), and (4) information is available in real-time across the distribution of states, including, in particular, information on the amounts invested across the distribution of all states (commonly known as a “limit order book”). Other consequences of preferred embodiments of the present invention include (1) elimination of order-matching or crossing of the bid and offer sides of the market; (2) reduction of the need for a market maker to conduct dynamic hedging and risk management; (3) more opportunities for hedging and insuring events of economic significance (i.e., greater market “completeness”); and (4) the ability to offer investments in contingent claims whose profit and loss scenarios are comparable to these for digital options or other derivatives in traditional markets, but can be implemented using the DBAR systems and methods of the present invention, for example without the need for sellers of such options or derivatives as they function in conventional markets.

[0044] Other preferred embodiments of the present invention can accommodate realization of profits and losses by traders at multiple points before all of the criteria for terminating a group of contingent claims are known. This is accomplished by arranging a plurality of trading periods, each having its own set of finalized returns. Profit or loss can be realized or “locked-in” at the end of each trading period, as opposed to waiting for the final outcome of the event on which the relevant contingent claims are based. Such lock-in can be achieved by placing hedging investments in successive trading periods as the returns change, or adjust, from period to period. In this way, profit and loss can be realized on an evolving basis (limited only by the frequency and length of the periods), enabling traders to achieve the same or perhaps higher frequency of trading and hedging than available in traditional markets.

[0045] If desired, an issuer such as a corporation, investment bank, underwriter or other financial intermediary can create a security having returns that are driven in a comparable manner to the DBAR contingent claims of the present invention. For example, a corporation may issue a bond with returns that are linked to insurance risk. The issuer can solicit trading and calculate the returns based on the amounts invested in contingent claims corresponding to each level or state of insurance risks.

[0046] In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, changes in the return for investments in one state will affect the return on investments in another state in the same distribution of states for a group of contingent claims. Thus, traders' returns will depend not only on the actual outcome of a real-world, observable event but also on trading choices from among the distribution of states made by other traders. This aspect of DBAR markets, in which returns for one state are affected by changes in investments in another state in the same distribution, allows for the elimination of order-crossing and dynamic market maker hedging. Price-discovery in preferred embodiments of the present invention can be supported by a one-way market (i.e., demand, not supply) for DBAR contingent claims. By structuring derivatives and insurance trading according to DBAR principles, the high costs of traditional order matching and principal market making market structures can be reduced substantially. Additionally, a market implemented by systems and methods of the present invention is especially amenable to electronic operation over a wide network, such as the Internet.

[0047] In its preferred embodiments, the present invention mitigates derivatives transaction costs found in traditional markets due to dynamic hedging and order matching. A preferred embodiment of the present invention provides a system for trading contingent claims structured under DBAR principles, in which amounts invested in on each state in a group of DBAR contingent claims are reallocated from unsuccessful investments, under defined rules, to successful investments after the deduction of exchange transaction fees. In particular, the operator of such a system or exchange provides the physical plant and electronic infrastructure for trading to be conducted, collects and aggregates investments (or in one embodiment, first collects and aggregates investment information to determine investment amounts per trade or order and then collects and aggregates the investment amounts), calculates the returns that result from such investments, and then allocates to the successful investments returns that are financed by the unsuccessful investments, after deducting a transaction fee for the operation of the system.

[0048] In preferred embodiments, where the successful investments are financed with the losses from unsuccessful investments, returns on all trades are correlated and traders make investments against each other as well as assuming the risk of chance outcomes. All traders for a group of DBAR contingent claims depending on a given event become counterparties to each other, leading to a mutualization of financial interests. Furthermore, in preferred embodiments of the present invention, projected returns prevailing at the time an investment is made may not be the same as the final payouts or returns after the outcome of the relevant event is known.

[0049] Traditional derivatives markets by contrast, operate largely under a house “banking” system. In this system, the market-maker, which typically has the function of matching buyers and sellers, customarily quotes a price at which an investor may buy or sell. If a given investor buys or sells at the price, the investor's ultimate return is based upon this price, i.e., the price at which the investor later sells or buys the original position, along with the original price at which the position was traded, will determine the investor's return. As the market-maker may not be able perfectly to offset buy and sell orders at all times or may desire to maintain a degree of risk in the expectation of returns, it will frequently be subject to varying degrees of market risk (as well as credit risk, in some cases). In a traditional derivatives market, market-makers which match buy and sell orders typically rely upon actuarial advantage, bid-offer spreads, a large capital base, and “coppering” or hedging (risk management) to minimize the chance of bankruptcy due to such market risk exposures.

[0050] Each trader in a house banking system typically has only a single counterparty—the market-maker, exchange, or trading counterparty (in the case, for example, of over-the-counter derivatives). By contrast, because a market in DBAR contingent claims may operate according to principles whereby unsuccessful investments finance the returns on successful investments, the exchange itself is exposed to reduced risk of loss and therefore has reduced need to transact in the market to hedge itself. In preferred embodiments of DBAR contingent claims of the present invention, dynamic hedging or bid-offer crossing by the exchange is generally not required, and the probability of the exchange or market-maker going bankrupt may be reduced essentially to zero. Such a system distributes the risk of bankruptcy away from the exchange or market-maker and among all the traders in the system. The system as a whole provides a great degree of self-hedging and substantial reduction of the risk of market failure for reasons related to market risk. A DBAR contingent claim exchange or market or auction may also be “self-clearing” and require little clearing infrastructure (such as clearing agents, custodians, nostro/vostro bank accounts, and transfer and register agents). A derivatives trading system or exchange or market or auction structured according to DBAR contingent claim principles therefore offers many advantages over current derivatives markets governed by house banking principles.

[0051] The present invention also differs from electronic or parimutuel betting systems disclosed in the prior art (e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,873,782 and 5,749,785). In betting systems or games of chance, in the absence of a wager the bettor is economically indifferent to the outcome (assuming the bettor does not own the casino or the racetrack or breed the racing horses, for example). The difference between games of chance and events of economic significance is well known and understood in financial markets.

[0052] In summary, the present invention provides systems and methods for conducting demand-based trading. A preferred embodiment of a method of the present invention for conducting demand-based trading includes the steps of (a) establishing a plurality of defined states and a plurality of predetermined termination criteria, wherein each of the defined states corresponds to at least one possible outcome of an event of economic significance; (b) accepting investments of value units by a plurality of traders in the defined states; and (c) allocating a payout to each investment. The allocating step is responsive to the total number of value units invested in the defined states, the relative number of value units invested in each of the defined states, and the identification of the defined state that occurred upon fulfillment of all of the termination criteria.

[0053] An additional preferred embodiment of a method for conducting demand-based trading also includes establishing, accepting, and allocating steps. The establishing step in this embodiment includes establishing a plurality of defined states and a plurality of predetermined termination criteria. Each of the defined states corresponds to a possible state of a selected financial product when each of the termination criteria is fulfilled. The accepting step includes accepting investments of value units by multiple traders in the defined states. The allocating step includes allocating a payout to each investment. This allocating step is responsive to the total number of value units invested in the defined states, the relative number of value units invested in each of the defined states, and the identification of the defined state that occurred upon fulfillment of all of the termination criteria.

[0054] In preferred embodiments of a method for conducting demand-based trading of the present invention, the payout to each investment in each of the defined states that did not occur upon fulfillment of all of the termination criteria is zero, and the sum of the payouts to all of the investments is not greater than the value of the total number of the value units invested in the defined states. In a further preferred embodiment, the sum of the values of the payouts to all of the investments is equal to the value of all of the value units invested in defined states, less a fee.

[0055] In preferred embodiments of a method for conducting demand-based trading, at least one investment of value units designates a set of defined states and a desired return-on-investment from the designated set of defined states. In these preferred embodiments, the allocating step is further responsive to the desired return-on-investment from the designated set of defined states.

[0056] In another preferred embodiment of a method for conducting demand-based trading, the method further includes the step of calculating Capital-At-Risk for at least one investment of value units by at least one trader. In alternative further preferred embodiments, the step of calculating Capital-At-Risk includes the use of the Capital-At-Risk Value-At-Risk method, the Capital-At-Risk Monte Carlo Simulation method, or the Capital-At-Risk Historical Simulation method.

[0057] In preferred embodiments of a method for conducting demand-based trading, the method further includes the step of calculating Credit-Capital-At-Risk for at least one investment of value units by at least one trader. In alternative further preferred embodiments, the step of calculating Credit-Capital-At-Risk includes the use of the Credit-Capital-At-Risk Value-At-Risk method, the Credit-Capital-At-Risk Monte Carlo Simulation method, or the Credit-Capital-At-Risk Historical Simulation method.

[0058] In preferred embodiments of a method for conducting demand-based trading of the present invention, at least one investment of value units is a multi-state investment that designates a set of defined states. In a further preferred embodiment, at least one multi-state investment designates a set of desired returns that is responsive to the designated set of defined states, and the allocating step is further responsive to the set of desired returns. In a further preferred embodiment, each desired return of the set of desired returns is responsive to a subset of the designated set of defined states. In an alternative preferred embodiment, the set of desired returns approximately corresponds to expected returns from a set of defined states of a prespecified investment vehicle such as, for example, a particular call option.

[0059] In preferred embodiments of a method for conducting demand-based trading of the present invention, the allocating step includes the steps of (a) calculating the required number of value units of the multi-state investment that designates a set of desired returns, and (b) distributing the value units of the multi-state investment that designates a set of desired returns to the plurality of defined states. In a further preferred embodiment, the allocating step includes the step of solving a set of simultaneous equations that relate traded amounts to unit payouts and payout distributions; and the calculating step and the distributing step are responsive to the solving step.

[0060] In preferred embodiments of a method for conducting demand-based trading of the present invention, the solving step includes the step of fixed point iteration. In further preferred embodiments, the step of fixed point iteration includes the steps of (a) selecting an equation of the set of simultaneous equations described above, the equation having an independent variable and at least one dependent variable; (b) assigning arbitrary values to each of the dependent variables in the selected equation; (c) calculating the value of the independent variable in the selected equation responsive to the currently assigned values of each the dependent variables; (d) assigning the calculated value of the independent variable to the independent variable; (e) designating an equation of the set of simultaneous equations as the selected equation; and (f) sequentially performing the calculating the value step, the assigning the calculated value step, and the designating an equation step until the value of each of the variables converges.

[0061] A preferred embodiment of a method for estimating state probabilities in a demand-based trading method of the present invention includes the steps of: (a) performing a demand-based trading method having a plurality of defined states and a plurality of predetermined termination criteria, wherein an investment of value units by each of a plurality of traders is accepted in at least one of the defined states, and at least one of these defined states corresponds to at least one possible outcome of an event of economic significance; (b) monitoring the relative number of value units invested in each of the defined states; and (c) estimating, responsive to the monitoring step, the probability that a selected defined state will be the defined state that occurs upon fulfillment of all of the termination criteria.

[0062] An additional preferred embodiment of a method for estimating state probabilities in a demand-based trading method also includes performing, monitoring, and estimating steps. The performing step includes performing a demand-based trading method having a plurality of defined states and a plurality of predetermined termination criteria, wherein an investment of value units by each of a plurality of traders is accepted in at least one of the defined states; and wherein each of the defined states corresponds to a possible state of a selected financial product when each of the termination criteria is fulfilled. The monitoring step includes monitoring the relative number of value units invested in each of the defined states. The estimating step includes estimating, responsive to the monitoring step, the probability that a selected defined state will be the defined state that occurs upon fulfillment of all of the termination criteria.

[0063] A preferred embodiment of a method for promoting liquidity in a demand-based trading method of the present invention includes the step of performing a demand-based trading method having a plurality of defined states and a plurality of predetermined termination criteria, wherein an investment of value units by each of a plurality of traders is accepted in at least one of the defined states and wherein any investment of value units cannot be withdrawn after acceptance. Each of the defined states corresponds to at least one possible outcome of an event of economic significance. A further preferred embodiment of a method for promoting liquidity in a demand-based trading method includes the step of hedging. The hedging step includes the hedging of a trader's previous investment of value units by making a new investment of value units in one or more of the defined states not invested in by the previous investment.

[0064] An additional preferred embodiment of a method for promoting liquidity in a demand-based trading method includes the step of performing a demand-based trading method having a plurality of defined states and a plurality of predetermined termination criteria, wherein an investment of value units by each of a plurality of traders is accepted in at least one of the defined states and wherein any investment of value units cannot be withdrawn after acceptance, and each of the defined states corresponds to a possible state of a selected financial product when each of the termination criteria is fulfilled. A further preferred embodiment of such a method for promoting liquidity in a demand-based trading method includes the step of hedging. The hedging step includes the hedging of a trader's previous investment of value units by making a new investment of value units in one or more of the defined states not invested in by the previous investment.

[0065] A preferred embodiment of a method for conducting quasi-continuous demand-based trading includes the steps of: (a) establishing a plurality of defined states and a plurality of predetermined termination criteria, wherein each of the defined states corresponds to at least one possible outcome of an event; (b) conducting a plurality of trading cycles, wherein each trading cycle includes the step of accepting, during a predefined trading period and prior to the fulfillment of all of the termination criteria, an investment of value units by each of a plurality of traders in at least one of the defined states; and (c) allocating a payout to each investment. The allocating step is responsive to the total number of the value units invested in the defined states during each of the trading periods, the relative number of the value units invested in each of the defined states during each of the trading periods, and an identification of the defined state that occurred upon fulfillment of all of the termination criteria. In a further preferred embodiment of a method for conducting quasi-continuous demand-based trading, the predefined trading periods are sequential and do not overlap.

[0066] Another preferred embodiment of a method for conducting demand-based trading includes the steps of: (a) establishing a plurality of defined states and a plurality of predetermined termination criteria, wherein each of the defined states corresponds to one possible outcome of an event of economic significance (or a financial instrument); (b) accepting, prior to fulfillment of all of the termination criteria, an investment of value units by each of a plurality of traders in at least one of the plurality of defined states, with at least one investment designating a range of possible outcomes corresponding to a set of defined states; and (c) allocating a payout to each investment. In such a preferred embodiment, the allocating step is responsive to the total number of value units in the plurality of defined states, the relative number of value units invested in each of the defined states, and an identification of the defined state that occurred upon the fulfillment of all of the termination criteria. Also in such a preferred embodiment, the allocation is done so that substantially the same payout is allocated to each state of the set of defined states. This embodiment contemplates, among other implementations, a market or exchange for contingent claims of the present invention that provides—without traditional sellers—profit and loss scenarios comparable to those expected by traders in derivative securities known as digital options, where payout is the same if the option expires anywhere in the money, and where there is no payout if the option expires out of the money.

[0067] Another preferred embodiment of the present invention provides a method for conducting demand-based trading including: (a) establishing a plurality of defined states and a plurality of predetermined termination criteria, wherein each of the defined states corresponds to one possible outcome of an event of economic significance (or a financial instrument); (b) accepting, prior to fulfillment of all of the termination criteria, a conditional investment order by a trader in at least one of the plurality of defined states; (c) computing, prior to fulfillment of all of the termination criteria a probability corresponding to each defined state; and (d) executing or withdrawing, prior to the fulfillment of all of the termination criteria, the conditional investment responsive to the computing step. In such embodiments, the computing step is responsive to the total number of value units invested in the plurality of defined states and the relative number of value units invested in each of the plurality of defined states. Such embodiments contemplate, among other implementations, a market or exchange (again without traditional sellers) in which investors can make and execute conditional or limit orders, where an order is executed or withdrawn in response to a calculation of a probability of the occurrence of one or more of the defined states. Preferred embodiments of the system of the present invention involve the use of electronic technologies, such as computers, computerized databases and telecommunications systems, to implement methods for conducting demand-based trading of the present invention.

[0068] A preferred embodiment of a system of the present invention for conducting demand-based trading includes (a) means for accepting, prior to the fulfillment of all predetermined termination criteria, investments of value units by a plurality of traders in at least one of a plurality of defined states, wherein each of the defined states corresponds to at least one possible outcome of an event of economic significance; and (b) means for allocating a payout to each investment. This allocation is responsive to the total number of value units invested in the defined states, the relative number of value units invested in each of the defined states, and the identification of the defined state that occurred upon fulfillment of all of the termination criteria.

[0069] An additional preferred embodiment of a system of the present invention for conducting demand-based trading includes (a) means for accepting, prior to the fulfillment of all predetermined termination criteria, investments of value units by a plurality of traders in at least one of a plurality of defined states, wherein each of the defined states corresponds to a possible state of a selected financial product when each of the termination criteria is fulfilled; and (b) means for allocating a payout to each investment. This allocation is responsive to the total number of value units invested in the defined states, the relative number of value units invested in each of the defined states, and the identification of the defined state that occurred upon fulfillment of all of the termination criteria.

[0070] A preferred embodiment of a demand-based trading apparatus of the present invention includes (a) an interface processor communicating with a plurality of traders and a market data system; and (b) a demand-based transaction processor, communicating with the interface processor and having a trade status database. The demand-based transaction processor maintains, responsive to the market data system and to a demand-based transaction with one of the plurality of traders, the trade status database, and processes, responsive to the trade status database, the demand-based transaction.

[0071] In further preferred embodiments of a demand-based trading apparatus of the present invention, maintaining the trade status database includes (a) establishing a contingent claim having a plurality of defined states, a plurality of predetermined termination criteria, and at least one trading period, wherein each of the defined states corresponds to at least one possible outcome of an event of economic significance; (b) recording, responsive to the demand-based transaction, an investment of value units by one of the plurality of traders in at least one of the plurality of defined states; (c) calculating, responsive to the total number of the value units invested in the plurality of defined states during each trading period and responsive to the relative number of the value units invested in each of the plurality of defined states during each trading period, finalized returns at the end of each trading period; and (d) determining, responsive to an identification of the defined state that occurred upon the fulfillment of all of the termination criteria and to the finalized returns, payouts to each of the plurality of traders; and processing the demand-based transaction includes accepting, during the trading period, the investment of value units by one of the plurality of traders in at least one of the plurality of defined states;

[0072] In an alternative further preferred embodiment of a demand-based trading apparatus of the present invention, maintaining the trade status database includes (a) establishing a contingent claim having a plurality of defined states, a plurality of predetermined termination criteria, and at least one trading period, wherein each of the defined states corresponds to a possible state of a selected financial product when each of the termination criteria is fulfilled; (b) recording, responsive to the demand-based transaction, an investment of value units by one of the plurality of traders in at least one of the plurality of defined states; (c) calculating, responsive to the total number of the value units invested in the plurality of defined states during each trading period and responsive to the relative number of the value units invested in each of the plurality of defined states during each trading period, finalized returns at the end of each trading period; and (d) determining, responsive to an identification of the defined state that occurred upon the fulfillment of all of the termination criteria and to the finalized returns, payouts to each of the plurality of traders; and processing the demand-based transaction includes accepting, during the trading period, the investment of value units by one of the plurality of traders in at least one of the plurality of defined states;

[0073] In further preferred embodiments of a demand-based trading apparatus of the present invention, maintaining the trade status database includes calculating return estimates; and processing the demand-based transaction includes providing, responsive to the demand-based transaction, the return estimates.

[0074] In further preferred embodiments of a demand-based trading apparatus of the present invention, maintaining the trade status database includes calculating risk estimates; and processing the demand-based transaction includes providing, responsive to the demand-based transaction, the risk estimates.

[0075] In further preferred embodiments of a demand-based trading apparatus of the present invention, the demand-based transaction includes a multi-state investment that specifies a desired payout distribution and a set of constituent states; and maintaining the trade status database includes allocating, responsive to the multi-state investment, value units to the set of constituent states to create the desired payout distribution. Such demand-based transactions may also include multi-state investments that specify the same payout if any of a designated set of states occurs upon fulfillment of the termination criteria. Other demand-based transactions executed by the demand-based trading apparatus of the present invention include conditional investments in one or more states, where the investment is executed or withdrawn in response to a calculation of a probability of the occurrence of one or more states upon the fulfillment of the termination criteria.

[0076] In an additional embodiment, systems and methods for conducting demand-based trading includes the steps of (a) establishing a plurality of states, each state corresponding to at least one possible outcome of an event of economic significance; (b) receiving an indication of a desired payout and an indication of a selected outcome, the selected outcome corresponding to at least one of the plurality of states; and (c) determining an investment amount as a function of the selected outcome, the desired payout and a total amount invested in the plurality of states.

[0077] In another additional embodiment, systems and methods for conducting demand-based trading includes the steps of (a) establishing a plurality of states, each state corresponding to at least one possible outcome of an event (whether or not such event is an economic event); (b) receiving an indication of a desired payout and an indication of a selected outcome, the selected outcome corresponding to at least one of the plurality of states; and (c) determining an investment amount as a function of the selected outcome, the desired payout and a total amount invested in the plurality of states.

[0078] In another additional embodiment, systems and methods for conducting demand-based trading includes the steps of (a) establishing a plurality of states, each state corresponding to at least one possible outcome of an event of economic significance; (b) receiving an indication of an investment amount and a selected outcome, the selected outcome corresponding to at least one of the plurality of states; and (c) determining a payout as a function of the investment amount, the selected outcome, a total amount invested in the plurality of states, and an identification of at least one state corresponding to an observed outcome of the event.

[0079] In another additional embodiment, systems and methods for conducting demand-based trading include the steps of: (a) receiving an indication of one or more parameters of a financial product or derivatives strategy; and (b) determining one or more of a selected outcome, a desired payout, an investment amount, and a limit on the investment amount for each contingent claim in a set of one or more contingent claims as a function of the one or more financial product or derivatives strategy parameters.

[0080] In another additional embodiment, systems and methods for conducting demand-based trading include the steps of: (a) receiving an indication of one or more parameters of a financial product or derivatives strategy; and (b) determining an investment amount and a selected outcome for each contingent claim in a set of one or more contingent claims as a function of the one or more financial product or derivatives strategy parameters.

[0081] In another additional embodiment, a demand-enabled financial product for trading in a demand-based auction includes a set of one or more contingent claims, the set approximating or replicating a financial product or derivatives strategy, each contingent claim in the set having an investment amount and a selected outcome, each investment amount being dependent upon one or more parameters of a financial product or derivatives strategy and a total amount invested in the auction.

[0082] In another additional embodiment, methods for conducting demand-based trading on at least one event includes the steps of: (a) determining one or more parameters of a contingent claim, in a replication set of one or more contingent claims, as a function of one or more parameters of a derivatives strategy and an outcome of the event; and (b) determining an investment amount for a contingent claim in the replication set as a function of one or more parameters of the derivatives strategy and an outcome of the event.

[0083] In another additional embodiment, methods for conducting demand based trading include the steps of: enabling one or more derivatives strategies and/or financial products to be traded in a demand-based auction; and offering and/or trading one or more of the enabled derivatives strategies and enabled financial products to customers.

[0084] In another additional embodiment, methods for conducting derivatives trading include the steps of: receiving an indication of one or more parameters of a derivatives strategy on one or more events of economic significance; and determining one or more parameters of each digital in a replication set made up of one or more digitals as a function of one or more parameters of the derivatives strategy.

[0085] In another additional embodiment, methods for trading contingent claims in a demand-based auction, includes the step of approximating or replicating a contingent claim with a set of demand-based claims. The set of demand-based claims includes at least one vanilla option, thus defining a vanilla replicating basis.

[0086] In another additional embodiment, methods for trading contingent claims in a demand-based auction on an event, includes the step of: determining a value of a contingent claim as a function of a demand-based valuation of each vanilla option in a replication set for the contingent claim. The replication set includes at least one vanilla option, thus defining another vanilla replicating basis.

[0087] In another additional embodiment, methods for conducting a demand-based auction on an event, includes the steps of: establishing a plurality of strikes for the auction, each strike corresponding to a possible outcome of the event; establishing a plurality of replicating claims for the auction, one or more replicating claims striking at each strike in the plurality of strikes; replicating a contingent claim with a replication set including one or more of the replicating claims; and determining the price and/or payout of the contingent claim as a function of a demand-based valuation of each of the replicating claims in the replication set.

[0088] In another additional embodiment, methods for processing a customer order for one or more derivatives strategies, in a demand-based auction on an event, where the auction includes one or more customer orders are described as including the steps of: establishing strikes for the auction, each one of the strikes corresponding to a possible outcome of the event; establishing replicating claims for the auction, one or more replicating claims striking at each strike in the auction; replicating each derivatives strategy in the customer order with a replication set including one or more of the replicating claims in the auction; and determining a premium for the customer order by engaging in a demand-based valuation of each one of the replicating claims in the replication set for each one of the derivatives strategies in the customer order.

[0089] In another additional embodiment, a method for investing in a demand-based auction on an event, includes the steps of: providing an indication of one or more selected strikes and a payout profile for one or more derivatives strategies, each of the selected strikes corresponding to a selected outcome of the event, and each of the selected strikes being selected from a plurality of strikes established for the auction, each of the strikes corresponding to a possible outcome of the event; receiving an indication of a price for each of the derivatives strategies, the price being determined by engaging in a demand-based valuation of a replication set replicating the derivatives strategy, the replication set including one or more replicating claims from a plurality of replicating claims established for the auction, at least one of each of the replicating claims in the auction striking at one of the strikes.

[0090] In another additional embodiment, a computer system for processing a customer order for one or more derivatives strategy, in a demand-based auction on an event, the auction including one or more customer orders, the computer system including one or more processors that are configured to: establish strikes for the auction, each one of the strikes corresponding to a possible outcome of the event; establish replicating claims for the auction, one or more replicating claims striking at each one of the strikes; and replicate each of the derivatives strategies in the customer order with a replication set including one or more of the replicating claims in the auction; and determine a premium for the customer order by engaging in a demand-based valuation of each one of the replicating claims in the replication set for each one of the derivatives strategies in the customer order.

[0091] In another additional embodiment, a computer system for placing an order to invest in a demand-based auction on an event, the order including one or more derivatives strategies, the computer system including one or more processors configured to: provide an indication of one or more selected strikes and a payout profile for each derivatives strategy, each selected strike corresponding to a selected outcome of the event, and each selected strike being selected from a plurality of strikes established for the auction, each of the strikes corresponding to a possible outcome of the event; receive an indication of a premium for the order, the premium of the order being determined by engaging in a demand-based valuation of a replication set replicating each derivatives strategy in the order, the replication set including one or more replicating claims from a plurality of replicating claims established for the auction, with one or more of the replicating claims in the auction striking at each of the strikes.

[0092] In another additional embodiment, a method for executing a trade includes the steps of: receiving a request for an order, the request indicating one or more selected strikes and a payout profile for one or more derivatives strategies in the order, each selected strike corresponding to a selected outcome of the event, and each selected strike being selected from a plurality of strikes established for the auction, each of the strikes corresponding to a possible outcome of the event; providing an indication of a premium for the order, the premium being determined by engaging in a demand-based valuation of a replication set replicating each derivatives strategy in the order, the replication set including one or more replicating claims from a plurality of replicating claims established for the auction, one or more of each of the replicating claims in the auction striking at each of the strikes; and receiving an indication of a decision to place the order for the determined premium.

[0093] In another additional embodiment, a method for providing financial advice, includes the steps of: providing a person with advice about investing in one or more of a type of derivatives strategy in a demand-based auction, an order for the one or more derivatives strategies indicating one or more selected strikes and a payout profile for the derivatives strategy, each selected strike corresponding to a selected outcome of the event, and each selected strike being selected from a plurality of strikes established for the auction, each of the strikes corresponding to a possible outcome of the event, wherein the premium for the order is determined by engaging in a demand-based valuation of a replication set replicating each of the derivatives strategies in the order, the replication set including at least one replicating claim from a plurality of replicating claims established for the auction, one or more of the replicating claims in the auction striking at one of the strikes.

[0094] In another additional embodiment, a method of hedging, includes the steps of: determining an investment risk in one or more investments; and offsetting the investment risk by taking a position in one or more derivatives strategies in a demand-based auction with an opposing risk, an order for the one or more derivatives strategies indicating one or more selected strikes and a payout profile for the derivatives strategy in the order, each selected strike corresponding to a selected outcome of the event, and each selected strike being selected from a plurality of strikes established for the auction, each of the strikes corresponding to a possible outcome of the event, wherein the premium for the order is determined by engaging in a demand-based valuation of a replication set replicating each of the derivatives strategies in the order, the replication set including at least one replicating claim from a plurality of replicating claims established for the auction, one or more of each of the replicating claims in the auction striking at one of the strikes.

[0095] In another additional embodiment, a method of speculating, includes the steps of: determining an investment risk in at least one investment; and increasing the investment risk by taking a position in one or more derivatives strategies in a demand-based auction with a similar risk, an order for the one or more derivatives strategies. The order specifies one or more selected strikes and a payout profile for the derivatives strategy, and can also specify a requested number of the derivatives strategy. Each selected strike corresponds to a selected outcome of the event, each selected strike is selected from a plurality of strikes established for the auction, and each of the strikes corresponds to a possible outcome of the event. The premium for the order is determined by engaging in a demand-based valuation of a replication set replicating each of the derivatives strategies in the order, the replication set including one or more replicating claims from a plurality of replicating claims established for the auction, one or more of the replicating claims in the auction striking at each one of the strikes.

[0096] In another additional embodiment, a computer program product capable of processing a customer order including one or more derivatives strategies, in a demand-based auction including one or more customer orders, the computer program product including a computer usable medium having computer readable program code embodied in the medium for causing a computer to: establish strikes for the auction, each one of the strikes corresponding to a possible outcome of the event; establish replicating claims for the auction, one or more of the replicating claims striking at one of the strikes; and replicate each derivatives strategy in the customer order with a replication set including at least one of the replicating claims in the auction; and determine a premium for the customer order by engaging in a demand-based valuation of each of the replicating claims in the replication set for each of the derivatives strategies in the customer order.

[0097] In another additional embodiment, an article of manufacture comprising an information storage medium encoded with a computer-readable data structure adapted for use in placing a customer order in a demand-based auction over the Internet, the auction including at least one customer order, said data structure including: at least one data field with information identifying one or more selected strikes and a payout profile for each of the derivatives strategies in the customer order, each selected strike corresponding to a selected outcome of the event, and each selected strike being selected from a plurality of strikes established for the auction, each strike in the auction corresponding to a possible outcome of the event; and one or more data fields with information identifying a premium for the order, the premium being determined as a result of a demand-based valuation of a replication set replicating each of the derivatives strategies in the order, the replication set including at least one replicating claim from a plurality of replicating claims established for the auction, one or more of each of the replicating claims in the auction striking at one of the strikes.

[0098] In another additional embodiment, a derivatives strategy for a demand-based market, includes: a first designation of at least one selected strike for the derivatives strategy, each selected strike being selected from a plurality of strikes established for auction, each strike in the auction corresponding to a possible outcome of the event; a second designation of a payout profile for the derivatives strategy; and a price for the derivatives strategy, the price being determined by engaging in a demand-based valuation of a replication set replicating the first designation and the second designation of the derivatives strategy, the replication set including one or more replicating claims from a plurality of replicating claims established for the auction, one or more of the replicating claims in the auction striking at each strike in the auction.

[0099] In another additional embodiment, an investment vehicle for a demand-based auction, includes: a demand-based derivatives strategy providing investment capital to the auction, an amount of the provided investment capital being dependent upon a demand-based valuation of a replication set replicating the derivatives strategy, the replicating set including one or more of the replicating claims from a plurality of replicating claims established for the auction, one or more of the replicating claims in the auction striking at each one of the strikes in the auction.

[0100] In another additional embodiment, an article of manufacture comprising a propagated signal adapted for use in the performance of a method for trading a customer order including at least one of a derivatives strategy, in a demand-based auction including one or more customer orders, wherein the method includes the steps of: establishing strikes for the auction, each one of the strikes corresponding to a possible outcome of the event; establishing replicating claims for the auction, one or more of the replicating claims striking at one of the strikes; replicating each one of the derivatives strategies in the customer order with a replication set including one or more of the replicating claims in the auction; and determining a premium for the customer order by engaging in a demand-based valuation of each one of the replicating claims in the replication set for the derivatives strategy in the customer order; wherein the propagated signal is encoded with machine-readable information relating to the trade.

[0101] In another additional embodiment, a computer system for conducting demand-based auctions on an event, includes one or more user interface processors, a database unit, an auction processor and a calculation engine. The one or more interface processors are configured to communicate with a plurality of terminals which are adapted to enter demand-based order data for an auction. The database unit is configured to maintain an auction information database. The auction processor is configured to process at least one demand-based auction and to communicate with the user interface processor and the database unit, wherein the auction processor is configured to generate auction transaction data based on auction order data received from the user interface processor and to send the auction transaction data for storing to the database unit, and wherein the auction processor is further configured to establish a plurality of strikes for the auction, each strike corresponding to a possible outcome of the event, to establish a plurality of replicating claims for the auction, at least one replicating claim striking at a strike in the plurality of strikes, to replicate a contingent claim with a replication set including at least one of the plurality of replicating claims, and to send the replication set for storing to the database unit. The calculation engine is configured to determine at least one of an equilibrium price and a payout for the contingent claim as a function of a demand-based valuation of each of the replicating claims in the replication set stored in the database unit.

[0102] An object of the present invention is to provide systems and methods to support and facilitate a market structure for contingent claims related to observable events of economic significance, which includes one or more of the following advantages, in addition to those described above:

• [0103] 1. ready implementation and support using electronic computing and networking technologies;
• [0104] 2. reduction or elimination of the need to match bids to buy with offers to sell in order to create a market for derivatives;
• [0105] 3. reduction or elimination of the need for a derivatives intermediary to match bids and offers;
• [0106] 4. mathematical and consistent calculation of returns based on demand for contingent claims;
• [0107] 5. increased liquidity and liquidity incentives;
• [0108] 6. statistical diversification of credit risk through the mutualization of multiple derivatives counterparties;
• [0109] 7. improved scalability by reducing the traditional linkage between the method of pricing for contingent claims and the quantity of the underlying claims available for investment;
• [0110] 8. increased price transparency;
• [0111] 9. improved efficiency of information aggregation mechanisms;
• [0112] 10. reduction of event risk, such as the risk of discontinuous market events such as crashes;
• [0113] 11. opportunities for binding offers of liquidity to the market;
• [0114] 12. reduced incentives for strategic behavior by traders;
• [0115] 13. increased market for contingent claims;
• [0116] 14. improved price discovery;
• [0117] 15. improved self-consistency;
• [0118] 16. reduced influence by market makers;
• [0119] 17. ability to accommodate virtually unlimited demand;
• [0120] 18. ability to isolate risk exposures;
• [0121] 19. increased trading precision, transaction certainty and flexibility;
• [0122] 20. ability to create valuable new markets with a sustainable competitive advantage;
• [0123] 21. new source of fee revenue without putting capital at risk; and
• [0124] 22. increased capital efficiency.

[0125] A further object of the present invention is to provide systems and methods for the electronic exchange of contingent claims related to observable events of economic significance, which includes one or more of the following advantages:

• [0126] 1. reduced transaction costs, including settlement and clearing costs, associated with derivatives transactions and insurable claims;
• [0127] 2. reduced dependence on complicated valuation models for trading and risk management of derivatives;
• [0128] 3. reduced need for an exchange or market maker to manage market risk by hedging;
• [0129] 4. increased availability to traders of accurate and up-to-date information on the trading of contingent claims, including information regarding the aggregate amounts invested across all states of events of economic significance, and including over varying time periods;
• [0130] 5. reduced exposure of the exchange to credit risk;
• [0131] 6. increased availability of information on credit risk and market risk borne by traders of contingent claims;
• [0132] 7. increased availability of information on marginal returns from trades and investments that can be displayed instantaneously after the returns adjust during a trading period;
• [0133] 8. reduced need for a derivatives intermediary or exchange to match bids and offers;
• [0134] 9. increased ability to customize demand-based adjustable return (DBAR) payouts to permit replication of traditional financial products and their derivatives;
• [0135] 10. comparability of profit and loss scenarios to those expected by traders for purchases and sales of digital options and other derivatives, without conventional sellers;
• [0136] 11. increased data generation; and
• [0137] 12. reduced exposure of the exchange to market risk.

[0138] Other additional embodiments include features for an enhanced parimutuel wagering system and method, which are described in further detail in Chapter 15 below. In one of such other additional embodiment, a method for conducting enhanced parimutuel wagering includes the steps of: enabling at least two types of bets to be offered in the same or common betting pool; and offering at least one of the two types of enabled bets to bettors. The different types of bets (e.g., trifecta bets, finish bet, show bets, as described in further detail in Chapter 15 below) can be processed in the same betting pool, for example, by configuring equivalent combinations of fundamental bets for each type of bet, and performing a demand-based valuation of each of the fundamental bets in the betting pool.

[0139] In another additional embodiment, a method for conducting enhanced parimutuel wagering, includes the steps of: establishing a plurality of fundamental outcomes; receiving an indication of limit odds, a premium and a selected outcome; and determining the payout as a function of the selected outcome, the limit odds, the premium and the total amount wagered in the plurality of fundamental outcomes. Each fundamental outcome corresponds to one or more possible outcomes of an underlying event (e.g., a wagering event such as a lottery, a sporting event or a horse or dog race), and the selected outcome corresponds to one or more fundamental outcomes.

[0140] In another additional embodiment, a method for conducting enhanced parimutuel wagering includes the steps of: establishing a plurality of fundamental outcomes in a betting pool; receiving an indication of limit odds, a premium, and a selected outcome; and determining final odds as a function of the selected outcome, the limit odds, the premium and a total amount wagered in the plurality of fundamental outcomes in the betting pool. Each fundamental outcome corresponds to one or more possible outcomes of an underlying event, and the selected outcome corresponds to one or more of the fundamental outcomes.

[0141] In another additional embodiment, a method for conducting enhanced parimutuel wagering, includes the steps of: establishing a plurality of fundamental outcomes; receiving an indication of limit odds, a desired payout, and a selected outcome; and determining a premium as a function of the selected outcome, the limit odds, the desired payout and a total amount wagered in the plurality of fundamental outcomes. Each fundamental outcome corresponds to one or more possible outcomes of an underlying event; and the selected outcome corresponds to one or more of the fundamental outcomes.

[0142] In another additional embodiment, a method for conducting enhanced parimutuel wagering, includes the steps of: establishing a plurality of fundamental outcomes in a betting pool; receiving an indication of limit odds, a desired payout, and a selected outcome; and determining final odds as a function of the selected outcome, the limit odds, the desired payout and a total amount wagered in the plurality of fundamental outcomes in the betting pool. Each fundamental outcome corresponds to one or more possible outcomes of an underlying event, and the selected outcome corresponds to one or more of the fundamental outcomes.

[0143] In another additional embodiment, a method for processing a bet in an enhanced parimutuel betting pool on an underlying event, the betting pool including one or more bets, includes the steps of: establishing fundamental outcomes in a betting pool; establishing fundamental bets on each fundamental outcome in the betting pool; configuring an equivalent combination of fundamental bets for the bet as a function of a selected outcome for the bet; and determining at least one of a premium and a payout for the wager as a function of a demand-based valuation of each fundamental bet in the equivalent combination for the wager. Each one of the fundamental outcomes corresponds to one or more possible outcomes of the underlying event, and the selected outcome for the bet corresponds to one or more of the fundamental outcomes.

[0144] In another additional embodiment, a method for processing a bet in an enhanced parimutuel betting pool on an underlying event, the betting pool including one or more wagers, includes the steps of: establishing fundamental outcomes in a betting pool; establishing fundamental bets on each fundamental outcome in the betting pool; configuring an equivalent combination of fundamental bets for the wager as a function of a selected outcome for the wager; and determining a price for each fundamental bet as a function of a price of each of the other fundamental bets in the betting pool, a total filled amount in each fundamental outcome, and a total amount wagered in the plurality of fundamental outcomes in the betting pool. Each one of the fundamental outcomes corresponds to one or more possible outcomes of the underlying event, and the selected outcome for the wager corresponds to one or more of the fundamental outcomes.

[0145] In another additional embodiment, a method for betting on an underlying event, includes the steps of: providing an indication of limit odds, a requested premium, and a selected outcome, for a bet on a selected outcome of the underlying event; and receiving an indication of final odds for the bet. The selected outcome corresponds to one or more fundamental outcomes in the betting pool, and each of the fundamental outcomes corresponds to one or more possible outcomes of the underlying event. The final odds are determined by engaging in a demand-based valuation of an equivalent combination of fundamental bets. The equivalent combination includes one or more fundamental bets. Each fundamental bet in the betting pool betting on a respective fundamental outcome. The equivalent combination of fundamental bets are configured as a function of the selected outcome for the bet.

[0146] In another additional embodiment, a method for betting on an underlying event, includes the steps of: providing an indication of limit odds, a desired payout, and a selected outcome, for a bet on a selected outcome of an underlying event; and receiving an indication of final odds for the bet. The selected outcome corresponds to one or more fundamental outcomes, each of the fundamental outcomes in the betting pool corresponding to one or more possible outcomes of the underlying event. The final odds are determined by engaging in a demand-based valuation of an equivalent combination of fundamental bets. The equivalent combination includes one or more of the fundamental bets, each fundamental bet betting on a respective fundamental outcome. The equivalent combination is configured as a function of the selected outcome for the bet.

[0147] In another additional embodiment, a vehicle for betting in an enhanced parimutuel betting pool, includes: a wager betting a filled premium amount on a selected outcome of an underlying event, the wager including an indication of limit odds on the selected outcome, and one of a requested premium and a desired payout on the selected outcome. The filled premium is determined as a function of the one of the requested premium and the desired payout and a comparison of the limit odds with final odds on the wager. The final odds are determined by engaging in a demand-based valuation of each of the fundamental bets in a combination of fundamental bets equivalent to the wager. The combination includes one or more fundamental bets from the plurality of fundamental bets established for the betting pool. Each fundamental bet in the betting pool betting on a fundamental outcome of the underlying event. Each fundamental outcome corresponds to one or more of the possible outcomes of the underlying event. The selected outcome corresponds to one or more of the fundamental outcomes. The combination of fundamental bets is configured as a function of the selected outcome of the wager.

[0148] In another additional embodiment, a computer system for conducting a betting pool on an underlying event, includes one or more processors, that is configured to: establish fundamental outcomes for the underlying event; establish fundamental bets for the underlying event; receive an indication of limit odds, one of a requested premium and a desired payout, and a selected outcome, for a wager on a selected outcome of the underlying event; configure an equivalent combination of fundamental bets for the wager as a function of the selected outcome of the wager; and determine final odds for the wager by engaging in a demand-based valuation of the fundamental bets in the equivalent combination. Each of the fundamental outcomes corresponds to one or more possible outcomes of the event. Each fundamental bet bets on a respective fundamental outcome in the betting pool. The selected outcome corresponds to one or more of the fundamental outcomes in the betting pool, and each fundamental outcome corresponds to one or more possible outcomes of the underlying event.

[0149] In another additional embodiment, a computer system, for placing a bet in a betting pool on an underlying event, includes one or more processors configured to: provide an indication of limit odds, one of a desired payout and a requested premium, and a selected outcome, for a bet on a selected outcome of an underlying event; and receive an indication of final odds for the bet. The selected outcome corresponds to one or more of a plurality of fundamental outcomes in the betting pool, with each fundamental outcome corresponding to one or more possible outcomes of the underlying event. The final odds are determined by having the processors engage in a demand-based valuation of an equivalent combination of fundamental bets for the bet. The equivalent combination includes one or more fundamental bets, each of which bet on a respective fundamental outcome. The equivalent combination is configured as a function of the selected outcome for the bet.

[0150] In another additional embodiment, a computer program product is capable of processing a wager in a betting pool including at least one wager. The computer program product includes a computer usable medium having computer readable program code embodied in the medium for causing a computer or a system to: establish fundamental outcomes for the underlying event; establish fundamental bets for the underlying event; receive an indication of limit odds, one of a requested premium and a desired payout, and a selected outcome on the underlying event, for a wager on the selected outcome; configure an equivalent combination of fundamental bets for the wager as a function of the selected outcome of the wager; and determine final odds for the wager by engaging in a demand-based valuation of the fundamental bets in the equivalent combination. Each of the fundamental outcomes corresponds to one or more of the possible outcomes of the underlying event. Each fundamental bet bets on a respective fundamental outcome. The selected outcome corresponds to one or more of a plurality of fundamental outcomes, each fundamental outcome corresponding to a possible outcome of the underlying event.

[0151] In another additional embodiment, an article of manufacture includes: an information storage medium encoded with a computer-readable data structure adapted for placing a wager over the Internet in a betting pool on an underlying event, the betting pool includes one or more wagers, said data structure comprising: one or more data fields with information identifying at least one selected outcome of an underlying event, limit odds, and one of a requested premium and a desired payout for the wager; and one or more data fields with information identifying final odds for the wager. The final odds are determined as a result of a demand-based valuation of fundamental bets in a combination of fundamental bets equivalent to the wager configured as a function of the selected outcome. The combination includes one or more of the fundamental bets established for the betting pool. Each fundamental bet bets on a fundamental outcome of the underlying event. Each fundamental outcome corresponds to at least one possible outcome of the event, and the selected outcome corresponds to one or more of the fundamental outcomes.

[0152] In another additional embodiment, an article of manufacture comprising a propagated signal adapted for use in the performance of a method for conducting a betting pool on an underlying event, the betting pool includes one or more wagers. The signal is encoded with machine-readable information relating to the wager. The method includes the steps of: establishing fundamental outcomes for the underlying event; establishing fundamental bets for the underlying event; receiving an indication of limit odds, a requested premium and/or a desired payout, and a selected outcome, for a wager on a selected outcome on the underlying event; configuring an equivalent combination of fundamental bets for the wager as a function of the selected outcome of the wager; and determining final odds for the wager by engaging in a demand-based valuation of the fundamental bets in the equivalent combination. Each fundamental outcome corresponds to one or more possible outcomes of the event. Each fundamental bet bets on a respective fundamental outcome. The selected outcome corresponds to one or more of a plurality of fundamental outcomes. Each of the fundamental outcomes corresponds to one or more of the possible outcomes of the event. Each fundamental bet bets on a respective fundamental outcome. The selected outcome corresponds to one or more of the plurality of fundamental outcomes. Each fundamental outcome corresponds to one or more possible outcomes of the underlying event.

[0153] Additional objects and advantages of the various embodiments of the invention are set forth in part in the description which follows, and in part are obvious from the description, or may be learned by practice of the invention. The objects and advantages of the invention may also be realized and attained by means of the instrumentalities, systems, methods and steps set forth in the appended claims.

[0191] This Detailed Description of Preferred Embodiments is organized into sixteen sections. The first section provides an overview of systems and methods for trading or investing in groups of DBAR contingent claims. The second section describes in detail some of the important features of systems and methods for trading or investing in groups of DBAR contingent claims. The third section of this Detailed Description of Preferred Embodiments provides detailed descriptions of two preferred embodiments of the present invention: investments in a group of DBAR contingent claims, and investments in a portfolio of groups of such claims. The fourth section discusses methods for calculating risks attendant on investments in groups and portfolios of groups of DBAR contingent claims. The fifth section of this Detailed Description addresses liquidity and price/quantity relationships in preferred embodiments of systems and methods of the present invention. The sixth section provides a detailed description of a DBAR Digital Options Exchange. The seventh section provides a detailed description of another embodiment of a DBAR Digital Options Exchange. The eighth section presents a network implementation of this DBAR Digital Options Exchange. The ninth section presents a structured instrument implementation of a demand-based market or auction. The tenth section presents systems and methods for replicating derivatives strategies using contingent claims such as digitals or digital options, and trading such replicated derivatives strategies in a demand-based market. The eleventh section presents systems and methods for replicating derivatives strategies and other contingent claims (e.g., structured instruments), into a vanilla replicating basis (a basis including vanilla replicating claims, and sometimes also digital replicating claims), and trading such replicated derivatives strategies in a demand-based market or auction, pricing such derivatives strategies in the vanilla replicating basis. The twelfth section presents a detailed description of FIGS. 1 to 28 accompanying this specification. The thirteenth section presents a description of the DBAR system architecture, including additional detailed descriptions of figures accompanying the specification, with particular detail directed to the embodiments described in the eleventh section, and as illustrated in FIGS. 32 to 68. The fourteenth section of the Detailed Description discusses some of the salient advantages of the methods and systems of the present invention. The fifteenth section presents enhanced parimutuel wagering systems and methods. The sixteenth section is a Technical Appendix providing additional information on the multistate allocation method of the present invention. The last section is a conclusion of the Detailed Description. More specifically, this Detailed Description of the Preferred Embodiments is organized as follows:

[0192] 1 Overview: Exchanges and Markets for DBAR Contingent claims

• • [0193] 1.1 Exchange Design
  • [0194] 1.2 Market Operation
  • [0195] 1.3 Network Implementation

[0196] 2 Features of DBAR Contingent claims

• • [0197] 2.1 DBAR Contingent Claim Notation
  • [0198] 2.2 Units of Investment and Payouts
  • [0199] 2.3 Canonical Demand Reallocation Functions
  • [0200] 2.4 Computing Investment Amounts to Achieve Desired Payouts
  • [0201] 2.5 A Canonical DRF Example
  • [0202] 2.6 Interest Considerations
  • [0203] 2.7 Returns and Probabilities
  • [0204] 2.8 Computations When Invested Amounts are Large

[0205] 3 Examples of Groups of DBAR Contingent claims

• • [0206] 3.1 DBAR Range Derivatives
  • [0207] 3.2 DBAR Portfolios

[0208] 4 Risk Calculations in Groups of DBAR Contingent claims

• • [0209] 4.1 Market Risk
    • [0210] 4.1.1 Capital-At-Risk Determinations
    • [0211] 4.1.2 Capital-At-Risk Determinations Using Monte Carlo Simulation Techniques
    • [0212] 4.1.3 Capital-At-Risk Determinations Using Historical Simulation Techniques
  • [0213] 4.2 Credit Risk
    • [0214] 4.2.1 Credit-Capital-At-Risk Determinations
    • [0215] 4.2.2 Credit-Capital-At-Risk Determinations using Monte Carlo Simulation Techniques
    • [0216] 4.2.3 Credit-Capital-At-Risk Historical Simulation Techniques

[0217] 5 Liquidity and Price/Quantity Relationships

[0218] 6 DBAR Digital Options Exchange

• • [0219] 6.1 Representation of Digital Options as DBAR Contingent claims
  • [0220] 6.2 Construction of Digital Options Using DBAR Methods and Systems
  • [0221] 6.3 Digital Option Spreads
  • [0222] 6.4 Digital Option Strips
  • [0223] 6.5 Multistate Allocation Algorithm for Replicating “Sell” Trades
  • [0224] 6.6 Clearing and Settlement
  • [0225] 6.7 Contract Initialization
  • [0226] 6.8 Conditional Investments, or Limit Orders
  • [0227] 6.9 Sensitivity Analysis and Depth of Limit Order Book
  • [0228] 6.10 Networking of DBAR Digital Options Exchanges

[0229] 7 DBAR DOE: Another Embodiment

• • [0230] 7.1 Special Notation
  • [0231] 7.2 Elements of Example DBAR DOE Embodiment
  • [0232] 7.3 Mathematical Principles
  • [0233] 7.4 Equilibrium Algorithm
  • [0234] 7.5 Sell Orders
  • [0235] 7.6 Arbitrary Payout Options
  • [0236] 7.7 Limit Order Book Optimization
  • [0237] 7.8 Transaction Fees
  • [0238] 7.9 An Embodiment of the Algorithm to Solve the Limit Order BookOptimization
  • [0239] 7.10 Limit Order Book Display
  • [0240] 7.11 Unique Price Equilibrium Proof

[0241] 8 Network Implementation.

[0242] 9 Structured Instrument Trading

• • [0243] 9.1 Overview: Customer Oriented DBAR-enabled Products
  • [0244] 9.2 Overview: FRNs and swaps
  • [0245] 9.3 Parameters: FRNs and swaps vs. digital options
  • [0246] 9.4 Mechanics: DBAR-enabling FRNs and swaps
  • [0247] 9.5 Example: Mapping FRNs into Digital Option Space
  • [0248] 9.6 Conclusion

[0249] 10 Replicating Derivatives Strategies Using Digital Options

• • [0250] 10.1 The General Approach to Replicating Derivatives Strategies With Digital Options
  • [0251] 10.2 Application of General Results to Special Cases
  • [0252] 10.3 Estimating the Distribution of the Underlying U
  • [0253] 10.4 Replication P&L for a Set of Orders
  • [0254] Appendix 10A: Notation Used in Section 10
  • [0255] Appendix 10B: The General Replication Theorem
  • [0256] Appendix 10C: Derivations from Section 10.3

[0257] 11 Replicating and Pricing Derivatives Strategies using Vanilla Options

• • [0258] 11.1 Replicating Derivatives Strategies Using Digital Options
  • [0259] 11.2 Replicating Claims Using a Vanilla Replicating Basis
  • [0260] 11.3 Extensions to the General Replication Theorem
  • [0261] 11.4 Mathematical Restrictions for the Equilibrium
  • [0262] 11.5 Examples of DBAR Equilibria with the Digital Replicating Basis and the Vanilla Replicating Basis
  • [0263] Appendix 11A: Proof of General Replication Theorem in Section 11.2.3
  • [0264] Appendix 11B: Derivatives of the Self-Hedging Theorem of Section 11.4.5
  • [0265] Appendix 11C: Probability Weighted Statistics from Sections 11.5.2 and 11.5.3
  • [0266] Appendix 11D: Notation Used in the Body of Text

[0267] 12 Detailed Description of the Drawings in FIGS. 1 to 28

[0268] 13 DBAR System Architecture (and Description of the Drawings in FIGS. 32 to 68)

• • [0269] 13.1 Terminology and Notation
  • [0270] 13.2 Overview
  • [0271] 13.3 Application Architecture
  • [0272] 13.4 Data
  • [0273] 13.5 Auction and Event Configuration
  • [0274] 13.6 Order Processing
  • [0275] 13.7 Auction State
  • [0276] 13.8 Startup
  • [0277] 13.9 CE (calculation engine) implementation
  • [0278] 13.10 LE (limit order book engine) implementation
  • [0279] 13.11 Network Architecture
  • [0280] 13.12 FIGS. 32-68 Legend

[0281] 14 Appendix 13A: Descriptions of Element Names in DBAR System Architecture

[0282] 15 Advantages of Preferred Embodiments

• • [0283] 15 Enhanced Parimutuel Wagering
  • [0284] 15.1 Background and Summary of Example Embodiments
  • [0285] 15.2 Details and Mathematics of Enhanced Parimutuel Wagering
  • [0286] 15.3 Horse-Racing Example
  • [0287] 15.4 Additional Examples of Enhanced Parimutuel Wagering
  • [0288] Appendix 15: Notation Used in Section 15

[0289] 16 Technical Appendix

[0290] 17 Conclusion

[0291] In this specification, including the description of preferred or example embodiments of the present invention, specific terminology will be used for the sake of clarity. However, the invention is not intended to be limited to the specific terms so used, and it is to be understood that each specific term includes all equivalents.

1. Overview: exchanges and markets for dbar contingent Claims

[0292] 1.1 Exchange Design

[0293] This section describes preferred methods for structuring DBAR contingent claims and for designing exchanges for the trading of such claims. The design of the exchange is important for effective contingent claims investment in accordance with the present invention. Preferred embodiments of such systems include processes for establishing defined states and allocating returns, as described below.

• • [0294] (a) Establishing Defined States and Strikes: In preferred embodiments, a distribution of possible outcomes for an observable event is partitioned into defined ranges or states, and strikes can be established corresponding to measurable outcomes which occur at one of an upper and/or a lower end of each defined range or state. In certain preferred embodiments, one state always occurs because the states are mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive. Traders in such an embodiment invest on their expectation of a return resulting from the occurrence of a particular outcome within a selected state. Such investments allow traders to hedge the possible outcomes of real-world events of economic significance represented by the states. In preferred embodiments of a group of DBAR contingent claims, unsuccessful trades or investments finance the successful trades or investments. In such embodiments the states for a given contingent claim preferably are defined in such a way that the states are mutually exclusive and form the basis of a probability distribution, namely, the sum of the probabilities of all the uncertain outcomes is unity. For example, states corresponding to stock price closing values can be established to support a group of DBAR contingent claims by partitioning the distribution of possible closing values for the stock on a given future date into ranges. The distribution of future stock prices, discretized in this way into defined states, forms a probability distribution in the sense that each state is mutually exclusive, and the sum of the probabilities of the stock closing within each defined state or between two strikes surrounding the defined state, at the given date is unity.
    • [0295] In preferred embodiments, traders can simultaneously invest in selected multiple states or strikes within a given distribution, without immediately breaking up their investment to fit into each defined states or strikes selected for investment. Traders thus may place multi-state or multi-strike investments in order to replicate a desired distribution of returns from a group of contingent claims. This may be accomplished in a preferred embodiment of a DBAR exchange through the use of suspense accounts in which multi-state or multi-strike investments are tracked and reallocated periodically as returns adjust in response to amounts invested during a trading period. At the end of a given trading period, a multi-state or multi-strike investment may be reallocated to achieve the desired distribution of payouts based upon the final invested amounts across the distribution of states or strikes. Thus, in such a preferred embodiment, the invested amount allocated to each of the selected states or strikes, and the corresponding respective returns, are finalized only at the closing of the trading period. An example of a multi-state investment illustrating the use of such a suspense account is provided in Example 3.1.2, below. Other examples of multi-state investments are provided in Section 6, below, which describes embodiments of the present invention that implement DBAR Digital Options Exchanges. Other examples of investments in derivatives strategies with multiple strikes are shown and discussed below, including, inter alia, in Sections 10 and 11.
  • [0296] (b) Allocating Returns: In a preferred embodiment of a group of DBAR contingent claims according to the present invention, returns for each state are specified. In such an embodiment, while the amount invested for a given trade may be fixed, the return is adjustable. Determination of the returns for a particular state can be a simple function of the amount invested in that state and the total amount invested for all of the defined states for a group of contingent claims. However, alternate preferred embodiments can also accommodate methods of return determination that include other factors in addition to the invested amounts. For example, in a group of DBAR contingent claims where unsuccessful investments fund returns to successful investments, the returns can be allocated based on the relative amounts invested in each state and also on properties of the outcome, such as the magnitude of the price changes in underlying securities. An example in section 3.2 below illustrates such an embodiment in the context of a securities portfolio.
  • [0297] (c) Determining Investment Amounts: In other embodiments, a group of DBAR contingent claims can be modeled as digital options, providing a predetermined or defined payout if they expire in-the-money, and providing no payout if they expire out-of-the-money. In this embodiment, the investor or trader specifies a requested payout for a DBAR digital option, and selects the outcomes for which the digital option will expire “in the money,” and can specify a limit on the amount they wish to invest in such a digital option. Since the payout amount per digital option (or per an order for a digital option) is predetermined or defined, investment amounts for each digital option are determined at the end of the trading period along with the allocation of payouts per digital option as a function of the requested payouts, selected outcomes (and limits on investment amounts, if any) for each of the digital options ordered during the trading period, and the total amount invested in the auction or market. This embodiment is described in Section 7 below, along with another embodiment of demand-based markets or auctions for digital options described in Section 6 below. In additional embodiments, a variety of contingent claims, including derivatives strategies and financial products and structured instruments can be replicated or approximated with a set of DBAR contingent claims (sometimes called, “replicating claims,”) otherwise regarded as mapping the contingent claims into a DBAR contingent claim space or basis. The DBAR contingent claims or replicating claims, can include replicating digital options or, in a vanilla replicating basis, include replicating vanilla options alone, or together with replicating digital options. The price of such replicated contingent claims is determined by engaging in the demand-based or DBAR valuation of each of the replicating digital options and/or vanilla options in the replication set. These embodiments are described in Sections 10 and 11, as well as a system architecture described in Section 13 to accomplish a technical implementation of the entire process.

[0298] 1.2 Market Operation

• • [0299] (a) Termination Criteria: In a preferred embodiment of a method of the present invention, returns to investments in the plurality of defined states are allocated (and in another embodiment for DBAR digital options, investment amounts are determined) after the fulfillment of one or more predetermined termination criteria. In preferred embodiments, these criteria include the expiration of a “trading period” and the determination of the outcome of the relevant event after an “observation period.” In the trading period, traders invest on their expectation of a return resulting from the occurrence of a particular outcome within a selected defined state, such as the state that IBM stock will close between 120 and 125 on Jul. 6, 1999. In a preferred embodiment, the duration of the trading period is known to all participants; returns associated with each state vary during the trading period with changes in invested amounts; and returns are allocated based on the total amount invested in all states relative to the amounts invested in each of the states as at the end of the trading period.
    • [0300] Alternatively, the duration of the trading period can be unknown to the participants. The trading period can end, for example, at a randomly selected time. Additionally, the trading period could end depending upon the occurrence of some event associated or related to the event of economic significance, or upon the fulfillment of some criterion. For example, for DBAR contingent claims traded on reinsurance risk (discussed in Section 3 below), the trading period could close after an nth catastrophic natural event (e.g., a fourth hurricane), or after a catastrophic event of a certain magnitude (e.g., an earthquake of a magnitude of 5.5 or higher on the Richter scale). The trading period could also close after a certain volume, amount, or frequency of trading is reached in a respective auction or market.
    • [0301] The observation period can be provided as a time period during which the contingent events are observed and the relevant outcomes determined for the purpose of allocating returns. In a preferred embodiment, no trading occurs during the observation period.
    • [0302] The expiration date, or “expiration,” of a group of DBAR contingent claims as used in this specification occurs when the termination criteria are fulfilled for that group of DBAR contingent claims. In a preferred embodiment, the expiration is the date, on or after the occurrence of the relevant event, when the outcome is ascertained or observed. This expiration is similar to well-known expiration features in traditional options or futures in which a future date, i.e., the expiration date, is specified as the date upon which the value of the option or future will be determined by reference to the value of the underlying financial product on the expiration date.
    • [0303] The duration of a contingent claim as defined for purposes of this specification is simply the amount of time remaining until expiration from any given reference date. A trading start date (“TSD”) and a trading end date (“TED”), as used in the specification, refer to the beginning and end of a time period (“trading period”) during which traders can make investments in a group of DBAR contingent claims. Thus, the time during which a group of DBAR contingent claims is open for investment or trading, i.e., the difference between the TSD and TED, may be referred to as the trading period. In preferred embodiments, there can be one or many trading periods for a given expiration date, opening successively through time. For example, one trading period's TED may coincide exactly with the subsequent trading period's TSD, or in other examples, trading periods may overlap.
    • [0304] The relationship between the duration of a contingent claim, the number of trading periods employed for a given event, and the length and timing of the trading periods, can be arranged in a variety of ways to maximize trading or achieve other goals. In preferred embodiments at least one trading period occurs—that is, starts and ends—prior in time to the identification of the outcome of the relevant event. In other words, in preferred embodiments, the trading period will most likely temporally precede the event defining the claim. This need not always be so, since the outcome of an event may not be known for some time thereby enabling trading periods to end (or even start) subsequent to the occurrence of the event, but before its outcome is known.
    • [0305] A nearly continuous or “quasi-continuous” market can be made available by creating multiple trading periods for the same event, each having its own closing returns. Traders can make investments during successive trading periods as the returns change. In this way, profits-and-losses can be realized at least as frequently as in current derivatives markets. This is how derivatives traders currently are able to hedge options, futures, and other derivatives trades. In preferred embodiments of the present invention, traders may be able to realize profits and at varying frequencies, including more frequently than daily.
  • [0306] (b) Market Efficiency and Fairness: Market prices reflect, among other things, the distribution of information available to segments of the participants transacting in the market. In most markets, some participants will be better informed than others. In house-banking or traditional markets, market makers protect themselves from more informed counterparties by increasing their bid-offer spreads.
    • [0307] In preferred embodiments of DBAR contingent claim markets, there may be no market makers as such who need to protect themselves. It may nevertheless be necessary to put in place methods of operation in such markets in order to prevent manipulation of the outcomes underlying groups of DBAR contingent claims or the returns payable for various outcomes. One such mechanism is to introduce an element of randomness as to the time at which a trading period closes. Another mechanism to minimize the likelihood and effects of market manipulation is to introduce an element of randomness to the duration of the observation period. For example, a DBAR contingent claim might settle against an average of market closing prices during a time interval that is partially randomly determined, as opposed to a market closing price on a specific day.
    • [0308] Additionally, in preferred embodiments incentives can be employed in order to induce traders to invest earlier in a trading period rather than later. For example, a DRF may be used which allocates slightly higher returns to earlier investments in a successful state than later investments in that state. For DBAR digital options, an OPF may be used which determines slightly lower (discounted) prices for earlier investments than later investments. Earlier investments may be valuable in preferred embodiments since they work to enhance liquidity and promote more uniformly meaningful price information during the trading period.
  • [0309] (c) Credit Risk: In preferred embodiments of a DBAR contingent claims market, the dealer or exchange is substantially protected from primary market risk by the fundamental principle underlying the operation of the system—that returns to successful investments are funded by losses from unsuccessful investments. The credit risk in such preferred embodiments is distributed among all the market participants. If, for example, leveraged investments are permitted within a group of DBAR contingent claims, it may not be possible to collect the leveraged unsuccessful investments in order to distribute these amounts among the successful investments.
    • [0310] In almost all such cases there exists, for any given trader within a group of DBAR contingent claims, a non-zero possibility of default, or credit risk. Such credit risk is, of course, ubiquitous to all financial transactions facilitated with credit.
    • [0311] One way to address this risk is to not allow leveraged investments within the group of DBAR contingent claims, which is a preferred embodiment of the system and methods of the present invention. In other preferred embodiments, traders in a DBAR exchange may be allowed to use limited leverage, subject to real-time margin monitoring, including calculation of a trader's impact on the overall level of credit risk in the DBAR system and the particular group of contingent claims. These risk management calculations should be significantly more tractable and transparent than the types of analyses credit risk managers typically perform in conventional derivatives markets in order to monitor counterparty credit risk.
    • [0312] An important feature of preferred embodiments of the present invention is the ability to provide diversification of credit risk among all the traders who invest in a group of DBAR contingent claims. In such embodiments, traders make investments (in the units of value as defined for the group) in a common distribution of states in the expectation of receiving a return if a given state is determined to have occurred. In preferred embodiments, all traders, through their investments in defined states for a group of contingent claims, place these invested amounts with a central exchange or intermediary which, for each trading period, pays the returns to successful investments from the losses on unsuccessful investments. In such embodiments, a given trader has all the other traders in the exchange as counterparties, effecting a mutualization of counterparties and counterparty credit risk exposure. Each trader therefore assumes credit risk to a portfolio of counterparties rather than to a single counterparty.
    • [0313] Preferred embodiments of the DBAR contingent claim and exchange of the present invention present four principal advantages in managing the credit risk inherent in leveraged transactions. First, a preferred form of DBAR contingent claim entails limited liability investing. Investment liability is limited in these embodiments in the sense that the maximum amount a trader can lose is the amount invested. In this respect, the limited liability feature is similar to that of a long option position in the traditional markets. By contrast, a short option position in traditional markets represents a potentially unlimited liability investment since the downside exposure can readily exceed the option premium and is, in theory, unbounded. Importantly, a group of DBAR contingent claims of the present invention can easily replicate returns of a traditional short option position while maintaining limited liability. The limited liability feature of a group of DBAR contingent claims is a direct consequence of the demand-side nature of the market. More specifically, in preferred embodiments there are no sales or short positions as there are in the traditional markets, even though traders in a group of DBAR contingent claims may be able to attain the return profiles of traditional short positions.
    • [0314] Second, in preferred embodiments, a trader within a group of DBAR contingent claims should have a portfolio of counterparties as described above. As a consequence, there should be a statistical diversification of the credit risk such that the amount of credit risk borne by any one trader is, on average (and in all but exceptionally rare cases), less than if there were an exposure to a single counterparty as is frequently the case in traditional markets. In other words, in preferred embodiments of the system and methods of the present invention, each trader is able to take advantage of the diversification effect that is well known in portfolio analysis.
    • [0315] Third, in preferred embodiments of the present invention, the entire distribution of margin loans, and the aggregate amount of leverage and credit risk existing for a group of DBAR contingent claims, can be readily calculated and displayed to traders at any time before the fulfillment of all of the termination criteria for the group of claims. Thus, traders themselves may have access to important information regarding credit risk. In traditional markets such information is not readily available.
    • [0316] Fourth, preferred embodiments of a DBAR contingent claim exchange provide more information about the distribution of possible outcomes than do traditional market exchanges. Thus, as a byproduct of DBAR contingent claim trading according to preferred embodiments, traders have more information about the distribution of future possible outcomes for real-world events, which they can use to manage risk more effectively. For many traders, a significant part of credit risk is likely to be caused by market risk. Thus, in preferred embodiments of the present invention, the ability through an exchange or otherwise to control or at least provide information about market risk should have positive feedback effects for the management of credit risk.

[0317] A simple example of a group of DBAR contingent claims with the following assumptions, illustrates some of these features. The example uses the following basic assumptions:

• • [0318] two defined states (with predetermined termination criteria): (i) stock price appreciates in one month; (ii) stock price depreciates in one month; and
  • [0319] $100 has been invested in the appreciate state, and $95 in the depreciate state.

[0320] If a trader then invests $1 in the appreciate state, if the stock in fact appreciates in the month, then the trader will be allocated a payout of $1.9406 (=196/101)—a return of $0.9406 plus the original $1 investment (ignoring, for the purpose of simplicity in this illustration, a transaction fee). If, before the close of the trading period the trader desires effectively to “sell” his investment in the appreciate state, he has two choices. He could sell the investment to a third party, which would necessitate crossing of a bid and an offer in a two-way order crossing network. Or, in a preferred embodiment of the method of the present invention, the trader can invest in the depreciate state, in proportion to the amount that had been invested in that state not counting the trader's “new” investments. In this example, in order to fully hedge his investment in the appreciate state, the trader can invest $0.95 (95/100) in the depreciate state. Under either possible outcome, therefore, the trader will receive a payout of $1.95, i.e., if the stock appreciates the trader will receive 196.95/101=$1.95 and if the stock depreciates the trader will receive (196.95/95.95)*0.95=$1.95.

[0321] 1.3 Network Implementation

[0322] A market or exchange for groups of DBAR contingent claims market according to the invention is not designed to establish a counterparty-driven or order-matched market. Buyers' bids and sellers' offers do not need to be “crossed.” As a consequence of the absence of a need for an order crossing network, preferred embodiments of the present invention are particularly amenable to large-scale electronic network implementation on a wide area network or a private network (with, e.g., dedicated circuits) or the public Internet, for example. Additionally, a network implementation of the embodiments in which contingent claims are mapped or replicated into a vanilla replicating basis, in order to be subject to a demand-based or DBAR valuation, is described in more detail in Section 13 below.

[0323] Preferred embodiments of an electronic network-based embodiment of the method of trading in accordance with the invention include one or more of the following features.

• • [0324] (a) User Accounts: DBAR contingent claims investment accounts are established using electronic methods.
  • [0325] (b) Interest and Margin Accounts: Trader accounts are maintained using electronic methods to record interest paid to traders on open DBAR contingent claim balances and to debit trader balances for margin loan interest. Interest is typically paid on outstanding investment balances for a group of DBAR contingent claims until the fulfillment of the termination criteria. Interest is typically charged on outstanding margin loans while such loans are outstanding. For some contingent claims, trade balance interest can be imputed into the closing returns of a trading period.
  • [0326] (c) Suspense Accounts: These accounts relate specifically to investments which have been made by traders, during trading periods, simultaneously in multiple states for the same event. Multi-state trades are those in which amounts are invested over a range of states so that, if any of the states occurs, a return is allocated to the trader based on the closing return for the state which in fact occurred. DBAR digital options of the present invention, described in Section 6, provide other examples of multi-state trades.
    • [0327] A trader can, of course, simply break-up or divide the multi-state investment into many separate, single-state investments, although this approach might require the trader to keep rebalancing his portfolio of single state investments as returns adjust throughout the trading period as amounts invested in each state change.
    • [0328] Multi-state trades can be used in order to replicate any arbitrary distribution of payouts that a trader may desire. For example, a trader might want to invest in all states in excess of a given value or price for a security underlying a contingent claim, e.g., the occurrence that a given stock price exceeds 100 at some future date. The trader might also want to receive an identical payout no matter what state occurs among those states. For a group of DBAR contingent claims there may well be many states for outcomes in which the stock price exceeds 100 (e.g., greater than 100 and less than or equal to 101; greater than 101 and less than or equal to 102, etc.). In order to replicate a multi-state investment using single state investments, a trader would need continually to rebalance the portfolio of single-state investments so that the amount invested in the selected multi-states is divided among the states in proportion to the existing amount invested in those states. Suspense accounts can be employed so that the exchange, rather than the trader, is responsible for rebalancing the portfolio of single-state investments so that, at the end of the trading period, the amount of the multi-state investment is allocated among the constituent states in such a way so as to replicate the trader's desired distribution of payouts. Example 3.1.2 below illustrates the use of suspense accounts for multi-state investments.
  • [0329] (d) Authentication: Each trader may have an account that may be authenticated using authenticating data.
  • [0330] (e) Data Security: The security of contingent claims transactions over the network may be ensured, using for example strong forms of public and private key encryption.
  • [0331] (f) Real-Time Market Data Server: Real-time market data may be provided to support frequent calculation of returns and to ascertain the outcomes during the observation periods.
  • [0332] (g) Real-Time Calculation Engine Server: Frequent calculation of market returns may increase the efficient functioning of the market. Data on coupons, dividends, market interest rates, spot prices, and other market data can be used to calculate opening returns at the beginning of a trading period and to ascertain observable events during the observation period. Sophisticated simulation methods may be required for some groups of DBAR contingent claims in order to estimate expected returns, at least at the start of a trading period.
  • [0333] (h) Real-Time Risk Management Server: In order to compute trader margin requirements, expected returns for each trader should be computed frequently. Calculations of “value-at-risk” in traditional markets can involve onerous matrix calculations and Monte Carlo simulations. Risk calculations in preferred embodiments of the present invention are simpler, due to the existence of information on the expected returns for each state. Such information is typically unavailable in traditional capital and reinsurance markets.
  • [0334] (i) Market Data Storage: A DBAR contingent claims exchange in accordance with the invention may generate valuable data as a byproduct of its operation. These data are not readily available in traditional capital or insurance markets. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, investments may be solicited over ranges of outcomes for market events, such as the event that the 30-year U.S. Treasury bond will close on a given date with a yield between 6.10% and 6.20%. Investment in the entire distribution of states generates data that reflect the expectations of traders over the entire distribution of possible outcomes. The network implementation disclosed in this specification may be used to capture, store and retrieve these data.
  • [0335] (j) Market Evaluation Server: Preferred embodiments of the method of the present invention include the ability to improve the market's efficiency on an ongoing basis. This may readily be accomplished, for example, by comparing the predicted returns on a group of DBAR contingent claims returns with actual realized outcomes. If investors have rational expectations, then DBAR contingent claim returns will, on average, reflect trader expectations, and these expectations will themselves be realized on average. In preferred embodiments, efficiency measurements are made on defined states and investments over the entire distribution of possible outcomes, which can then be used for statistical time series analysis with realized outcomes. The network implementation of the present invention may therefore include analytic servers to perform these analyses for the purpose of continually improving the efficiency of the market.
    2. Features Of Dbar Contingent Claims

[0336] In a preferred embodiment, a group of a DBAR contingent claims related to an observable event includes one or more of the following features:

• • [0337] (1) A defined set of collectively exhaustive states representing possible real-world outcomes related to an observable event. In preferred embodiments, the events are events of economic significance. The possible outcomes can typically be units of measurement associated with the event, e.g., an event of economic interest can be the closing index level of the S&P 500 one month in the future, and the possible outcomes can be entire range of index levels that are possible in one month. In a preferred embodiment, the states are defined to correspond to one or more of the possible outcomes over the entire range of possible outcomes, so that defined states for an event form a countable and discrete number of ranges of possible outcomes, and are collectively exhaustive in the sense of spanning the entire range of possible outcomes. For example, in a preferred embodiment, possible outcomes for the S&P 500 can range from greater than 0 to infinity (theoretically), and a defined state could be those index values greater than 1000 and less than or equal to 1100. In such preferred embodiments, exactly one state occurs when the outcome of the relevant event becomes known.
  • [0338] (2) The ability for traders to place trades on the designated states during one or more trading periods for each event. In a preferred embodiment, a DBAR contingent claim group defines the acceptable units of trade or value for the respective claim. Such units may be dollars, barrels of oil, number of shares of stock, or any other unit or combination of units accepted by traders and the exchange for value.
  • [0339] (3) An accepted determination of the outcome of the event for determining which state or states have occurred. In a preferred embodiment, a group of DBAR contingent claims defines the means by which the outcome of the relevant events is determined. For example, the level that the S&P 500 Index actually closed on a predetermined date would be an outcome observation which would enable the determination of the occurrence of one of the defined states. A closing value of 1050 on that date, for instance, would allow the determination that the state between 1000 and 1100 occurred.
  • [0340] (4) The specification of a DRF which takes the traded amount for each trader for each state across the distribution of states as that distribution exists at the end of each trading period and calculates payouts for each investments in each state conditioned upon the occurrence of each state. In preferred embodiments, this is done so that the total amount of payouts does not exceed the total amount invested by all the traders in all the states. The DRF can be used to show payouts should each state occur during the trading period, thereby providing to traders information as to the collective level of interest of all traders in each state.
  • [0341] (5) For DBAR digital options, the specification of an OPF which takes the requested payout and selection of outcomes and limits on investment amounts (if any) per digital option at the end of each trading period and calculates the investment amounts per digital option, along with the payouts for each digital option in each state conditioned upon the occurrence of each state. In this other embodiment, this is done by solving a nonlinear optimization problem which uses the DRF along with a series of other parameters to determine an optimal investment amount per digital option while maximizing the possible payout per digital option.
  • [0342] (6) Payouts to traders for successful investments based on the total amount of the unsuccessful investments after deduction of the transaction fee and after fulfillment of the termination criteria.
  • [0343] (7) For DBAR digital options, investment amounts per digital option after factoring in the transaction fee and after fulfillment of the termination criteria.

[0344] The states corresponding to the range of possible event outcomes are referred to as the “distribution” or “distribution of states.” Each DBAR contingent claim group or “contract” is typically associated with one distribution of states. The distribution will typically be defined for events of economic interest for investment by traders having the expectation of a return for a reduction of risk (“hedging”), or for an increase of risk (“speculation”). For example, the distribution can be based upon the values of stocks, bonds, futures, and foreign exchange rates. It can also be based upon the values of commodity indices, economic statistics (e.g., consumer price inflation monthly reports), property-casualty losses, weather patterns for a certain geographical region, and any other measurable or observable occurrence or any other event in which traders would not be economically indifferent even in the absence of a trade on the outcome of the event.

[0345] 2.1 DBAR Claim Notation

[0346] The following notation is used in this specification to facilitate further description of DBAR contingent claims:

• • [0347] m represents the number of traders for a given group of DBAR contingent claims
  • [0348] n represents the number of states for a given distribution associated with a given group of DBAR contingent claims
  • [0349] A represents a matrix with m rows and n columns, where the element at the i-th row and j-th column, α_i,j, is the amount that trader i has invested in state j in the expectation of a return should state j occur
  • [0350] Π represents a matrix with n rows and n columns where element π_i,j is the payout per unit of investment in state i should state j occur (“unit payouts”)
  • [0351] R represents a matrix with n rows and n columns where element r_i,j is the return per unit of investment in state i should state j occur, i.e., r_i,j=π_i,j−1 (“unit returns”)
  • [0352] P represents a matrix with m rows and n columns, where the element at the i-th row and j-th column, p_i,j, is the payout to be made to trader i should state j occur, i.e., P is equal to the matrix product A*Π.
  • [0353] P*_j, represents the j-th column of P, for j=1 . . . n, which contains the payouts to each investment should state j occur
  • [0354] P_i,* represents the i-th row of P, for i=1 . . . m, which contains the payouts to trader i
  • [0355] s_i where i=1 . . . n, represents a state representing a range of possible outcomes of an observable event.
  • [0356] T_i where i=1 . . . n, represents the total amount traded in the expectation of the occurrence of state i
  • [0357] T represents the total traded amount over the entire distribution of states, i.e.,

[0358] $T=\sum _{i=1\dots n}{T}_i$

• • [0359] f(A,X) represents the exchange's transaction fee, which can depend on the entire distribution of traded amounts placed across all the states as well as other factors, X, some of which are identified below. For reasons of brevity, for the remainder of this specification unless otherwise stated, the transaction fee is assumed to be a fixed percentage of the total amount traded over all the states.
  • [0360] c_p represents the interest rate charged on margin loans.
  • [0361] c_r represents the interest rate paid on trade balances.
  • [0362] t represents time from the acceptance of a trade or investment to the fulfillment of all of the termination criteria for the group of DBAR contingent claims, typically expressed in years or fractions thereof
  • [0363] X represents other information upon which the DRF or transaction fee can depend such as information specific to an investment or a trader, including for example the time or size of a trade.

[0364] In preferred embodiments, a DRF is a function that takes the traded amounts over the distribution of states for a given group of DBAR contingent claims, the transaction fee schedule, and, conditional upon the occurrence of each state, computes the payouts to each trade or investment placed over the distribution of states. In notation, such a DRF is:
P=DRF(A,f(A,X),X|s=s_i)=A*Π(A,f(A,X),X)  (DRF)

[0365] In other words, the m traders who have placed trades across the n states, as represented in matrix A, will receive payouts as represented in matrix P should state i occur, also, taking into account the transaction fee f and other factors X. The payouts identified in matrix P can be represented as the product of (a) the payouts per unit traded for each state should each state occur, as identified in the matrix Π, and (b) the matrix A which identifies the amounts traded or invested by each trader in each state. The following notation may be used to indicate that, in preferred embodiments, payouts should not exceed the total amounts invested less the transaction fee, irrespective of which state occurs:
1_m^T*P*_,j+f (A,X)<=1_m^T*A*1_n for j=1 . . . n  (DRF Constraint)
where the 1 represents a column vector with dimension indicated by the subscript, the superscript T represents the standard transpose operator and P*_,j is the j-th column of the matrix P representing the payouts to be made to each trader should state j occur. Thus, in preferred embodiments, the unsuccessful investments finance the successful investments. In addition, absent credit-related risks discussed below, in such embodiments there is no risk that payouts will exceed the total amount invested in the distribution of states, no matter what state occurs. In short, a preferred embodiment of a group of DBAR contingent claims of the present invention is self-financing in the sense that for any state, the payouts plus the transaction fee do not exceed the inputs (i.e., the invested amounts).

[0366] The DRF may depend on factors other than the amount of the investment and the state in which the investment was made. For example, a payout may depend upon the magnitude of a change in the observed outcome for an underlying event between two dates (e.g., the change in price of a security between two dates). As another example, the DRF may allocate higher payouts to traders who initiated investments earlier in the trading period than traders who invested later in the trading period, thereby providing incentives for liquidity earlier in the trading period. Alternatively, the DRF may allocate higher payouts to larger amounts invested in a given state than to smaller amounts invested for that state, thereby providing another liquidity incentive.

[0367] In any event, there are many possible functional forms for a DRF that could be used. To illustrate, one trivial form of a DRF is the case in which the traded amounts, A, are not reallocated at all upon the occurrence of any state, i.e., each trader receives his traded amount back in the event that any state occurs, as indicated by the following notation:
P=A if s=s_i, for i=1 . . . n
This trivial DRF is not useful in allocating and exchanging risk among hedgers.

[0368] For a meaningful risk exchange to occur, a preferred embodiment of a DRF should effect a meaningful reallocation of amounts invested across the distribution of states upon the occurrence of at least one state. Groups of DBAR contingent claims of the present invention are discussed in the context of a canonical DRF, which is a preferred embodiment in which the amounts invested in states which did not occur are completely reallocated to the state which did occur (less any transaction fee). The present invention is not limited to a canonical DRF, and many other types of DRFs can be used and may be preferred to implement a group of DBAR contingent claims. For example, another DRF preferred embodiment allocates half the total amount invested to the outcome state and rebates the remainder of the total amount invested to the states which did not occur. In another preferred embodiment, a DRF would allocate some percentage to an occurring state, and some other percentage to one or more “nearby” or “adjacent” states with the bulk of the non-occurring states receiving zero payouts. Section 7 describes an OPF for DBAR digital options which includes a DRF and determines investment amounts per investment or order along with allocating returns. Other DRFs will be apparent to those of skill in the art from review of this specification and practice of the present invention.

[0369] 2.2 Units of Investments and Payouts

[0370] The units of investments and payouts in systems and methods of the present invention may be units of currency, quantities of commodities, numbers of shares of common stock, amount of a swap transaction or any other units representing economic value. Thus, there is no limitation that the investments or payouts be in units of currency or money (e.g., U.S. dollars) or that the payouts resulting from the DRF be in the same units as the investments. Preferably, the same unit of value is used to represent the value of each investment, the total amount of all investments in a group of DBAR contingent claims, and the amounts invested in each state.

[0371] It is possible, for example, for traders to make investments in a group of DBAR contingent claims in numbers of shares of common stock and for the applicable DRF (or OPF) to allocate payouts to traders in Japanese Yen or barrels of oil. Furthermore, it is possible for traded amounts and payouts to be some combination of units, such as, for example, a combination of commodities, currencies, and number of shares. In preferred embodiments traders need not physically deposit or receive delivery of the value units, and can rely upon the DBAR contingent claim exchange to convert between units for the purposes of facilitating efficient trading and payout transactions. For example, a DBAR contingent claim might be defined in such a way so that investments and payouts are to be made in ounces of gold. A trader can still deposit currency, e.g., U.S. dollars, with the exchange and the exchange can be responsible for converting the amount invested in dollars into the correct units, e.g., gold, for the purposes of investing in a given state or receiving a payout. In this specification, a U.S. dollar is typically used as the unit of value for investments and payouts. This invention is not limited to investments or payouts in that value unit. In situations where investments and payouts are made in different units or combinations of units, for purpose of allocating returns to each investment the exchange preferably converts the amount of each investment, and thus the total of the investments in a group of DBAR contingent claims, into a single unit of value (e.g., dollars). Example 3.1.20 below illustrates a group of DBAR contingent claims in which investments and payouts are in units of quantities of common stock shares.

[0372] 2.3 Canonical Demand Reallocation Function

[0373] A preferred embodiment of a DRF that can be used to implement a group of DBAR contingent claims is termed a “canonical” DRF. A canonical DRF is a type of DRF which has the following property: upon the occurrence of a given state i, investors who have invested in that state receive a payout per unit invested equal to (a) the total amount traded for all the states less the transaction fee, divided by (b) the total amount invested in the occurring state. A canonical DRF may employ a transaction fee which may be a fixed percentage of the total amount traded, T, although other transaction fees are possible. Traders who made investments in states which not did occur receive zero payout. Using the notation developed above:

[0374] ${\pi }_{i,j}=\frac{\left(1-f\right)*T}{T_i}$
if i=j, i.e., the unit payout to an investment in state i if state i occurs π_i,j=0 otherwise, i.e., if i≠j, so that the payout is zero to investments in state i if state j occurs.
In a preferred embodiment of a canonical DRF, the unit payout matrix Π as defined above is therefore a diagonal matrix with entries equal to π_i,j for i=j along the diagonal, and zeroes for all off-diagonal entries. For example, in a preferred embodiment for n=5 states, the unit payout matrix is:

[0375] $\prod =\left[\begin{array}{ccccc}\frac{T}{T_1}& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& \frac{T}{T_2}& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& \frac{T}{T_3}& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& \frac{T}{T_4}& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& \frac{T}{T_5}\end{array}\right]*\left(1-f\right)=\left[\begin{array}{ccccc}\frac{1}{T_1}& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& \frac{1}{T_2}& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& \frac{1}{T_3}& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& \frac{1}{T_4}& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& \frac{1}{T_5}\end{array}\right]*T*\left(1-f\right)$
For this embodiment of a canonical DRF, the payout matrix is the total amount invested less the transaction fee, multiplied by a diagonal matrix which contains the inverse of the total amount invested in each state along the diagonal, respectively, and zeroes elsewhere. Both T, the total amount invested by all m traders across all n states, and T_i, the total amount invested in state i, are functions of the matrix A, which contains the amount each trader has invested in each state:
T_i=1_m^T*A*B_n(i)
T=1_m^T*A*1_n
where B_n(i) is a column vector of dimension n which has a 1 at the i-th row and zeroes elsewhere. Thus, with n=5 as an example, the canonical DRF described above has a unit payout matrix which is a function of the amounts traded across the states and the transaction fee:

[0376] $\prod =\hspace{1em}\left[\begin{array}{ccccc}\frac{1}{1_m^T*A*B_n\left(1\right)}& 0& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& \frac{1}{1_m^T*A*B_n\left(2\right)}& 0& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& \frac{1}{1_m^T*A*B_n\left(3\right)}& 0& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& \frac{1}{1_m^T*A*B_n\left(4\right)}& 0\\ 0& 0& 0& 0& \frac{1}{1_m^T*A*B_n\left(5\right)}\end{array}\right]*1_m^T*A*1_n*\left(1-f\right)$
which can be generalized for any arbitrary number of states. The actual payout matrix, in the defined units of value for the group of DBAR contingent claims (e.g., dollars), is the product of the m×n traded amount matrix A and the n×n unit payout matrix Π, as defined above:
P=A*Π(A,f )  (CDRF)
This provides that the payout matrix as defined above is the matrix product of the amounts traded as contained in the matrix A and the unit payout matrix Π, which is itself a function of the matrix A and the transaction fee, f. The expression is labeled CDRF for “Canonical Demand Reallocation Function.”

[0377] It should be noted that, in this preferred embodiment, any change to the matrix A will generally have an effect on any given trader's payout, both due to changes in the amount invested, i.e., a direct effect through the matrix A in the CDRF, and changes in the unit payouts, i.e., an indirect effect since the unit payout matrix Π is itself a function of the traded amount matrix A.

[0378] 2.4 Computing Investment Amounts to Achieve Desired Payouts

[0379] In preferred embodiments of a group of DBAR contingent claims of the present invention, some traders make investments in states during the trading period in the expectation of a payout upon the occurrence of a given state, as expressed in the CDRF above. Alternatively, a trader may have a preference for a desired payout distribution should a given state occur. DBAR digital options, described in Section 6, are an example of an investment with a desired payout distribution should one or more specified states occur. Such a payout distribution could be denoted P_i,*, which is a row corresponding to trader i in payout matrix P. Such a trader may want to know how much to invest in contingent claims corresponding to a given state or states in order to achieve this payout distribution. In a preferred embodiment, the amount or amounts to be invested across the distribution of states for the CDRF, given a payout distribution, can be obtained by inverting the expression for the CDRF and solving for the traded amount matrix A:
A=P*Π(A,f )⁻¹  (CDRF 2)
In this notation, the −1 superscript on the unit payout matrix denotes a matrix inverse.

[0380] Expression CDRF 2 does not provide an explicit solution for the traded amount matrix A, since the unit payout matrix Π is itself a function of the traded amount matrix. CDRF 2 typically involves the use of numerical methods to solve m simultaneous quadratic equations. For example, consider a trader who would like to know what amount, α, should be traded for a given state i in order to achieve a desired payout of p. Using the “forward” expression to compute payouts from traded amounts as in CDRF above yields the following equation:

[0381] $p=\left(\frac{T+\alpha }{T_i+\alpha }\right)*\alpha$
This represents a given row and column of the matrix equation CDRF after α has been traded for state i (assuming no transaction fee). This expression is quadratic in the traded amount α, and can be solved for the positive quadratic root as follows:

[0382] $\begin{array}{cc}\alpha =\frac{\left(p-T\right)+\sqrt{{\left(p-T\right)}^2+4*p*T_i}}{2}& \left(\mathrm{CDRF}3\right)\end{array}$

[0383] 2.5 A Canonical DRF Example

[0384] A simplified example illustrates the use of the CDRF with a group of DBAR contingent claims defined over two states (e.g., states “1” and “2”) in which four traders make investments. For the example, the following assumptions are made: (1) the transaction fee, f, is zero; (2) the investment and payout units are both dollars; (3) trader 1 has made investments in the amount of $5 in state 1 and $10 state 2; and (4) trader 2 has made an investment in the amount of $7 for state 1 only. With the investment activity so far described, the traded amount matrix A, which as 4 rows and 2 columns, and the unit payout matrix Π which has 2 rows and 2 columns, would be denoted as follows:

[0385] $A=\begin{array}{cc}5& 10\\ 7& 0\\ 0& 0\\ 0& 0\end{array}$ $\Pi =\left[\begin{array}{cc}\frac{1}{12}& 0\\ 0& \frac{1}{10}\end{array}\right]*22$

[0386] The payout matrix P, which contains the payouts in dollars for each trader should each state occur is, the product of A and Π:

[0387] $P=\begin{array}{cc}9.167& 22\\ 12.833& 0\\ 0& 0\\ 0& 0\end{array}$
The first row of P corresponds to payouts to trader 1 based on his investments and the unit payout matrix. Should state 1 occur, trader 1 will receive a payout of $9.167 and will receive $22 should state 2 occur. Similarly, trader 2 will receive $12.833 should state 1 occur and $0 should state 2 occur (since trader 2 did not make any investment in state 2). In this illustration, traders 3 and 4 have $0 payouts since they have made no investments.

[0388] In accordance with the expression above labeled “DRF Constraint,” the total payouts to be made upon the occurrence of either state is less than or equal to the total amounts invested. In other words, the CDRF in this example is self-financing so that total payouts plus the transaction fee (assumed to be zero in this example) do not exceed the total amounts invested, irrespective of which state occurs. This is indicated by the following notation:
1_m^T*P*_,1=22≦1_m^T*A*1_n=22
1_m^T*P*_,2=22≦1_m^T*A*1_n=22

[0389] Continuing with this example, it is now assumed that traders 3 and 4 each would like to make investments that generate a desired payout distribution. For example, it is assumed that trader 3 would like to receive a payout of $2 should state 1 occur and $4 should state 2 occur, while trader 4 would like to receive a payout of $5 should state 1 occur and $0 should state 2 occur. In the CDRF notation:
P_3,*=[2 4]
P_4,*=[5 0]

[0390] In a preferred embodiment and this example, payouts are made based upon the invested amounts A, and therefore are also based on the unit payout matrix Π(A,f(A)), given the distribution of traded amounts as they exist at the end of the trading period. For purposes of this example, it is now further assumed (a) that at the end of the trading period traders 1 and 2 have made investments as indicated above, and (b) that the desired payout distributions for traders 3 and 4 have been recorded in a suspense account which is used to determine the allocation of multi-state investments to each state in order to achieve the desired payout distributions for each trader, given the investments by the other traders as they exist at the end of the trading period. In order to determine the proper allocation, the suspense account can be used to solve CDRF 2, for example:

[0391] $[\begin{array}{cc}5& 10\\ 7& 0\\ {\alpha }_{3,1}& {\alpha }_{3,2}\\ {\alpha }_{4,1}& {\alpha }_{4,2}\end{array}]=[\begin{array}{cc}{p}_{1,1}& p_{1,2}\\ p_{2,1}& p_{2,2}\\ 2& 4\\ 5& 0\end{array}]*[\begin{array}{cc}\frac{1}{\left(5+7+{\alpha }_{3,1}+{\alpha }_{4,1}\right)}& 0\\ 0& \frac{1}{\left(10+0+{\alpha }_{3,2}+{\alpha }_{4,2}\right)}\end{array}]\frac{{\mathrm{cont}}^{\prime }d}{\mathrm{below}}*\left(5+10+7+0+{\alpha }_{3,1}+{\alpha }_{4,1}+{\alpha }_{3,2}+{\alpha }_{4,2}\right)$
The solution of this expression will yield the amounts that traders 3 and 4 need to invest in for contingent claims corresponding to states 1 and 2 to in order to achieve their desired payout distributions, respectively. This solution will also finalize the total investment amount so that traders 1 and 2 will be able to determine their payouts should either state occur. This solution can be achieved using a computer program that computes an investment amount for each state for each trader in order to generate the desired payout for that trader for that state. In a preferred embodiment, the computer program repeats the process iteratively until the calculated investment amounts converge, i.e., so that the amounts to be invested by traders 3 and 4 no longer materially change with each successive iteration of the computational process. This method is known in the art as fixed point iteration and is explained in more detail in the Technical Appendix. The following table contains a computer code listing of two functions written in Microsoft's Visual Basic which can be used to perform the iterative calculations to compute the final allocations of the invested amounts in this example of a group of DBAR contingent claims with a Canonical Demand Reallocation Function:

[0392]

TABLE 1
Illustrative Visual Basic Computer Code for Solving CDRF 2
Function allocatetrades(A_mat, P_mat) As Variant
Dim A_final
Dim trades As Long
Dim states As Long
trades = P_mat.Rows.Count
states = P_mat.Columns.Count
ReDim A_final(1 To trades, 1 To states)
ReDim statedem(1 To states)
Dim i As Long
Dim totaldemand As Double
Dim total desired As Double
Dim iterations As Long
iterations = 10
For i = 1 To trades
	For j = 1 To states
	statedem(j) = A_mat(i, j) + statedem(j)
	A_final(i, j) = A_mat(i, j)
	Next j
Next i
For i = 1 To states
	totaldemand = totaldemand + statedem(i)
Next i
For i = 1 To iterations
	For j = 1 To trades
	For z = 1 To states
	If A_mat(j, z) = 0 Then
	totaldemand = totaldemand − A_final(j, z)
	statedem(z) = statedem(z) − A_final(j, z)
	tempalloc = A_final(j, z)
	A_final(j, z) = stateall(totaldemand, P_mat(j, z),
	statedem(z))
	totaldemand = A_final(j, z) + totaldemand
	statedem(z) = A_final(j, z) + statedem(z)
	End If
	Next z
	Next j
Next i
allocatetrades = A_final
End Function
Function stateall(totdemex, despaystate, totstateex)
	Dim sol1 As Double
	Sol1 = (−(totdemex − despaystate) + ((totdemex − despaystate) {circumflex over ( )} 2 +
	4 * despaystate * totstateex) {circumflex over ( )} 0.5) / 2
	stateall = sol1
End Function

For this example involving two states and four traders, use of the computer code represented in Table 1 produces an investment amount matrix A, as follows:

[0393] $A=\begin{array}{cc}5& 10\\ 7& 0\\ 1.1574& 1.6852\\ 2.8935& 0\end{array}$
The matrix of unit payouts, Π, can be computed from A as described above and is equal to:

[0394] $\Pi =\begin{array}{cc}1.728& 0\\ 0& 2.3736\end{array}$
The resulting payout matrix P is the product of A and Π and is equal to:

[0395] $P=\begin{array}{cc}8.64& 23.7361\\ 12.0961& 0\\ 2& 4\\ 5& 0\end{array}$
It can be noted that the sum of each column of P, above is equal to 27.7361, which is equal (in dollars) to the total amount invested so, as desired in this example, the group of DBAR contingent claims is self-financing. The allocation is said to be in equilibrium, since the amounts invested by traders 1 and 2 are undisturbed, and traders 3 and 4 receive their desired payouts, as specified above, should each state occur.

[0396] 2.6 Interest Considerations

[0397] When investing in a group of DBAR contingent claims, traders will typically have outstanding balances invested for periods of time and may also have outstanding loans or margin balances from the exchange for periods of time. Traders will typically be paid interest on outstanding investment balances and typically will pay interest on outstanding margin loans. In preferred embodiments, the effect of trade balance interest and margin loan interest can be made explicit in the payouts, although in alternate preferred embodiments these items can be handled outside of the payout structure, for example, by debiting and crediting user accounts. So, if a fraction β of a trade of one value unit is made with cash and the rest on margin, the unit payout π_i in the event that state i occurs can be expressed as follows:

[0398] ${\pi }_i=\frac{\left(1-f\right)*T}{T_i}+\beta *\left(c_r\right)*t_b-\left(1-\beta \right)*\left(c_p\right)*t_l$
where the last two terms express the respective credit for trade balances per unit invested for time t_b and debit for margin loans per unit invested for time t₁.

[0399] 2.7 Returns and Probabilities

[0400] In a preferred embodiment of a group of DBAR contingent claims with a canonical DRF, returns which represent the percentage return per unit of investment are closely related to payouts. Such returns are also closely related to the notion of a financial return familiar to investors. For example, if an investor has purchased a stock for $100 and sells it for $110, then this investor has realized a return of 10% (and a payout of $110).

[0401] In a preferred embodiment of a group of DBAR contingent claims with a canonical DRF, the unit return, r_i, should state i occur may be expressed as follows:

[0402] $r_i=\frac{\left(1-f\right)*\sum _{i=1\dots n}{T}_i-T_i}{T_i}$
if state i occurs

• • [0403] r_i=−1 otherwise, i.e., if state i does not occur

[0404] In such an embodiment, the return per unit investment in a state that occurs is a function of the amount invested in that state, the amount invested in all the other states and the exchange fee. The unit return is −100% for a state that does not occur, i.e., the entire amount invested in the expectation of receiving a return if a state occurs is forfeited if that state fails to occur. A −100% return in such an event has the same return profile as, for example, a traditional option expiring “out of the money.” When a traditional option expires out of the money, the premium decays to zero, and the entire amount invested in the option is lost.

[0405] For purposes of this specification, a payout is defined as one plus the return per unit invested in a given state multiplied by the amount that has been invested in that state. The sum of all payouts P_s, for a group of DBAR contingent claims corresponding to all n possible states can be expressed as follows:

[0406] $P_S=\left(1+r_i\right)*T_i+\sum _{j,j\ne i}\left(1+r_j\right)*T_j$ $i,j=1\dots n$
In a preferred embodiment employing a canonical DRF, the payout P_S may be found for the occurrence of state i by substituting the above expressions for the unit return in any state:

[0407] $P_S=\left(\frac{\left(1-f\right)\sum _{i=1\dots n}{T}_i-T_i}{T_i}+1\right)*T_i+\sum _{j,j\ne i}\left(-1+1\right)*T_j=\left(1-f\right)*\sum _{i=1\dots n}{T}_i$

[0408] Accordingly, in such a preferred embodiment, for the occurrence of any given state, no matter what state, the aggregate payout to all of the traders as a whole is one minus the transaction fee paid to the exchange (expressed in this preferred embodiment as a percentage of total investment across all the states), multiplied by the total amount invested across all the states for the group of DBAR contingent claims. This means that in a preferred embodiment of a group of the DBAR contingent claims, and assuming no credit or similar risks to the exchange, (1) the exchange has zero probability of loss in any given state; (2) for the occurrence of any given state, the exchange receives an exchange fee and is not exposed to any risk; (3) payouts and returns are a function of demand flow, i.e., amounts invested; and (4) transaction fees or exchange fees can be a simple function of aggregate amount invested.

[0409] Other transaction fees can be implemented. For example, the transaction fee might have a fixed component for some level of aggregate amount invested and then have either a sliding or fixed percentage applied to the amount of the investment in excess of this level. Other methods for determining the transaction fee are apparent to those of skill in the art, from this specification or based on practice of the present invention.

[0410] In a preferred embodiment, the total distribution of amounts invested in the various states also implies an assessment by all traders collectively of the probabilities of occurrence of each state. In a preferred embodiment of a group of DBAR contingent claims with a canonical DRF, the expected return E(r_i) for an investment in a given state i (as opposed to the return actually received once outcomes are known) may be expressed as the probability weighted sum of the returns:
E(r_i)=q_i*r_i+(1−q_i)*−1=q_i*(1+r_i)−1
Where q_i is the probability of the occurrence of state i implied by the matrix A (which contains all of the invested amounts for all states in the group of DBAR contingent claims). Substituting the expression for r_i from above yields:

[0411] $E\left(r_i\right)=q_i*\left(\frac{\left(1-f\right)*\sum _i{T}_i}{T_i}\right)-1$

[0412] In an efficient market, the expected return E(r_i) across all states is equal to the transaction costs of trading, i.e., on average, all traders collectively earn returns that do not exceed the costs of trading. Thus, in an efficient market for a group of DBAR contingent claims using a canonical, where E(r_i) equals the transaction fee, −f, the probability of the occurrence of state i implied by matrix A is computed to be:

[0413] $q_i=\frac{T_i}{\sum _i{T}_i}$

[0414] Thus, in such a group of DBAR contingent claims, the implied probability of a given state is the ratio of the amount invested in that state divided by the total amount invested in all states. This relationship allows traders in the group of DBAR contingent claims (with a canonical DRF) readily to calculate the implied probability which traders attach to the various states.

[0415] Information of interest to a trader typically includes the amounts invested per state, the unit return per state, and implied state probabilities. An advantage of the DBAR exchange of the present invention is the relationship among these quantities. In a preferred embodiment, if the trader knows one, the other two can be readily determined. For example, the relationship of unit returns to the occurrence of a state and the probability of the occurrence of that state implied by A can be expressed as follows:

[0416] $q_i=\frac{\left(1-f\right)}{\left(1+r_i\right)}$

[0417] The expressions derived above show that returns and implied state probabilities may be calculated from the distribution of the invested amounts, T_i, for all states, i=1 . . . n. In the traditional markets, the amount traded across the distribution of states (limit order book), is not readily available. Furthermore, in traditional markets there are no such ready mathematical calculations that relate with any precision invested amounts or the limit order book to returns or prices which clear the market, i.e., prices at which the supply equals the demand. Rather, in the traditional markets, specialist brokers and market makers typically have privileged access to the distribution of bids and offers, or the limit order book, and frequently use this privileged information in order to set market prices that balance supply and demand at any given time in the judgment of the market maker.

[0418] 2.8 Computations when Invested Amounts are Large

[0419] In a preferred embodiment of a group of DBAR contingent claims using a canonical DRF, when large amounts are invested across the distribution of states, it may be possible to perform approximate investment allocation calculations in order to generate desired payout distributions. The payout, p, should state i occur for a trader who considers making an investment of size α in state i has been shown above to be:

[0420] $p=\left(\frac{T+\alpha }{T_i+\alpha }\right)*\alpha$
If α is small compared to both the total invested in state i and the total amount invested in all the states, then adding a to state i will not have a material effect on the ratio of the total amount invested in all the states to the total amount invested in state i. In these circumstances,

[0421] $\frac{T+\alpha }{T_i+\alpha }\approx \frac{T}{T_i}$
Thus, in preferred embodiments where an approximation is acceptable, the payout to state i may be expressed as:

[0422] $p\approx \frac{T}{T_i}*\alpha$
In these circumstances, the investment needed to generate the payout p is:

[0423] $\alpha \approx \frac{T_i}{T}*p=q_i*p$
These expressions indicate that in preferred embodiments, the amount to be invested to generate a desired payout is approximately equal to the ratio of the total amount invested in state i to the total amount invested in all states, multiplied by the desired payout. This is equivalent to the implied probability multiplied by the desired payout. Applying this approximation to the expression CDRF 2, above, yields the following:
A≈P*Π⁻¹=P*Q
where the matrix Q, of dimension n×n, is equal to the inverse of unit payouts Π and has along the diagonals q_i for i=1 . . . n. This expression provides an approximate but more readily calculable solution to CDRF 2 as the expression implicitly assumes that an amount invested by a trader has approximately no effect on the existing unit payouts or implied probabilities. This approximate solution, which is linear and not quadratic, will sometimes be used in the following examples where it can be assumed that the total amounts invested are large in relation to any given trader's particular investment.

[0424] 3.1 DBAR Range Derivatives

[0425] A DBAR Range Derivative (DBAR RD) is a type of group of DBAR contingent claims implemented using a canonical DRF described above (although a DBAR range derivative can also be implemented, for example, for a group of DBAR contingent claims, including DBAR digital options, based on the same ranges and economic events established below using, e.g., a non-canonical DRF and an OPF). In a DBAR RD, a range of possible outcomes associated with an observable event of economic significance is partitioned into defined states. In a preferred embodiment, the states are defined as discrete ranges of possible outcomes so that the entire distribution of states covers all the possible outcomes—that is, the states are collectively exhaustive. Furthermore, in a DBAR RD, states are preferably defined so as to be mutually exclusive as well, meaning that the states are defined in such a way so that exactly one state occurs. If the states are defined to be both mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive, the states form the basis of a probability distribution defined over discrete outcome ranges. Defining the states in this way has many advantages as described below, including the advantage that the amount which traders invest across the states can be readily converted into implied probabilities representing the collective assessment of traders as to the likelihood of the occurrence of each state.

[0426] The system and methods of the present invention may also be applied to determine projected DBAR RD returns for various states at the beginning of a trading period. Such a determination can be, but need not be, made by an exchange. In preferred embodiments of a group of DBAR contingent claims the distribution of invested amounts at the end of a trading period determines the returns for each state, and the amount invested in each state is a function of trader preferences and probability assessments of each state. Accordingly, some assumptions typically need to be made in order to determine preliminary or projected returns for each state at the beginning of a trading period.

[0427] An illustration is provided to explain further the operation of DBAR RDs. In the following illustration, it is assumed that all traders are risk neutral so that implied probabilities for a state are equal to the actual probabilities, and so that all traders have identical probability assessments of the possible outcomes for the event defining the contingent claim. For convenience in this illustration, the event forming the basis for the contingent claims is taken to be a closing price of a security, such as a common stock, at some future date; and the states, which represent the possible outcomes of the level of the closing price, are defined to be distinct, mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive of the range of (possible) closing prices for the security. In this illustration, the following notation is used:

• • [0428] τ represents a given time during the trading period at which traders are making investment decisions
  • [0429] θ represents the time corresponding to the expiration of the contingent claim
  • [0430] V_τ represents the price of underlying security at time τ
  • [0431] V_θ represents the price of underlying security at time θ
  • [0432] Z(τ,θ) represents the present value of one unit of value payable at time θ evaluated at time τ
  • [0433] D(τ,θ) represents dividends or coupons payable between time τ and θ
  • [0434] σ_t represents annualized volatility of natural logarithm returns of the underlying security
  • [0435] dz represents the standard normal variate
    Traders make choices at a representative time, τ, during a trading period which is open, so that time τ is temporally subsequent to the current trading period's TSD.

[0436] In this illustration, and in preferred embodiments, the defined states for the group of contingent claims for the final closing price V_θ are constructed by discretizing the full range of possible prices into possible mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive states. The technique is similar to forming a histogram for discrete countable data. The endpoints of each state can be chosen, for example, to be equally spaced, or of varying spacing to reflect the reduced likelihood of extreme outcomes compared to outcomes near the mean or median of the distribution. States may also be defined in other manners apparent to one of skill in the art. The lower endpoint of a state can be included and the upper endpoint excluded, or vice versa. In any event, in preferred embodiments, the states are defined (as explained below) to maximize the attractiveness of investment in the group of DBAR contingent claims, since it is the invested amounts that ultimately determine the returns that are associated with each defined state.

[0437] The procedure of defining states, for example for a stock price, can be accomplished by assuming lognormality, by using statistical estimation techniques based on historical time series data and cross-section market data from options prices, by using other statistical distributions, or according to other procedures known to one of skill in the art or learned from this specification or through practice of the present invention. For example, it is quite common among derivatives traders to estimate volatility parameters for the purpose of pricing options by using the econometric techniques such as GARCH. Using these parameters and the known dividend or coupons over the time period from τ to θ, for example, the states for a DBAR RD can be defined.

[0438] A lognormal distribution is chosen for this illustration since it is commonly employed by derivatives traders as a distributional assumption for the purpose of evaluating the prices of options and other derivative securities. Accordingly, for purposes of this illustration it is assumed that all traders agree that the underlying distribution of states for the security are lognormally distributed such that:

[0439] ${\tilde{V}}_{\theta }=\left(\frac{V_{\tau }}{Z\left(\tau ,\theta \right)}-\frac{D\left(\tau ,\theta \right)}{Z\left(\tau ,\theta \right)}\right)*e^{-{\sigma }^2/2*\left(\theta -\tau \right)}*e^{\sigma *\sqrt{\theta -\tau }*\mathrm{dz}}$
where the “tilde” on the left-hand side of the expression indicates that the final closing price of the value of the security at time θ is yet to be known. Inversion of the expression for dz and discretization of ranges yields the following expressions:

[0440] $\mathrm{dz}=\ln \frac{\left(\frac{V_{\theta }*e^{\frac{{\sigma }^2}{2}*\left(\theta -\tau \right)}}{\left(\frac{V_{\tau }}{Z\left(\tau ,\theta \right)}-\frac{D\left(\tau ,\theta \right)}{Z\left(\tau ,\theta \right)}\right)}\right)}{\left(\sigma *\sqrt{\theta -\tau }\right)}$ $q_i\left(V_i<=V_{\theta }<V_{i+1}\right)=\mathrm{cdf}\left({\mathrm{dz}}_{i+1}\right)-\mathrm{cdf}\left({\mathrm{dz}}_i\right)$ $r_i\left(V_i<=V_{\theta }<V_{i+1}\right)=\frac{\left(1-f\right)}{q_i\left(V_i<=V_{\theta }<V_{i+1}\right)}-1$
where cdf(dz) is the cumulative standard normal function.

[0441] The assumptions and calculations reflected in the expressions presented above can also be used to calculate indicative returns (“opening returns”), r_i at a beginning of the trading period for a given group of DBAR contingent claims. In a preferred embodiment, the calculated opening returns are based on the exchange's best estimate of the probabilities for the states defining the claim and therefore may provide good indications to traders of likely returns once trading is underway. In another preferred embodiment, described with respect to DBAR digital options in Section 6 and another embodiment described in Section 7, a very small number of value units may be used in each state to initialize the contract or group of contingent claims. Of course, opening returns need not be provided at all, as traded amounts placed throughout the trading period allows the calculation of actual expected returns at any time during the trading period.

[0442] The following examples of DBAR range derivatives and other contingent claims serve to illustrate their operation, their usefulness in connection with a variety of events of economic significance involving inherent risk or uncertainty, the advantages of exchanges for groups of DBAR contingent claims, and, more generally, systems and methods of the present invention. Sections 6 and 7 also provide examples of DBAR contingent claims of the present invention that provide profit and loss scenarios comparable to those provided by digital options in conventional options markets, and that can be based on any of the variety of events of economic significance described in the following examples of DBAR RDs.

[0443] In each of the examples in this Section, a state is defined to include a range of possible outcomes of an event of economic significance. The event of economic significance for any DBAR auction or market (including any market or auction for DBAR digital options) can be, for example, an underlying economic event (e.g., price of stock) or a measured parameter related to the underlying economic event (e.g., a measured volatility of the price of stock). A curved brace “(“or”)” denotes strict inequality (e.g., “greater than” or “less than,” respectively) and a square brace “]” or “[” shall denote weak inequality (e.g., “less than or equal to” or “greater than or equal to,” respectively). For simplicity, and unless otherwise stated, the following examples also assume that the exchange transaction fee, f, is zero.

• • [0444] Underlying Security: Microsoft Corporation Common Stock (“MSFT”)
  • [0445] Date: Aug. 18, 1999
  • [0446] Spot Price: 85
  • [0447] Market Volatility: 50% annualized
  • [0448] Trading Start Date: Aug. 18, 1999, Market Open
  • [0449] Trading End Date: Aug. 18, 1999, Market Close
  • [0450] Expiration: Aug. 19, 1999, Market Close
  • [0451] Event: MSFT Closing Price at Expiration
  • [0452] Trading Time: 1 day
  • [0453] Duration to TED: 1 day
  • [0454] Dividends Payable to Expiration: 0
  • [0455] Interbank short-term interest rate to Expiration: 5.5% (Actual/360 daycount)
  • [0456] Present Value factor to Expiration: 0.999847
  • [0457] Investment and Payout Units: U.S. Dollars (“USD”)

[0458] In this Example 3.1.1, the predetermined termination criteria are the investment in a contingent claim during the trading period and the closing of the market for Microsoft common stock on Aug. 19, 1999.

[0459] If all traders agree that the underlying distribution of closing prices is lognormally distributed with volatility of 50%, then an illustrative “snapshot” distribution of invested amounts and returns for $100 million of aggregate investment can be readily calculated to yield the following table.

[0460]

TABLE 3.1.1-1
		Investment in	Return Per Unit
	States	State (′000)	if State Occurs
	(0, 80]	1,046.58	94.55
	(80, 80.5]	870.67	113.85
	(80.5, 81]	1,411.35	69.85
	(81, 81.5]	2,157.85	45.34
	(81.5, 82]	3,115.03	31.1
	(82, 82.5]	4,250.18	22.53
	(82.5, 83]	5,486.44	17.23
	(83, 83.5]	6,707.18	13.91
	(83.5, 84]	7,772.68	11.87
	(84, 84.5]	8,546.50	10.7
	(84.5, 85]	8,924.71	10.2
	(85, 85.5]	8,858.85	10.29
	(85.5, 86]	8,366.06	10.95
	(86, 86.5]	7,523.13	12.29
	(86.5, 87]	6,447.26	14.51
	(87, 87.5]	5,270.01	17.98
	(87.5, 88]	4,112.05	23.31
	(88, 88.5]	3,065.21	31.62
	(88.5, 89]	2,184.5	44.78
	(89, 89.5]	1,489.58	66.13
	(89.5, 90]	972.56	101.82
	(90, ∞]	1,421.61	69.34

[0461] Consistent with the design of a preferred embodiment of a group of DBAR contingent claims, the amount invested for any given state is inversely related to the unit return for that state.

[0462] In preferred embodiments of groups of DBAR contingent claims, traders can invest in none, one or many states. It may be possible in preferred embodiments to allow traders efficiently to invest in a set, subset or combination of states for the purposes of generating desired distributions of payouts across the states. In particular, traders may be interested in replicating payout distributions which are common in the traditional markets, such as paybuts corresponding to a long stock position, a short futures position, a long option straddle position, a digital put or digital call option.

[0463] If in this Example 3.1.1 a trader desired to hedge his exposure to extreme outcomes in MSFT stock, then the trader could invest in states at each end of the distribution of possible outcomes. For instance, a trader might decide to invest $100,000 in states encompassing prices from $0 up to and including $83 (i.e., (0,83]) and another $100,000 in states encompassing prices greater than $86.50 (i.e., (86.5,∞]). The trader may further desire that no matter what state actually occurs within these ranges (should the state occur in either range) upon the fulfillment of the predetermined termination criteria, an identical payout will result. In this Example 3.1.1, a multi-state investment is effectively a group of single state investments over each multi-state range, where an amount is invested in each state in the range in proportion to the amount previously invested in that state. If, for example, the returns provided in Table 3.1.1-1 represent finalized projected returns at the end of the trading period, then each multi-state investment may be allocated to its constituent states on a pro-rata or proportional basis according to the relative amounts invested in the constituent states at the close of trading. In this way, more of the multi-state investment is allocated to states with larger investments and less allocated to the states with smaller investments.

[0464] Other desired payout distributions across the states can be generated by allocating the amount invested among the constituent states in different ways so as achieve a trader's desired payout distribution. A trader may select, for example, both the magnitude of the payouts and how those payouts are to be distributed should each state occur and let the DBAR exchange's multi-state allocation methods determine (1) the size of the amount invested in each particular constituent state; (2) the states in which investments will be made, and (3) how much of the total amount to be invested will be invested in each of the states so determined. Other examples below demonstrate how such selections may be implemented.

[0465] Since in preferred embodiments the final projected returns are not known until the end of a given trading period, in such embodiments a previous multi-state investment is reallocated to its constituent states periodically as the amounts invested in each state (and therefore returns) change during the trading period. At the end of the trading period when trading ceases and projected returns are finalized, in a preferred embodiment a final reallocation is made of all the multi-state investments. In preferred embodiments, a suspense account is used to record and reallocate multi-state investments during the course of trading and at the end of the trading period.

[0466] Referring back to the illustration assuming two multi-state trades over the ranges (0.83] and (86.5,∞] for MSFT stock, Table 3.1.1-2 shows how the multi-state investments in the amount of $100,000 each could be allocated according to a preferred embodiment to the individual states over each range in order to achieve a payout for each multi-state range which is identical regardless of which state occurs within each range. In particular, in this illustration the multi-state investments are allocated in proportion to the previously invested amount in each state, and the multi-state investments marginally lower returns over (0,83] and (86.5,∞], but marginally increase returns over the range (83, 86.5], as expected.

[0467] To show that the allocation in this example has achieved its goal of delivering the desired payouts to the trader, two payouts for the (0, 83] range are considered. The payout, if constituent state (80.5, 81] occurs, is the amount invested in that state ($7.696) multiplied by one plus the return per unit if that state occurs, or (1+69.61)*7.696=$543.40. A similar analysis for the state (82.5, 83] shows that, if it occurs, the payout is equal to (1+17.162)*29.918=$543.40. Thus, in this illustration, the trader receives the same payout no matter which constituent state occurs within the multi-state investment. Similar calculations can be performed for the range [86.5,∞]. For example, under the same assumptions, the payout for the constituent state [86.5,87] would receive a payout of $399.80 if the stock price fill in that range after the fulfillment of all of the predetermined termination criteria. In this illustration, each constituent state over the range [86.5,∞] would receive a payout of $399.80, no matter which of those states occurs.

[0468]

TABLE 3.1.1-2
		Traded Amount	Return Per	Multi-State
		in State	Unit if	Allocation
	States	(′000)	State Occurs	(′000)
	(0, 80]	1052.29	94.22	5.707
	(80, 80.5]	875.42	113.46	4.748
	(80.5, 81]	1,419.05	69.61	7.696
	(81, 81.5]	2,169.61	45.18	11.767
	(81.5, 82]	3,132.02	30.99	16.987
	(82, 82.5]	4,273.35	22.45	23.177
	(82.5, 83]	5,516.36	17.16	29.918
	(83, 83.5]	6,707.18	13.94
	(83.5, 84]	7,772.68	11.89
	(84, 84.5]	8,546.50	10.72
	(84.5, 85]	8,924.71	10.23
	(85, 85.5]	8,858.85	10.31
	(85.5, 86]	8,366.06	10.98
	(86, 86.5]	7,523.13	12.32
	(86.5, 87]	6,473.09	14.48	25.828
	(87, 87.5]	5,291.12	17.94	21.111
	(87.5, 88]	4,128.52	23.27	16.473
	(88, 88.5]	3,077.49	31.56	12.279
	(88.5, 89]	2,193.25	44.69	8.751
	(89, 89.5]	1,495.55	66.00	5.967
	(89.5, 90]	976.46	101.62	3.896
	(90, ∞]	1,427.31	69.20	5.695

[0469] Options on equities and equity indices have been one of the more successful innovations in the capital markets. Currently, listed options products exist for various underlying equity securities and indices and for various individual option series. Unfortunately, certain markets lack liquidity. Specifically, liquidity is usually limited to only a handful of the most widely recognized names. Most option markets are essentially dealer-based. Even for options listed on an exchange, market-makers who stand ready to buy or sell options across all strikes and maturities are a necessity. Although market participants trading a particular option share an interest in only one underlying equity, the existence of numerous strike prices scatters liquidity coming into the market thereby making dealer support essential. In all but the most liquid and active exchange-traded options, chances are rare that two option orders will meet for the same strike, at the same price, at the same time, and for the same volume. Moreover, market-makers in listed and over-the-counter (OTC) equities must allocate capital and manage risk for all their positions. Consequently, the absolute amount of capital that any one market-maker has on hand is naturally constrained and may be insufficient to meet the volume of institutional demand.

[0470] The utility of equity and equity-index options is further constrained by a lack of transparency in the OTC markets. Investment banks typically offer customized option structures to satisfy their customers. Customers, however, are sometimes hesitant to trade in environments where they have no means of viewing the market and so are uncertain about getting the best prevailing price.

[0471] Groups of DBAR contingent claims can be structured using the system and methods of the present invention to provide market participants with a fuller, more precise view of the price for risks associated with a particular equity.

[0472] If numerous multi-state investments are made for a group of DBAR contingent claims, then in a preferred embodiment an iterative procedure can be employed to allocate all of the multi-state investments to their respective constituent states. In preferred embodiments, the goal would be to allocate each multi-state investment in response to changes in amounts invested during the trading period, and to make a final allocation at the end of the trading period so that each multi-state investment generates the payouts desired by the respective trader. In preferred embodiments, the process of allocating multi-state investments can be iterative, since allocations depend upon the amounts traded across the distribution of states at any point in time. As a consequence, in preferred embodiments, a given distribution of invested amounts will result in a certain allocation of a multi-state investment. When another multi-state investment is allocated, the distribution of invested amounts across the defined states may change and therefore necessitate the reallocation of any previously allocated multi-state investments. In such preferred embodiments, each multi-state allocation is re-performed so that, after a number of iterations through all of the pending multi-state investments, both the amounts invested and their allocations among constituent states in the multi-state investments no longer change with each successive iteration and a convergence is achieved. In preferred embodiments, when convergence is achieved, further iteration and reallocation among the multi-state investments do not change any multi-state allocation, and the entire distribution of amounts invested across the states remains stable and is said to be in equilibrium. Computer code, as illustrated in Table 1 above or related code readily apparent to one of skill in the art, can be used to implement this iterative procedure.

[0473] A simple example demonstrates a preferred embodiment of an iterative procedure that may be employed. For purposes of this example, a preferred embodiment of the following assumptions are made: (i) there are four defined states for the group of DBAR contingent claims; (ii) prior to the allocation of any multi-state investments, $100 has been invested in each state so that the unit return for each of the four states is 3; (iii) each desires that each constituent state in a multi-state investment provides the same payout regardless of which constituent state actually occurs; and (iv) that the following other multi-state investments have been made:

[0474]

TABLE 3.1.2-1
Investment					Invested
Number	State 1	State 2	State 3	State 4	Amount, $
1001	X	X	0	0	100
1002	X	0	X	X	50
1003	X	X	0	0	120
1004	X	X	X	0	160
1005	X	X	X	0	180
1006	0	0	X	X	210
1007	X	X	X	0	80
1008	X	0	X	X	950
1009	X	X	X	0	1000
1010	X	X	0	X	500
1011	X	0	0	X	250
1012	X	X	0	0	100
1013	X	0	X	0	500
1014	0	X	0	X	1000
1015	0	X	X	0	170
1016	0	X	0	X	120
1017	X	0	X	0	1000
1018	0	0	X	X	200
1019	X	X	X	0	250
1020	X	X	0	X	300
1021	0	X	X	X	100
1022	X	0	X	X	400

where an “X” in each state represents a constituent state of the multi-state trade. Thus, as depicted in Table 3.1.2-1, trade number 1001 in the first row is a multi-state investment of $100 to be allocated among constituent states 1 and 2, trade number 1002 in the second row is another multi-state investment in the amount of $50 to be allocated among constituent states 1, 3, and 4; etc.

[0475] Applied to the illustrative multi-state investment described above, the iterative procedure described above and embodied in the illustrative computer code in Table 1, results in the following allocations:

[0476]

TABLE 3.1.2-2
Investment	State 1	State 2	State 3	State 4
Number	($)	($)	($)	($)
1001	73.8396	26.1604	0	0
1002	26.66782	0	12.53362	10.79856
1003	88.60752	31.39248	0	0
1004	87.70597	31.07308	41.22096	0
1005	98.66921	34.95721	46.37358	0
1006	0	0	112.8081	97.19185
1007	43.85298	15.53654	20.61048	0
1008	506.6886	0	238.1387	205.1726
1009	548.1623	194.2067	257.631	0
1010	284.2176	100.6946	0	115.0878
1011	177.945	0	0	72.055
1012	73.8396	26.1604	0	0
1013	340.1383	0	159.8617	0
1014	0	466.6488	0	533.3512
1015	0	73.06859	96.93141	0
1016	0	55.99785	0	64.00215
1017	680.2766	0	319.7234	0
1018	0	0	107.4363	92.56367
1019	137.0406	48.55168	64.40774	0
1020	170.5306	60.41675	0	69.05268
1021	0	28.82243	38.23529	32.94229
1022	213.3426	0	100.2689	86.38848

In Table 3.1.2-2 each row shows the allocation among the constituent states of the multi-state investment entered into the corresponding row of Table 3.1.2-1, the first row of Table 3.1.2-2 that investment number 1001 in the amount of $100 has been allocated $73.8396 to state 1 and the remainder to state 2.

[0477] It may be shown that the multi-state allocations identified above result in payouts to traders which are desired by the traders—that is, in this example the desired payouts are the same regardless of which state occurs among the constituent states of a given multi-state investment. Based on the total amount invested as reflected in Table 3.1.2-2 and assuming a zero transaction fee, the unit returns for each state are:

[0478]

	State 1	State 2	State 3	State 4
Return Per	1.2292	5.2921	3.7431	4.5052
Dollar
Invested

Consideration of Investment 1022 in this example, illustrates the uniformity of payouts for each state in which an investment is made (i.e., states 1, 3 and 4). If state 1 occurs, the total payout to the trader is the unit return for state 1—1.2292—multiplied by the amount traded for state 1 in trade 1022—$213.3426—plus the initial trade—$213.3426. This equals 1.2292*213.3426+213.3426=$475.58. If state 3 occurs, the payout is equal to 3.7431*100.2689+100.2689=$475.58. Finally, if state 4 occurs, the payout is equal to 4.5052*86.38848+86.38848=$475.58. So a preferred embodiment of a multi-state allocation in this example has effected an allocation among the constituent states so that (1) the desired payout distributions in this example are achieved, i.e., payouts to constituent states are the same no matter which constituent state occurs, and (2) further reallocation iterations of multi-state investments do not change the relative amounts invested across the distribution of states for all the multi-state trades.

[0479] Assumptions regarding the likely distribution of traded amounts for a group of DBAR contingent claims may be used, for example, to compute returns for each defined state per unit of amount invested at the beginning of a trading period (“opening returns”). For various reasons, the amount actually invested in each defined state may not reflect the assumptions used to calculate the opening returns. For instance, investors may speculate that the empirical distribution of returns over the time horizon may differ from the no-arbitrage assumptions typically used in option pricing. Instead of a lognormal distribution, more investors might make investments expecting returns to be significantly positive rather than negative (perhaps expecting favorable news). In Example 3.1.1, for instance, if traders invested more in states above $85 for the price of MSFT common stock, the returns to states below $85 could therefore be significantly higher than returns to states above $85.

[0480] In addition, it is well known to derivatives traders that traded option prices indicate that price distributions differ markedly from theoretical lognormality or similar theoretical distributions. The so-called volatility skew or “smile” refers to out-of-the-money put and call options trading at higher implied volatilities than options closer to the money. This indicates that traders often expect the distribution of prices to have greater frequency or mass at the extreme observations than predicted according to lognormal distributions. Frequently, this effect is not symmetric so that, for example, the probability of large lower price outcomes are higher than for extreme upward outcomes. Consequently, in a group of DBAR contingent claims of the present invention, investment in states in these regions may be more prevalent and, therefore, finalized returns on outcomes in those regions lower. For example, using the basic DBAR contingent claim information from Example 3.1.1, the following returns may prevail due to investor expectations of return distributions that have more frequent occurrences than those predicted by a lognormal distribution, and thus are skewed to the lower possible returns. In statistical parlance, such a distribution exhibits higher kurtosis and negative skewness in returns than the illustrative distribution used in Example 3.1.1 and reflected in Table 3.1.1-1.

[0481]

TABLE 3.1.3-1
DBAR Contingent Claim Returns Illustrating Negatively
Skewed and Leptokurtotic Return Distribution
		Amount Invested	Return Per Unit
	States	in State (′000)	if State Occurs
	(0, 80]	3,150	30.746
	(80, 80.5]	1,500	65.667
	(80.5, 81]	1,600	61.5
	(81, 81.5]	1,750	56.143
	(81.5, 82]	2,100	46.619
	(82, 82.5]	2,550	38.216
	(82.5, 83]	3,150	30.746
	(83, 83.5]	3,250	29.769
	(83.5, 84]	3,050	31.787
	(84, 84.5]	8,800	10.363
	(84.5, 85]	14,300	5.993
	(85, 85.5]	10,950	8.132
	(85.5, 86]	11,300	7.85
	(86, 86.5]	10,150	8.852
	(86.5, 87]	11,400	7.772
	(87, 87.5]	4,550	20.978
	(87.5, 88]	1,350	73.074
	(88, 88.5]	1,250	79.0
	(88.5, 89]	1,150	85.957
	(89, 89.5]	700	141.857
	(89.5, 90]	650	152.846
	(90, ∞]	1,350	73.074

[0482] The type of complex distribution illustrated in Table 3.1.3-1 is prevalent in the traditional markets. Derivatives traders, actuaries, risk managers and other traditional market participants typically use sophisticated mathematical and analytical tools in order to estimate the statistical nature of future distributions of risky market outcomes. These tools often rely on data sets (e.g., historical time series, options data) that may be incomplete or unreliable. An advantage of the systems and methods of the present invention is that such analyses from historical data need not be complicated, and the full outcome distribution for a group of DBAR contingent claims based on any given event is readily available to all traders and other interested parties nearly instantaneously after each investment.

[0483] It is also possible in preferred embodiments of the present invention to define states for a group of DBAR contingent claims with irregular or unevenly distributed intervals, for example, to make the traded amount across the states more liquid or uniform. States can be constructed from a likely estimate of the final distribution of invested amounts in order to make the likely invested amounts, and hence the returns for each state, as uniform as possible across the distribution of states. The following table illustrates the freedom, using the event and trading period from Example 3.1.1, to define states so as to promote equalization of the amount likely to be invested in each state.

[0484]

TABLE 3.1.4-1
State Definition to Make Likely Demand Uniform Across States
		Invested Amount	Return Per Unit
	States	in State (‘000)	if State Occurs
	(0, 81.403]	5,000	19
	(81.403, 82.181]	5,000	19
	(82.181, 82.71]	5,000	19
	(82.71, 83.132]	5,000	19
	(83.132, 83.497]	5,000	19
	(83.497, 83.826]	5,000	19
	(83.826, 84.131]	5,000	19
	(84.131, 84.422]	5,000	19
	(84.422, 84.705]	5,000	19
	(84.705, 84.984]	5,000	19
	(84.984, 85.264]	5,000	19
	(85.264, 85.549]	5,000	19
	(85.549, 85.845]	5,000	19
	(85.845, 86.158]	5,000	19
	(86.158, 86.497]	5,000	19
	(86.497, 86.877]	5,000	19
	(86.877, 87.321]	5,000	19
	(87.321, 87.883]	5,000	19
	(87.883, 88.722]	5,000	19
	(88.722, ∞]	5,000	19

[0485] If investor expectations coincide with the often-used assumption of the lognormal distribution, as reflected in this example, then investment activity in the group of contingent claims reflected in Table 3.1.4-1 will converge to investment of the same amount in each of the 20 states identified in the table. Of course, actual trading will likely yield final market returns which deviate from those initially chosen for convenience using a lognormal distribution.

[0486] The event, defined states, predetermined termination criteria and other relevant data for an illustrative group of DBAR contingent claims based on a U.S. Treasury Note are set forth below:

• • [0487] Underlying Security: United States Treasury Note, 5.5%, May 31, 2003
  • [0488] Bond Settlement Date: Jun. 25, 1999
  • [0489] Bond Maturity Date: May 31, 2003
  • [0490] Contingent Claim Expiration: Jul. 2, 1999, Market Close, 4:00 p.m. EST
  • [0491] Trading Period Start Date: Jun. 25, 1999, 4:00 p.m., EST
  • [0492] Trading Period End Date: Jun. 28, 1999, 4:00 p.m., EST
  • [0493] Next Trading Period Open: Jun. 28, 1999, 4:00 p.m., EST
  • [0494] Next Trading Period Close Jun. 29, 1999, 4:00 p.m., EST
  • [0495] Event: Closing Composite Price as reported on Bloomberg at Claim Expiration
  • [0496] Trading Time: 1 day
  • [0497] Duration from TED: 5 days
  • [0498] Coupon: 5.5%
  • [0499] Payment Frequency Semiannual
  • [0500] Daycount Basis Actual/Actual
  • [0501] Dividends Payable over Time Horizon: 2.75 per 100 on Jun. 30, 1999
  • [0502] Treasury note repo rate over Time Horizon: 4.0% (Actual/360 daycount)
  • [0503] Spot Price: 99.8125
  • [0504] Forward Price at Expiration: 99.7857
  • [0505] Price Volatility: 4.7%
  • [0506] Trade and Payout Units: U.S. Dollars
  • [0507] Total Demand in Current Trading Period: $50 million
  • [0508] Transaction Fee: 25 basis points (0.0025%)

[0509]

TABLE 3.1.5-1
DBAR Contingent Claims on U.S. Government Note
		Investment in	Unit Return if
	States	State ($)	State Occurs
	(0, 98]	139690.1635	356.04
	(98, 98.25]	293571.7323	168.89
	(98.25, 98.5]	733769.9011	66.97
	(98.5, 98.75]	1574439.456	30.68
	(98.75, 99]	2903405.925	16.18
	(99, 99.1]	1627613.865	29.64
	(99.1, 99.2]	1914626.631	25.05
	(99.2, 99.3]	2198593.057	21.68
	(99.3, 99.4]	2464704.885	19.24
	(99.4, 99.5]	2697585.072	17.49
	(99.5, 99.6]	2882744.385	16.30
	(99.6, 99.7]	3008078.286	15.58
	(99.7, 99.8]	3065194.576	15.27
	(99.8, 99.9]	3050276.034	15.35
	(99.9, 100]	2964602.039	15.82
	(100, 100.1]	2814300.657	16.72
	(100.1, 100.2]	2609637.195	18.11
	(100.2, 100.3]	2363883.036	20.10
	(100.3, 100.4]	2091890.519	22.84
	(100.4, 100.5]	1808629.526	26.58
	(100.5, 100.75]	3326547.254	13.99
	(100.75, 101]	1899755.409	25.25
	(101, 101.25]	941506.1374	51.97
	(101.25, 101.5]	405331.6207	122.05
	(101.5, ∞]	219622.6373	226.09

[0510] This Example 3.1.5 and Table 3.1.5-1 illustrate how readily the methods and systems of the present invention may be adapted to sources of risk, whether from stocks, bonds, or insurance claims. Table 3.1.5-1 also illustrates a distribution of defined states which is irregularly spaced—in this case finer toward the center of the distribution and coarser at the ends—in order to increase the amount invested in the extreme states.

[0511] One of the advantages of the system and methods of the present invention is the ability to construct groups of DBAR contingent claims based on multiple events and their inter-relationships. For example, many index fund money managers often have a fundamental view as to whether indices of high quality fixed income securities will outperform major equity indices. Such opinions normally are contained within a manager's model for allocating funds under management between the major asset classes such as fixed income securities, equities, and cash.

[0512] This Example 3.1.6 illustrates the use of a preferred embodiment of the systems and methods of the present invention to hedge the real-world event that one asset class will outperform another. The illustrative distribution of investments and calculated opening returns for the group of contingent claims used in this example are based on the assumption that the levels of the relevant asset-class indices are jointly lognormally distributed with an assumed correlation. By defining a group of DBAR contingent claims on a joint outcome of two underlying events, traders are able to express their views on the co-movements of the underlying events as captured by the statistical correlation between the events. In this example, the assumption of a joint lognormal distribution means that the two underlying events are distributed as follows:

[0513] ${\tilde{V}}_{\theta }^1=\left(\frac{V_{\tau }^1}{Z^1\left(\tau ,\theta \right)}-\frac{D^1\left(\tau ,\theta \right)}{Z^1\left(\tau ,\theta \right)}\right)*e^{-{\sigma }_1^2/2*\left(\theta -\tau \right)}*e^{{\sigma }_1*\sqrt{\theta -\tau }*{\mathrm{dz}}_1}$ ${\tilde{V}}_{\theta }^2=\left(\frac{V_{\tau }^2}{Z^2\left(\tau ,\theta \right)}-\frac{D^2\left(\tau ,\theta \right)}{Z^2\left(\tau ,\theta \right)}\right)*e^{-{\sigma }_2^2/2*\left(\theta -\tau \right)}*e^{{\sigma }_2*\sqrt{\theta -\tau }*{\mathrm{dz}}_2}$ $g\left({\mathrm{dz}}_1,{\mathrm{dz}}_2\right)=\frac{1}{2*\pi *\sqrt{1-{\rho }^2}}*\exp \left(-\frac{\left({\mathrm{dz}}_1^2+{\mathrm{dz}}_2^2-2*\rho *{\mathrm{dz}}_1*{\mathrm{dz}}_1\right)}{2*\left(1-{\rho }^2\right)}\right)$
where the subscripts and superscripts indicate each of the two events, and g(dz₁,dz₂) is the bivariate normal distribution with correlation parameter ρ, and the notation otherwise corresponds to the notation used in the description above of DBAR Range Derivatives.

[0514] The following information includes the indices, the trading periods, the predetermined termination criteria, the total amount invested and the value units used in this Example 3.1.6:

• • [0515] Asset Class 1: JP Morgan United States Government Bond Index (“JPMGBI”)
  • [0516] Asset Class 1 Forward Price at Observation: 250.0
  • [0517] Asset Class 1 Volatility: 5%
  • [0518] Asset Class 2: S&P 500 Equity Index (“SP500”)
  • [0519] Asset Class 2 Forward Price at Observation: 1410
  • [0520] Asset Class 2 Volatility: 18%
  • [0521] Correlation Between Asset Classes: 0.5
  • [0522] Contingent Claim Expiration: Dec. 31, 1999
  • [0523] Trading Start Date: Jun. 30, 1999
  • [0524] Current Trading Period Start Date: Jul. 1, 1999
  • [0525] Current Trading Period End Date: Jul. 30, 1999
  • [0526] Next Trading Period Start Date: Aug. 2, 1999
  • [0527] Next Trading Period End Date: Aug. 31, 1999
  • [0528] Current Date Jul. 12, 1999
  • [0529] Last Trading Period End Date: Dec. 30, 1999
  • [0530] Aggregate Investment for Current Trading Period: $100 million
  • [0531] Trade and Payout Value Units: U.S. Dollars
    Table 3.1.6 shows the illustrative distribution of state returns over the defined states for the joint outcomes based on this information, with the defined states as indicated.

[0532]

TABLE 3.1.6-1
Unit Returns for Joint Performance of S&P 500 and JPMGBI
	JPMGBI
		(0,	(233,	(237,	(241,	(244,	(246,	(248,	(250,	(252,	(255,	(257,	(259,	(264,	(268,
	State	233]	237]	241]	244]	246]	248]	250]	252]	255]	257]	259]	264]	268]	∞]
SP500	(0, 1102]	246	240	197	413	475	591	798	1167	1788	3039	3520	2330	11764	18518
	(1102, 1174]	240	167	110	197	205	230	281	373	538	841	1428	1753	7999	11764
	(1174, 1252]	197	110	61	99	94	98	110	135	180	259	407	448	1753	5207
	(1252, 1292]	413	197	99	145	130	128	136	157	197	269	398	407	1428	5813
	(1292, 1334]	475	205	94	130	113	106	108	120	144	189	269	259	841	3184
	(1334, 1377]	591	230	98	128	106	95	93	99	115	144	197	180	538	1851
	(1377, 1421]	798	281	110	136	108	93	88	89	99	120	157	135	373	1167
	(1421, 1467]	1167	373	135	157	120	99	89	88	93	108	136	110	281	798
	(1467, 1515]	1851	538	180	197	144	115	99	93	95	106	128	98	230	591
	(1515, 1564]	3184	841	259	269	189	144	120	108	106	113	130	94	205	475
	(1564, 1614]	5813	1428	407	398	269	197	157	136	128	130	145	99	197	413
	(1614, 1720]	5207	1753	448	407	259	180	135	110	98	94	99	61	110	197
	(1720, 1834]	11764	7999	1753	1428	841	538	373	281	230	205	197	110	167	240
	(1834, ∞]	18518	11764	2330	3520	3039	1788	1167	798	591	475	413	197	240	246

[0533] In Table 3.1.6-1, each cell contains the unit returns to the joint state reflected by the row and column entries. For example, the unit return to investments in the state encompassing the joint occurrence of the JPMGBI closing on expiration at 249 and the SP500 closing at 1380 is 88. Since the correlation between two indices in this example is assumed to be 0.5, the probability both indices will change in the same direction is greater that the probability that both indices will change in opposite directions. In other words, as represented in Table 3.1.6-1, unit returns to investments in states represented in cells in the upper left and lower right of the table—i.e., where the indices are changing in the same direction—are lower, reflecting higher implied probabilities, than unit returns to investments to states represented in cells in the lower left and upper right of Table 3.1.6-1—i.e., where the indices are changing in opposite directions.

[0534] As in the previous examples and in preferred embodiments, the returns illustrated in Table 3.1.6-1 could be calculated as opening indicative returns at the start of each trading period based on an estimate of what the closing returns for the trading period are likely to be. These indicative or opening returns can serve as an “anchor point” for commencement of trading in a group of DBAR contingent claims. Of course, actual trading and trader expectations may induce substantial departures from these indicative values.

[0535] Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to trade DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on multiple underlying events or variables and their inter-relationships. Market participants often have views about the joint outcome of two underlying events or assets. Asset allocation managers, for example, are concerned with the relative performance of bonds versus equities. An additional example of multivariate underlying events follows:

• • [0536] Joint Performance: Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to trade DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on the joint performance or observation of two different variables. For example, digital options traded in a demand-based market or auction can be based on an underlying event defined as the joint observation of non-farm payrolls and the unemployment rate.

[0537] Groups of DBAR contingent claims can also be constructed on credit events, such as the event that one of the major credit rating agencies (e.g., Standard and Poor's, Moodys) changes the rating for some or all of a corporation's outstanding securities. Indicative returns at the outset of trading for a group of DBAR contingent claims oriented to a credit event can readily be constructed from publicly available data from the rating agencies themselves. For example, Table 3.1.7-1 contains indicative returns for an assumed group of DBAR contingent claims based on the event that a corporation's Standard and Poor's credit rating for a given security will change over a certain period of time. In this example, states are defined using the Standard and Poor's credit categories, ranging from AAA to D (default). Using the methods of the present invention, the indicative returns are calculated using historical data on the frequency of the occurrence of these defined states. In this example, a transaction fee of 1% is charged against the aggregate amount invested in the group of DBAR contingent claims, which is assumed to be $100 million.

[0538]

TABLE 3.1.7-1
Illustrative Returns for Credit DBAR Contingent Claims with
1% Transaction Fee
				Indicative
Current	To New	Historical	Invested in	Return to
Rating	Rating	Probability	State ($)	State
A−	AAA	0.0016	160,000	617.75
A−	AA+	0.0004	40,000	2474.00
A−	AA	0.0012	120,000	824.00
A−	AA−	0.003099	309,900	318.46
A−	A+	0.010897	1,089,700	89.85
A−	A	0.087574	8,757,400	10.30
A−	A−	0.772868	77,286,800	0.28
A−	BBB+	0.068979	6,897,900	13.35
A−	BBB	0.03199	3,199,000	29.95
A−	BBB−	0.007398	739,800	132.82
A−	BB+	0.002299	229,900	429.62
A−	BB	0.004999	499,900	197.04
A−	BB−	0.002299	229,900	429.62
A−	B+	0.002699	269,900	365.80
A−	B	0.0004	40,000	2474.00
A−	B−	0.0004	40,000	2474.00
A−	CCC	1E−04	10,000	9899.00
A−	D	0.0008	80,000	1236.50

[0539] In Table 3.1.7-1, the historical probabilities over the mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive states sum to unity. As demonstrated above in this specification, in preferred embodiments, the transaction fee affects the probability implied for each state from the unit return for that state.

[0540] Actual trading is expected almost always to alter illustrative indicative returns based on historical empirical data. This Example 3.1.7 indicates how efficiently groups of DBAR contingent claims can be constructed for all traders or firms exposed to particular credit risk in order to hedge that risk. For example, in this Example, if a trader has significant exposure to the A− rated bond issue described above, the trader could want to hedge the event corresponding to a downgrade by Standard and Poor's. For example, this trader may be particularly concerned about a downgrade corresponding to an issuer default or “D” rating. The empirical probabilities suggest a payout of approximately $1,237 for each dollar invested in that state. If this trader has $100,000,000 of the corporate issue in his portfolio and a recovery of ratio of 0.3 can be expected in the event of default, then, in order to hedge $70,000,000 of default risk, the trader might invest in the state encompassing a “D” outcome. To hedge the entire amount of the default risk in this example, the amount of the investment in this state should be $70,000,000/$1,237 or $56,589.

[0541] This represents approximately 5.66 basis points of the trader's position size in this bond (i.e., $56,589/$100,000,000=0.00056)] which probably represents a reasonable cost of credit insurance against default. Actual investments in this group of DBAR contingent claims could alter the return on the “D” event over time and additional insurance might need to be purchased.

[0542] Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to offer a wide variety of products related to common measures of credit quality, including Moody's and S&P ratings, bankruptcy statistics, and recovery rates. For example, DBAR contingent claims can be based on an underlying event defined as the credit quality of Ford corporate debt as defined by the Standard & Poor's rating agency.

[0543] As financial markets have become more sophisticated, statistical information that measures economic activity has assumed increasing importance as a factor in the investment decisions of market participants. Such economic activity measurements may include, for example, the following U.S. federal government and U.S. and foreign private agency statistics:

• • [0544] Employment, National Output, and Income (Non-farm Payrolls, Gross Domestic Product, Personal Income)
  • [0545] Orders, Production, and Inventories (Durable Goods Orders, Industrial Production, Manufacturing Inventories)
  • [0546] Retail Sales, Housing Starts, Existing Home Sales, Current Account Balance, Employment Cost Index, Consumer Price Index, Federal Funds Target Rate
  • [0547] Agricultural statistics released by the U.S.D.A. (crop reports, etc.)
  • [0548] The National Association of Purchasing Management (NAPM) survey of manufacturing Standard and Poor's Quarterly Operating Earnings of the S&P 500
  • [0549] The semiconductor book-to-bill ratio published by the Semiconductor Industry Association
  • [0550] The Halifax House Price Index used extensively as an authoritative indicator of house price movements in the U.K.
    Because the economy is the primary driver of asset performance, every investor that takes a position in equities, foreign exchange, or fixed income will have exposure to economic forces driving these asset prices, either by accident or design. Accordingly, market participants expend considerable time and resources to assemble data, models and forecasts. In turn, corporations, governments, and financial intermediaries depend heavily on the economic forecasts to allocate resources and to make market projections.

[0551] To the extent that economic forecasts are inaccurate, inefficiencies and severe misallocation of resources can result. Unfortunately, traditional derivatives markets fail to provide market participants with a direct mechanism to protect themselves against the adverse consequences of falling demand or rising input prices on a macroeconomic level. Demand-based markets or auctions for economic products, however, provide market participants with a market price for the risk that a particular measure of economic activity will vary from expectations and a tool to properly hedge the risk. The market participants can trade in a market or an auction where the event of economic significance is an underlying measure of economic activity (e.g., the VIX index as calculated by the CBOE) or a measured parameter related to the underlying event (e.g., an implied volatility or standard deviation of the VIX index).

[0552] For example, traders often hedge inflation risk by trading in bond futures or, where they exist, inflation-protected floating rate bonds. A group of DBAR contingent claims can readily be constructed to allow traders to express expectations about the distribution of uncertain economic statistics measuring, for example, the rate of inflation or other relevant variables. The following information describes such a group of claims:

• • [0553] Economic Statistic: United States Non-Farm Payrolls
  • [0554] Announcement Date May 31, 1999
  • [0555] Last Announcement Date: Apr. 30, 1999
  • [0556] Expiration: Announcement Date, May 31, 1999
  • [0557] Trading Start Date: May 1, 1999
  • [0558] Current Trading Period Start Date: May 10, 1999
  • [0559] Current Trading Period End Date: May 14, 1999
  • [0560] Current Date May 11, 1999
  • [0561] Last Announcement: 128,156 ('000)
  • [0562] Source: Bureau of Labor Statistics
  • [0563] Consensus Estimate: 130,000 (+1.2%)
  • [0564] Aggregate Amount Invested in Current Period: $100 million
  • [0565] Transaction Fee: 2.0% of Aggregate Traded amount

[0566] Using methods and systems of the present invention, states can be defined and indicative returns can be constructed from, for example, consensus estimates among economists for this index. These estimates can be expressed in absolute values or, as illustrated, in Table 3.1.8-1 in percentage changes from the last observation as follows:

[0567]

TABLE 3.1.8-1
Illustrative Returns For Non-Farm Payrolls Release
with 2% Transaction Fee
	% Chg.	Investment		Implied
	In Index	in State		State
	State	(‘000)	State Returns	Probability
	[−100, −5]	100	979	0.001
	(−5, −3]	200	489	0.002
	(−3, −1]	400	244	0.004
	(−1, −.5]	500	195	0.005
	(−.5, 0]	1000	97	0.01
	(0, .5]	2000	48	0.02
	(.5, .7]	3000	31.66667	0.03
	(.7, .8]	4000	23.5	0.04
	(.8, .9]	5000	18.6	0.05
	(.9, 1.0]	10000	8.8	0.1
	(1.0, 1.1]	14000	6	0.14
	(1.1, 1.2]	22000	3.454545	0.22
	(1.2, 1.25]	18000	4.444444	0.18
	(1.25, 1.3]	9000	9.888889	0.09
	(1.3, 1.35]	6000	15.33333	0.06
	(1.35, 1.40]	3000	31.66667	0.03
	(1.40, 1.45]	200	489	0.002
	(1.45, 1.5]	600	162.3333	0.006
	(1.5, 1.6]	400	244	0.004
	(1.6, 1.7]	100	979	0.001
	(1.7, 1.8]	80	1224	0.0008
	(1.8, 1.9]	59	1660.017	0.00059
	(1.9, 2.0]	59	1660.017	0.00059
	(2.0, 2.1]	59	1660.017	0.00059
	(2.1, 2.2]	59	1660.017	0.00059
	(2.2, 2.4]	59	1660.017	0.00059
	(2.4, 2.6]	59	1660.017	0.00059
	(2.6, 3.0]	59	1660.017	0.00059
	(3.0, ∞]	7	13999	0.00007

As in examples, actual trading prior to the trading end date would be expected to adjust returns according to the amounts invested in each state and the total amount invested for all the states.

[0568] Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to offer a wide variety of products related to commonly observed indices and statistics related to economic activity and released or published by governments, and by domestic, foreign and international government or private companies, institutions, agencies or other entities. These may include a large number of statistics that measure the performance of the economy, such as employment, national income, inventories, consumer spending, etc., in addition to measures of real property and other economic activity. An additional example follows:

• • [0569] Private Economic Indices & Statistics: Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to trade DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on economic statistics released or published by private sources. For example, DBAR contingent claims can be based on an underlying event defined as the NAPM Index published by the National Association of Purchasing Managers.
    • [0570] Alternative private indices might also include measures of real property. For example, DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, can be based on an underlying event defined as the level of the Halifax House Price Index at year-end, 2001.

[0571] In addition to the general advantages of the demand-based trading system, demand-based products on economic statistics will provide the following new opportunities for trading and risk management:

• [0572] (1) Insuring against the event risk component of asset price movements. Statistical releases can often cause extreme short-term price movements in the fixed income and equity markets. Many market participants have strong views on particular economic reports, and try to capitalize on such views by taking positions in the bond or equity markets. Demand-based markets or auctions on economic statistics provide participants with a means of taking a direct view on economic variables, rather than the indirect approach employed currently.
• [0573] (2) Risk management for real economic activity. State governments, municipalities, insurance companies, and corporations may all have a strong interest in a particular measure of real economic activity. For example, the Department of Energy publishes the Electric Power Monthly which provides electricity statistics at the State, Census division, and U.S. levels for net generation, fossil fuel consumption and stocks, quantity and quality of fossil fuels, cost of fossil fuels, electricity retail sales, associated revenue, and average revenue. Demand-based markets or auctions based on one or more of these energy benchmarks can serve as invaluable risk management mechanisms for corporations and governments seeking to manage the increasingly uncertain outlook for electric power.
• [0574] (3) Sector-specific risk management. The Health Care CPI (Consumer Price Index) published by the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics tracks the CPI of medical care on a monthly basis in the CPI Detailed Report. A demand-based market or auction on this statistic would have broad applicability for insurance companies, drug companies, hospitals, and many other participants in the health care industry. Similarly, the semiconductor book-to-bill ratio serves as a direct measure of activity in the semiconductor equipment manufacturing industry. The ratio reports both shipments and new bookings with a short time lag, and hence is a useful measure of supply and demand balance in the semiconductor industry. Not only would manufacturers and consumers of semiconductors have a direct financial interest, but the ratio's status as a bellwether of the general technology market would invite participation from financial market participants as well.

[0575] Corporate actions and announcements are further examples of events of economic significance which are usually unhedgable or uninsurable in traditional markets but which can be effectively structured into groups of DBAR contingent claims according to the present invention.

[0576] In recent years, corporate earnings expectations, which are typically announced on a quarterly basis for publicly traded companies, have assumed increasing importance as more companies forego dividends to reinvest in continuing operations. Without dividends, the present value of an equity becomes entirely dependent on revenues and earnings streams that extend well into the future, causing the equity itself to take on the characteristics of an option. As expectations of future cash flows change, the impact on pricing can be dramatic, causing stock prices in many cases to exhibit option-like behavior.

[0577] Traditionally, market participants expend considerable time and resources to assemble data, models and forecasts. To the extent that forecasts are inaccurate, inefficiencies and severe misallocation of resources can result. Unfortunately, traditional derivatives markets fail to provide market participants with a direct mechanism to manage the unsystematic risks of equity ownership. Demand-based markets or auctions for corporate earnings and revenues, however, provide market participants with a concrete price for the risk that earnings and revenues may vary from expectations and permit them to insure or hedge or speculate on the risk.

[0578] Many data services, such as IBES and FirstCall, currently publish estimates by analysts and a consensus estimate in advance of quarterly earnings announcements. Such estimates can form the basis for indicative opening returns at the commencement of trading in a demand-based market or auction as illustrated below. For this example, a transaction fee of zero is assumed.

• • [0579] Underlying security: IBM
  • [0580] Earnings Announcement Date: Jul. 21, 1999
  • [0581] Consensus Estimate: 0.879/share
  • [0582] Expiration: Announcement, Jul. 21, 1999
  • [0583] First Trading Period Start Date: Apr. 19, 1999
  • [0584] First Trading Period End Date May 19, 1999
  • [0585] Current Trading Period Start Date: Jul. 6, 1999
  • [0586] Current Trading Period End Date: Jul. 9, 1999
  • [0587] Next Trading Period Start Date: Jul. 9, 1999
  • [0588] Next Trading Period End Date: Jul. 16, 1999
  • [0589] Total Amount Invested in Current Trading Period: $100 million

[0590]

TABLE 3.1.9-1
Illustrative Returns For IBM Earnings Announcement
		Invested		Implied
	Earnings	in State		State
	State0	(‘000 $)	Unit Returns	Probability
	(−∞, .5]	70	1,427.57	0.0007
	(.5, .6]	360	276.78	0.0036
	(.6, .65]	730	135.99	0.0073
	(.65, .7]	1450	67.97	0.0145
	(.7, .74]	2180	44.87	0.0218
	(.74, .78]	3630	26.55	0.0363
	(.78, ..8]	4360	21.94	0.0436
	(.8, .82]	5820	16.18	0.0582
	(.82, .84]	7270	12.76	0.0727
	(.84, .86]	8720	10.47	0.0872
	(.86, .87]	10900	8.17	0.109
	(.87, .88]	18170	4.50	0.1817
	(.88, .89]	8720	10.47	0.0872
	(.89, .9]	7270	12.76	0.0727
	(.9, .91]	5090	18.65	0.0509
	(.91, .92]	3630	26.55	0.0363
	(.92, .93]	2910	33.36	0.0291
	(.93, .95]	2180	44.87	0.0218
	(.95, .97]	1450	67.97	0.0145
	(.97, .99]	1310	75.34	0.0131
	(.99, 1.1]	1160	85.21	0.0116
	(1.1, 1.3]	1020	97.04	0.0102
	(1.3, 1.5]	730	135.99	0.0073
	(1.5, 1.7]	360	276.78	0.0036
	(1.7, 1.9]	220	453.55	0.0022
	(1.9, 2.1]	150	665.67	0.0015
	(2.1, 2.3]	70	1,427.57	0.0007
	(2.3, 2.5]	40	2,499.00	0.0004
	(2.5, ∞]	30	3,332.33	0.0003

Consistent with the consensus estimate, the state with the largest investment encompasses the range (0.87, 0.88].

[0591]

TABLE 3.1.9-2
Illustrative Returns for Microsoft Earnings Announcement
Strike	Bid	Offer	Payout	Volume
Calls
<40	0.9525	0.9575	1.0471	4,100,000
<41	0.9025	0.9075	1.1050	1,000,000
<42	0.8373	0.8423	1.1908	9,700
<43	0.7475	0.7525	1.3333	3,596,700
<44	0.622	0.627	1.6013	2,000,000
<45	0.4975	0.5025	2.0000	6,000,000
<46	0.3675	0.3725	2.7027	2,500,000
<47	0.2175	0.2225	4.5455	1,000,000
<48	0.1245	0.1295	7.8740	800,000
<49	0.086	0.091	11.2994	—
<50	0.0475	0.0525	20.000	194,700
Puts
<40	0.0425	0.0475	22.2222	193,100
<41	0.0925	0.0975	10.5263	105,500
<42	0.1577	0.1627	6.2422	—
<43	0.2475	0.2525	4.0000	1,200,000
<44	0.3730	0.3780	2.6631	1,202,500
<45	0.4975	0.5025	2.0000	6,000,000
<46	0.6275	0.6325	1.5873	4,256,600
<47	0.7775	0.7825	1.2821	3,545,700
<48	0.8705	0.8755	1.1455	5,500,000
<49	0.9090	0.9140	1.0971	—
<50	0.9475	0.9525	1.0526	3,700,000

[0592] The table above provides a sample distribution of trades that might be made for an April 23 auction period for Microsoft Q4 corporate earnings (June 2001), due to be released on Jul. 16, 2001.

[0593] For example, at 29 times trailing earnings and 28 times consensus 2002 earnings, Microsoft is experiencing single digit profit growth and is the object of uncertainty with respect to sales of Microsoft Office, adoption rates of Windows 2000, and the .Net initiative. In the sample demand-based market or auction based on earnings expectations depicted above, a market participant can engage, for example, in the following trading tactics and strategies with respect to DBAR digital options.

• • [0594] A fund manager wishing to avoid market risk at the current time but who still wants exposure to Microsoft can buy the 0.43 Earnings per Share Call (consensus currently 0.44-45) with reasonable confidence that reported earnings will be 43 cents or higher. Should Microsoft report earnings as expected, the trader earns approximately 33% on invested demand-based trading digital option premium (i.e., 1/option price of 0.7525). Conversely, should Microsoft report earnings below 43 cents, the invested premium would be lost, but the consequences for Microsoft's stock price would likely be dramatic.
  • [0595] A more aggressive strategy would involve selling or underweighting Microsoft stock, while purchasing a string of digital options on higher than expected EPS growth. In this case, the trader expects a multiple contraction to occur over the short to medium term, as the valuation becomes unsustainable. Using the market for DBAR contingent claims on earnings depicted above, a trader with a $5 million notional exposure to Microsoft can buy a string of digital call options, as follows:

[0596]

	Strike	Premium	Price	Net Payout
	.46	$37,000	0.3725	$62,329
	.47	22,000	0.2225	139,205
	.48	6,350	0.1295	181,890
	.49	4,425	0.0910	226,091
	.50	0	0.0525	226,091

• • • [0597] The payouts displayed immediately above are net of premium investment. Premiums invested are based on the trader's assessment of likely stock price (and price multiple) reaction to a possible earnings surprise. Similar trades in digital options on earnings would be made in successive quarters, resulting in a string of options on higher than expected earnings growth, to protect against an upward shift in the earnings expectation curve, as shown in FIG. 21.
    • [0598] The total cost, for this quarter, amounts to $69,775, just above a single quarter's interest income on the notional $5,000,000, invested at 5%.
  • [0599] A trader with a view on a range of earnings expectations for the quarter can profit from a spread strategy over the distribution. By purchasing the 0.42 call and selling the 0.46 call, the trader can construct a digital option spread priced at: 0.8423-0.3675=0.4748. This spread would, consequently, pay out: 1/0.4748=2.106, for every dollar invested.

[0600] Many trades can be constructed using demand-based trading for DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on corporate earnings. The examples shown here are intended to be representative, not definitive. Moreover, demand-based trading products can be based on corporate accounting measures, including a wide variety of generally accepted accounting information from corporate balance sheets, income statements, and other measures of cash flow, such as earnings before interest, taxes, depreciation, and amortization (EBITDA). The following examples provide a further representative sampling:

• • [0601] Revenues: Demand-based markets or auctions for DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options can be based on a measure or parameter related to Cisco revenues, such as the gross revenues reported by the Cisco Corporation. The underlying event for these claims is the quarterly or annual gross revenue figure for Cisco as calculated and released to the public by the reporting company.
  • [0602] EBITDA (Earnings Before Interest, Taxes, Depreciation, Amortization): Demand-based markets or auctions for DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options can be based on a measure or parameter related to AOL EBITDA, such as the EBITDA figure reported by AOL that is used to provide a measure of operating earnings. The underlying event for these claims is the quarterly or annual EBITDA figure for AOL as calculated and released to the public by the reporting company.
    In addition to the general advantages of the demand-based trading system, products based on corporate earnings and revenues may provide the following new opportunities for trading and risk management:
• [0603] (1) Trading the price of a stock relative to its earnings. Traders can use a market for earnings to create a “Multiple Trade,” in which a stock would be sold (or ‘not owned’) and a string of DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on quarterly earnings can be used as a hedge or insurance for stock believed to be overpriced. Market expectations for a company's earnings may be faulty, and may threaten the stability of a stock price, post announcement. Corporate announcements that reduce expectation for earnings and earnings growth highlight the consequences for high-multiple growth stocks that fail to meet expectations. For example, an equity investment manager might decide to underweight a high-multiple stock against a benchmark, and replace it with a series of DBAR digital options corresponding to a projected profile for earnings growth. The manager can compare the cost of this strategy with the risk of owning the underlying security, based on the company's PE ratio or some other metric chosen by the fund manager. Conversely, an investor who expects a multiple expansion for a given stock would purchase demand-based trading digital put options on earnings, retaining the stock for a multiple expansion while protecting against a shortfall in reported earnings.
• [0604] (2) Insuring against an earnings shortfall, while maintaining a stock position during a period when equity options are deemed too expensive. While DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on earnings are not designed to hedge stock prices, they can provide a cost-effective means to mitigate the risk of equity ownership over longer term horizons. For example, periodically, three-month stock options that are slightly out-of-the-money can command premiums of 10% or more. The ability to insure against possible earnings or revenue shortfalls one quarter or more in the future via purchases of DBAR digital options may represent an attractive alternative to conventional hedge strategies for equity price risks.
• [0605] (3) Insuring against an earnings shortfall that may trigger credit downgrades. Fixed income managers worried about potential exposure to credit downgrades from reduced corporate earnings can use DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, to protect against earnings shortfalls that would impact EBITDA and prompt declines in corporate bond prices. Conventional fixed income and convertible bond managers can protect against equity exposures without a short sale of the corresponding equity shares.
• [0606] (4) Obtaining low-risk, incremental returns. Market participants can use deep-in-the-money DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on earnings as a source of low-risk, uncorrelated returns.

[0607] Another advantage of the methods and systems of the present invention is the ability to structure liquid claims on illiquid underlying assets such a real estate. As previously discussed, traditional derivatives markets customarily use a liquid underlying market in order to function properly. With a group of DBAR contingent claims all that is usually required is a real-world, observable event of economic significance. For example, the creation of contingent claims tied to real assets has been attempted at some financial institutions over the last several years. These efforts have not been credited with an appreciable impact, apparently because of the primary liquidity constraints inherent in the underlying real assets.

[0608] A group of DBAR contingent claims according to the present invention can be constructed based on an observable event related to real estate. The relevant information for an illustrative group of such claims is as follows:

• • [0609] Real Asset Index: Colliers ABR Manhattan Office Rent Rates
  • [0610] Bloomberg Ticker: COLAMANR
  • [0611] Update Frequency Monthly
  • [0612] Source: Colliers ABR, Inc.
  • [0613] Announcement Date Jul. 31, 1999
  • [0614] Last Announcement Date: Jun. 30, 1999
  • [0615] Last Index Value: $45.39/sq. ft.
  • [0616] Consensus Estimate: $45.50
  • [0617] Expiration: Announcement Jul. 31, 1999
  • [0618] Current Trading Period Start: Jun. 30, 1999
  • [0619] Current Trading Period End: Jul. 7, 1999
  • [0620] Next Trading Period Start Jul. 7, 1999
  • [0621] Next Trading Period End Jul. 14, 1999

[0622] For reasons of brevity, defined states and opening indicative or illustrative returns resulting from amounts invested in the various states for this example are not shown, but can be calculated or will emerge from actual trader investments according to the methods of the present invention as illustrated in Examples 3.1.1-3.1.9.

[0623] Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to offer a wide variety of products related to real assets, such as real estate, bandwidth, wireless spectrum capacity, or computer memory. An additional example follows:

• • [0624] Computer Memory: Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to trade DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on computer memory components. For example, DBAR contingent claims can be based on an underlying event defined as the 64 Mb (8×8) PC 133 DRAM memory chip prices and on the rolling 90-day average of Dynamic Random Access Memory DRAM prices as reported each Friday by ICIS-LOR, a commodity price monitoring group based in London.

[0625] A group of DBAR contingent claims can also be constructed using the methods and systems of the present invention to provide hedging vehicles on non-tradable quantities of great economic significance within the supply chain of a given industry. An example of such an application is the number of oil rigs currently deployed in domestic U.S. oil production. The rig count tends to be a slowly adjusting quantity that is sensitive to energy prices. Thus, appropriately structured groups of DBAR contingent claims based on rig counts could enable suppliers, producers and drillers to hedge exposure to sudden changes in energy prices and could provide a valuable risk-sharing device.

[0626] For example, a group of DBAR contingent claims depending on the rig count could be constructed according to the present invention using the following information (e.g., data source, termination criteria, etc).

• • [0627] Asset Index: Baker Hughes Rig Count U.S. Total
  • [0628] Bloomberg Ticker: BAKETOT
  • [0629] Frequency: Weekly
  • [0630] Source: Baker Hughes, Inc.
  • [0631] Announcement Date: Jul. 16, 1999
  • [0632] Last Announcement Date: Jul. 9, 1999
  • [0633] Expiration Date: Jul. 16, 1999
  • [0634] Trading Start Date: Jul. 9, 1999
  • [0635] Trading End Date: Jul. 15, 1999
  • [0636] Last: 570
  • [0637] Consensus Estimate: 580

[0638] For reasons of brevity, defined states and opening indicative or illustrative returns resulting from amounts invested in the various states for this example are not shown, but can be readily calculated or will emerge from actual trader investments according to the methods of the present invention, as illustrated in Examples 3.1.1-3.1.9. A variety of embodiments of DBAR contingent claims, including for example, digital options, can be based on an underlying event defined as the Baker Hughes Rig Count observed on a semi-annual basis.

[0639] Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to offer a wide variety of products related to power and emissions, including electricity prices, loads, degree-days, water supply, and pollution credits. The following examples provide a further representative sampling:

• • [0640] Electricity Prices Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to trade DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on the price of electricity at various points on the electricity grid. For example, DBAR contingent claims can be based on an underlying event defined as the weekly average price of electricity in kilowatt-hours at the New York Independent System Operator (NYISO).
  • [0641] Transmission Load Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to trade DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on the actual load (power demand) experienced for a particular power pool, allowing participants to trade volume, in addition to price. For example, DBAR contingent claims can be based on an underlying event defined as the weekly total load demand experienced by Pennsylvania-New Jersey-Maryland Interconnect (PJM Western Hub).
  • [0642] Water: Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to trade DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on water supply. Water measures are useful to a broad variety of constituents, including power companies, agricultural producers, and municipalities. For example, DBAR contingent claims can be based on an underlying event defined as the cumulative precipitation observed at weather stations maintained by the National Weather Service in the Northwest catchment area, including Washington, Idaho, Montana, and Wyoming.
  • [0643] Emission Allowances: Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to trade DBAR contingent claims; including, for example, digital options, based on emission allowances for various pollutants. For example, DBAR contingent claims can be based on an underlying event defined as price of Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) sulfur dioxide allowances at the annual market or auction administered by the Chicago Board of Trade.

[0644] Real estate mortgages comprise an extremely large fixed income asset class with hundreds of billions in market capitalization. Market participants generally understand that these mortgage-backed securities are subject to interest rate risk and the risk that borrowers may exercise their options to refinance their mortgages or otherwise “prepay” their existing mortgage loans. The owner of a mortgage security, therefore, bears the risk of being “called” out of its position when mortgage interest rate levels decline.

[0645] Market participants expend considerable time and resources assembling econometric models and synthesizing various data populations in order to generate prepayment projections. To the extent that economic forecasts are inaccurate, inefficiencies and severe misallocation of resources can result. Unfortunately, traditional derivatives markets fail to provide market participants with a direct mechanism to protect themselves against a homeowner's exercise of its prepayment option. Demand-based markets or auctions for mortgage prepayment products, however, provide market participants with a concrete price for prepayment risk.

[0646] Groups of DBAR contingent claims can be structured according to the present invention, for example, based on the following information:

• • [0647] Asset Index: FNMA Conventional 30 year One-Month Historical Aggregate Prepayments
  • [0648] Coupon: 6.5%
  • [0649] Frequency: Monthly
  • [0650] Source: Bloomberg
  • [0651] Announcement Date Aug. 1, 1999
  • [0652] Last Announcement Date: Jul. 1, 1999
  • [0653] Expiration: Announcement Date, Aug. 1, 1999
  • [0654] Current Trading Period Start Date: Jul. 1, 1999
  • [0655] Current Trading Period End Date: Jul. 9, 1999
  • [0656] Last: 303 Public Securities Association Prepayment Speed (“PSA”)
  • [0657] Consensus Estimate: 310 PSA

[0658] For reasons of brevity, defined states and opening indicative or illustrative returns resulting from amounts invested in the various states for this example are not shown, but can be readily calculated or will emerge from actual trader investments according to the methods of the present invention, as illustrated in Examples 3.1.1-3.1.9.

[0659] In addition to the general advantages of the demand-based trading system, products on mortgage prepayments may provide the following exemplary new opportunities for trading and risk management:

• [0660] (1) Asset-specific applications. In the simplest form, the owner of a prepayable mortgage-backed security carries, by definition, a series of short option positions embedded in the asset, whereas a DBAR contingent claim, including, for example, a digital option, based on mortgage prepayments would constitute a long option position. A security owner would have the opportunity to compare the digital option's expected return with the prospective loss of principal, correlate the offsetting options, and invest accordingly. While this tactic would not eliminate reinvestment risks, per se, it would generate incremental investment returns that would reduce the security owner's embedded liabilities with respect to short option positions.
• [0661] (2) Portfolio applications. Certainly, a similar strategy could be applied on an expanded basis to a portfolio of mortgage-backed securities, or a portfolio of whole mortgage loans.
• [0662] (3) Enhancements to specific pools. Certain pools of seasoned mortgage loans exhibit consistent prepayment patterns, based upon comprehensible factors—origination period, underwriting standards, borrower circumstances, geographic phenomena, etc. Because of homogeneous prepayment performance, mortgage market participants can obtain greater confidence with respect to the accuracy of predictions for prepayments in these pools, than in the case of pools of heterogeneous, newly originated loans that lack a prepayment history. Market conventions tend to assign lower volatility estimates to the correlation of prepayment changes in seasoned pools for given interest rate changes, than in the case of newer pools. A relatively consistent prepayment pattern for seasoned mortgage loan pools would heighten the certainty of correctly anticipating future prepayments, which would heighten the likelihood of consistent success in trading in DBAR contingent claims such as, for example, digital options, based on respective mortgage prepayments. Such digital option investments, combined with seasoned pools, would tend to enhance annuity-like cash profiles, and reduce investment risks.
• [0663] (4) Prepayment puts plus discount MBS. Discount mortgage-backed securities tend to enjoy two-fold benefits as interest rates decline in the form of positive price changes and increases in prepayment speeds. Converse penalties apply in events of increases in interest rates, where a discount MBS suffers from adverse price change, and a decline in prepayment income. A discount MBS owner could offset diminished prepayment income by investing in DBAR contingent claims, such as, for example, digital put options, or digital put option spreads on prepayments. An analogous strategy would apply to principal-only mortgage-backed securities.
• [0664] (5) Prepayment calls plus premium MBS. An expectation of interest rate declines that accelerate prepayment activity for premium mortgage-backed securities would motivate a premium bond-holder to purchase DBAR contingent claims, such as, for example, digital call options, based on mortgage prepayments to offset losses attributable to unwelcome paydowns. The analogue would also apply to interest-only mortgage-backed securities.
• [0665] (6) Convexity additions. An investment in a DBAR contingent claim, such as, for example, a digital option, based on mortgage prepayments should effectively add convexity to an interest rate sensitive investment. According to this reasoning, dollar-weighted purchases of a demand-based market or auction on mortgage prepayments would tend to offset the negative convexity exhibited by mortgage-backed securities. It is likely that expert participants in the mortgage marketplace will analyze and test, and ultimately harvest, the fruitful opportunities for combinations of DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on mortgage prepayments with mortgage-backed securities and derivatives.

[0666] The cumulative impact of catastrophic and non-catastrophic insurance losses over the past two years has reduced the capital available in the retrocession market (i.e. reinsurance for reinsurance companies) and pushed up insurance and reinsurance rates for property catastrophe coverage. Because large reinsurance companies operate global businesses with global exposures, severe losses from catastrophes in one country tend to drive up insurance and reinsurance rates for unrelated perils in other countries simply due to capital constraints.

[0667] As capital becomes scarce and insurance rates increase, market participants usually access the capital markets by purchasing catastrophic bonds (CAT bonds) issued by special purpose reinsurance companies. The capital markets can absorb the risk of loss associated with larger disasters, whereas a single insurer or even a group of insurers cannot, because the risk is spread across many more market participants.

[0668] Unlike traditional capital markets that generally exhibit a natural two-way order flow, insurance markets typically exhibit one-way demand generated by participants desiring protection from adverse outcomes. Because demand-based trading products do not require an underlying source of supply, such products provide an attractive alternative for access to capital.

[0669] Groups of DBAR contingent claims can be structured using the system and methods of the present invention to provide insurance and reinsurance facilities for property and casualty, life, health and other traditional lines of insurance. The following information provides information to structure a group of DBAR contingent claims related to large property losses from hurricane damage:

• • [0670] Event: PCS Eastern Excess $5 billion Index
  • [0671] Source: Property Claim Services (PCS)
  • [0672] Frequency: Monthly
  • [0673] Announcement Date Oct. 1, 1999
  • [0674] Last Announcement Date: Jul. 1, 1999
  • [0675] Last Index Value: No events
  • [0676] Consensus Estimate: $1 billion (claims excess of $5 billion)
  • [0677] Expiration: Announcement Date, Oct. 1, 1999
  • [0678] Trading Period Start Date: Jul. 1, 1999
  • [0679] Trading Period End Date: Sep. 30, 1999

[0680] For reasons of brevity, defined states and opening indicative or illustrative returns resulting from amounts invested in the various states for this example are not shown, but can be readily calculated or will emerge from actual trader investments according to the methods of the present invention, as illustrated in Examples 3.1.1-3.1.9.

[0681] In preferred embodiments of groups of DBAR contingent claims related to property-casualty catastrophe losses, the frequency of claims and the distributions of the severity of losses are assumed and convolutions are performed in order to post indicative returns over the distribution of defined states. This can be done, for example, using compound frequency-severity models, such as the Poisson-Pareto model, familiar to those of skill in the art, which predict, with greater probability than a normal distribution, when losses will be extreme. As indicated previously, in preferred embodiments market activity is expected to alter the posted indicative returns, which serve as informative levels at the commencement of trading.

[0682] Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to offer a wide variety of products related to insurance industry loss warranties and other insurable risks, including property and non-property catastrophe, mortality rates, mass torts, etc. An additional example follows:

• • [0683] Property Catastrophe: Demand-based markets or auctions can be based on the outcome of natural catastrophes, including earthquake, fire, atmospheric peril, and flooding, etc. Underlying events can be based on hazard parameters. For example, DBAR contingent claims can be based on an underlying event defined as the cumulative losses sustained in California as the result of earthquake damage in the year 2002, as calculated by the Property Claims Service (PCS).

[0684] In addition to the general advantages of the demand-based trading system, products on catastrophe risk will provide the following new opportunities for trading and risk management:

• [0685] (1) Greater transaction efficiency and precision. A demand-based trading catastrophe risk product, such as, for example, a DBAR digital option, allows participants to buy or sell a precise notional quantity of desired risk, at any point along a catastrophe risk probability curve, with a limit price for the risk. A series of loss triggers can be created for catastrophic events that offer greater flexibility and customization for insurance transactions, in addition to indicative pricing for all trigger levels. Segments of risk coverage can be traded with ease and precision. Participants in demand-based trading catastrophe risk products gain the ability to adjust risk protection or exposure to a desired level. For example, a reinsurance company may wish to purchase protection at the tail of a distribution, for unlikely but extremely catastrophic losses, while writing insurance in other parts of the distribution where returns may appear attractive.
• [0686] (2) Credit quality. Claims-paying ability of an insurer or reinsurer represents an important concern for many market participants. Participants in a demand-based market or auction do not depend on the credit quality of an individual insurance or reinsurance company. A demand-based market or auction is by nature self-funding, meaning that catastrophic losses in other product or geographic areas will not impair the ability of a demand-based trading catastrophe risk product to make capital distributions.

[0687] As discussed above, advantage of the systems and methods of the present invention is the ability to construct groups of DBAR contingent claims related to events of economic significance for which there is great interest in insurance and hedging, but which are not readily hedged or insured in traditional capital and insurance markets. Another example of such an event is one that occurs only when some related event has previously occurred. For purposes of illustration, these two events may be denoted A and B.

[0688] $q\langle A❘B\rangle =\frac{q\left(A\bigcap B\right)}{q\left(B\right)}$
where q denotes the probability of a state, qA|B represents the conditional probability of state A given the prior occurrence of state and B, and q(A∩B) represents the occurrence of both states A and B.

[0689] For example, a group of DBAR contingent claims may be constructed to combine elements of “key person” insurance and the performance of the stock price of the company managed by the key person. Many firms are managed by people whom capital markets perceive as indispensable or particularly important, such as Warren Buffett of Berkshire Hathaway. The holders of Berkshire Hathaway stock have no ready way of insuring against the sudden change in management of Berkshire, either due to a corporate action such as a takeover or to the death or disability of Warren Buffett. A group of conditional DBAR contingent claims can be constructed according to the present invention where the defined states reflect the stock price of Berkshire Hathaway conditional on Warren Buffet's leaving the firm's management. Other conditional DBAR contingent claims that could attract significant amounts for investment can be constructed using the methods and systems of the present invention, as apparent to one of skill in the art.

[0690] The systems and methods of the present invention can also be adapted by a financial intermediary or issuer for the issuance of securities such as bonds, common or preferred stock, or other types of financial instruments. The process of creating new opportunities for hedging underlying events through the creation of new securities is known as “securitization,” and is also discussed in an embodiment presented in Section 10. Well-known examples of securitization include the mortgage and asset-backed securities markets, in which portfolios of financial risk are aggregated and then recombined into new sources of financial risk. The systems and methods of the present invention can be used within the securitization process by creating securities, or portfolios of securities, whose risk, in whole or part, is tied to an associated or embedded group of DBAR contingent claims. In a preferred embodiment, a group of DBAR contingent claims is associated with a security much like options are currently associated with bonds in order to create callable and putable bonds in the traditional markets.

[0691] This example illustrates how a group of DBAR contingent claims according to the present invention can be tied to the issuance of a security in order to share risk associated with an identified future event among the security holders. In this example, the security is a fixed income bond with an embedded group of DBAR contingent claims whose value depends on the possible values for hurricane losses over some time period for some geographic region.

• • [0692] Issuer: Tokyo Fire and Marine
  • [0693] UnderWriter: Goldman Sachs
  • [0694] DBAR Event: Total Losses on a Saffir-Simpson Category 4 Hurricane
  • [0695] Geographic: Property Claims Services Eastern North America
  • [0696] Date: Jul. 1, 1999-Nov. 1, 1999
  • [0697] Size of Issue: 500 million USD.
  • [0698] Issue Date Jun. 1, 1999
  • [0699] DBAR Trading Period: Jun. 1, 1999-Jul. 1, 1999

[0700] In this example, the underwriter Goldman Sachs issues the bond, and holders of the issued bond put bond principal at risk over the entire distribution of amounts of Category 4 losses for the event. Ranges of possible losses comprise the defined states for the embedded group of DBAR contingent claims. In a preferred embodiment, the underwriter is responsible for updating the returns to investments in the various states, monitoring credit risk, and clearing and settling, and validating the amount of the losses. When the event is determined and uncertainty is resolved, Goldman is “put” or collects the bond principal at risk from the unsuccessful investments and allocates these amounts to the successful investments. The mechanism in this illustration thus includes:

• • [0701] (1) An underwriter or intermediary which implements the mechanism, and
  • [0702] (2) A group of DBAR contingent claims directly tied to a security or issue (such as the catastrophe bond above).

[0703] For reasons of brevity, defined states and opening indicative or illustrative returns resulting from amounts invested in the various states for this example are not shown, but can be readily calculated or will emerge from actual trader investments according to the methods of the present invention, as illustrated in Examples 3.1.1-3.1.9.

[0704] The securities and derivatives communities frequently use the term “exotic derivatives” to refer to derivatives whose values are linked to a security, asset, financial product or source of financial risk in a more complicated fashion than traditional derivatives such as futures, call options, and convertible bonds. Examples of exotic derivatives include American options, Asian options, barrier options, Bermudan options, chooser and compound options, binary or digital options, lookback options, automatic and flexible caps and floors, and shout options.

[0705] Many types of exotic options are currently traded. For example, barrier options are rights to purchase an underlying financial product, such as a quantity of foreign currency, for a specified rate or price, but only if, for example, the underlying exchange rate crosses or does not cross one or more defined rates or “barriers.” For example, a dollar call/yen put on the dollar/yen exchange rate, expiring in three months with strike price 110 and “knock-out” barrier of 105, entitles the holder to purchase a quantity of dollars at 110 yen per dollar, but only if the exchange rate did not fall below 105 at any point during the three month duration of the option. Another example of a commonly traded exotic derivative, an Asian option, depends on the average value of the underlying security over some time period. Thus, a class of exotic derivatives is commonly referred to as “path-dependent” derivatives, such as barrier and Asian options, since their values depend not only on the value of the underlying financial product at a given date, but on a history of the value or state of the underlying financial product.

[0706] The properties and features of exotic derivatives are often so complex so as to present a significant source of “model risk” or the risk that the tools, or the assumptions upon which they are based, will lead to significant errors in pricing and hedging. Accordingly, derivatives traders and risk managers often employ sophisticated analytical tools to trade, hedge, and manage the risk of exotic derivatives.

[0707] One of the advantages of the systems and methods of the present invention is the ability to construct groups of DBAR contingent claims with exotic features that are more manageable and transparent than traditional exotic derivatives. For example, a trader might be interested in the earliest time the yen/dollar exchange rate crosses 95 over the next three months. A traditional barrier option, or portfolio of such exotic options, might suffice to approximate the source of risk of interest to this trader. A group of DBAR contingent claims, in contrast, can be constructed to isolate this risk and present relatively transparent opportunities for hedging. A risk to be isolated is the distribution of possible outcomes for what barrier derivatives traders term the “first passage time,” or, in this example, the first time that the yen/dollar exchange rate crosses 95 over the next three months.

[0708] The following illustration shows how such a group of DBAR contingent claims can be constructed to address this risk. In this example, it is assumed that all traders in the group of claims agree that the underlying exchange rate is lognormally distributed. This group of claims illustrates how traders would invest in states and thus express opinions regarding whether and when the forward yen/dollar exchange rate will cross a given barrier over the next 3 months:

• • [0709] Underlying Risk: Japanese/U.S. Dollar Yen Exchange Rate
  • [0710] Current Date Sep. 15, 1999
  • [0711] Expiration: Forward Rate First Passage Time, as defined, between Sep. 16, 1999 to Dec. 16, 1999
  • [0712] Trading Start Date: Sep. 15, 1999
  • [0713] Trading End Date: Sep. 16, 1999
  • [0714] Barrier: 95
  • [0715] Spot JPY/USD: 104.68
  • [0716] Forward JPY/USD 103.268
  • [0717] Assumed (Illustrative) Market Volatility: 20% annualized
  • [0718] Aggregate Traded Amount: 10 million USD

[0719]

TABLE 3.1.16-1
First Passage Time for Yen/Dollar Dec. 16, 1999 Forward
Exchange Rate
	Time in	Invested in	Return Per Unit
	Year Fractions	State (‘000)	if State Occurs
	(0, .005]	229.7379	42.52786
	(.005, .01]	848.9024	10.77992
	(.01, .015]	813.8007	11.28802
	(.015, .02]	663.2165	14.07803
	(.02, .025]	536.3282	17.6453
	(.025 .03]	440.5172	21.70059
	(.03, .035]	368.4647	26.13964
	(.035, .04]	313.3813	30.91
	(.04, .045]	270.4207	35.97942
	(.045, .05]	236.2651	41.32534
	(.05, .075]	850.2595	10.76112
	(.075, .1]	540.0654	17.51627
	(.1, .125]	381.3604	25.22191
	(.125, .15]	287.6032	33.77013
	(.15, .175]	226.8385	43.08423
	(.175, .2]	184.8238	53.10558
	(.2, .225]	154.3511	63.78734
	(.225, .25]	131.4217	75.09094
	Did Not Hit Barrier	2522.242	2.964727

[0720] As with other examples, and in preferred embodiments, actual trading will likely generate traded amounts and therefore returns that depart from the assumptions used to compute the illustrative returns for each state.

[0721] In addition to the straightforward multivariate events outlined above, demand-based markets or auctions can be used to create and trade digital options (as described in Sections 6 and 7) on calculated underlying events (including the events described in this Section 3), similar to those found in exotic derivatives. Many exotic derivatives are based on path-dependent outcomes such as the average of an underlying event over time, price thresholds, a multiple of the underlying, or some sort of time constraint. An additional example follows:

• • [0722] Path Dependent: Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to trade DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, on an underlying event that is the subject of a calculation. For example, digital options traded in a demand-based market or auction could be based on an underlying event defined as the average price of yen/dollar exchange rate for the last quarter of 2001.

[0723] Investment and capital budgeting choices faced by firms typically involve inherent economic risk (e.g., future demand for semiconductors), large capital investments (e.g., semiconductor fabrication capacity) and timing (e.g., a decision to invest in a plant now, or defer for some period of time). Many economists who study such decisions under uncertainty have recognized that such choices involve what they term “real options.” This characterization indicates that the choice to invest now or to defer an investment in goods or services or a plant, for example, in the face of changing uncertainty and information, frequently entails risks similar to those encountered by traders who have invested in options which provide the opportunity to buy or sell an underlying asset in the capital markets. Many economists and investors recognize the importance of real options in capital budgeting decisions and of setting up markets to better manage their uncertainty and value. Natural resource and extractive industries, such as petroleum exploration and production, as well as industries requiring large capital investments such as technology manufacturing, are prime examples of industries where real options analysis is increasingly used and valued.

[0724] Groups of DBAR contingent claims according to the present invention can be used by firms within a given industry to better analyze capital budgeting decisions, including those involving real options. For example, a group of DBAR contingent claims can be established which provides hedging opportunities over the distribution of future semiconductor prices. Such a group of claims would allow producers of semiconductors to better hedge their capital budgeting decisions and provide information as to the market's expectation of future prices over the entire distribution of possible price outcomes. This information about the market's expectation of future prices could then also be used in the real options context in order to better evaluate capital budgeting decisions. Similarly, computer manufacturers could use such groups of DBAR contingent claims to hedge against adverse semiconductor price changes.

[0725] Information providing the basis for constructing an illustrative group of DBAR contingent claims on semiconductor prices is as follows:

• • [0726] Underlying Event: Semiconductor Monthly Sales
  • [0727] Index: Semiconductor Industry Association Monthly Global Sales Release
  • [0728] Current Date Sep. 15, 1999
  • [0729] Last Release Date: Sep. 2, 1999
  • [0730] Last Release Month: July, 1999
  • [0731] Last Release Value: 11.55 Billion, USD
  • [0732] Next Release Date: Approx. Oct. 1, 1999
  • [0733] Next Release Month: August 1999
  • [0734] Trading Start Date: Sep. 2, 1999
  • [0735] Trading End Date: Sep. 30, 1999

[0736] For reasons of brevity, defined states and opening indicative or illustrative returns resulting from amounts invested in the various states for this example are not shown, but can be readily calculated or will emerge from actual trader investments according to the methods of the present invention, as illustrated in previous examples.

[0737] Groups of DBAR contingent claims according to the present invention can also be used to hedge arbitrary sources of risk due to price discovery processes. For example, firms involved in competitive bidding for goods or services, whether by sealed bid or open bid markets or auctions, can hedge their investments and other capital expended in preparing the bid by investing in states of a group of DBAR contingent claims comprising ranges of mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive market or auction bids. In this way, the group of DBAR contingent claim serves as a kind of “meta-auction,” and allows those who will be participating in the market or auction to invest in the distribution of possible market or auction outcomes, rather than simply waiting for the single outcome representing the market or auction result. Market or auction participants could thus hedge themselves against adverse market or auction developments and outcomes, and, importantly, have access to the entire probability distribution of bids (at least at one point in time) before submitting a bid into the real market or auction. Thus, a group of DBAR claims could be used to provide market data over the entire distribution of possible bids. Preferred embodiments of the present invention thus can help avoid the so-called Winner's Curse phenomenon known to economists, whereby market or auction participants fail rationally to take account of the information on the likely bids of their market or auction competitors.

[0738] Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to offer a wide variety of products related to commodities such as fuels, chemicals, base metals, precious metals, agricultural products, etc. The following examples provide a further representative sampling:

• • [0739] Fuels: Demand-based markets or auctions can be based on measures related to various fuel sources. For example, DBAR contingent claims, including, e.g., digital options, can be based on an underlying event defined as the price of natural gas in Btu's delivered to the Henry Hub, Louisiana.
  • [0740] Chemicals: Demand-based markets or auctions can be based on measures related to a variety of other chemicals. For example, DBAR contingent claims, including, e.g., digital options, can be based on an underlying event defined as the price of polyethylene.
  • [0741] Base Metals Demand-based markets or auctions can be based on measures related to various precious metals. For example, DBAR contingent claims, including, e.g., digital options, can be based on an underlying event defined as the price per gross ton of #1 Heavy Melt Scrap Iron.
  • [0742] Precious Metals Demand-based markets or auctions can be based on measures related to various precious metals. For example, DBAR contingent claims, including, e.g., digital options, can be based on an underlying event defined as the price per troy ounce of Platinum delivered to an approved storage facility.
  • [0743] Agricultural Products: Demand-based markets or auctions can be based on measures related to various agricultural products. For example, DBAR contingent claims, including, e.g., digital options, can be based on an underlying event defined as the price per bushel of #2 yellow corn delivered at the Chicago Switching District.

[0744] Another feature of the systems and methods of the present invention is the relative ease with which traders can hedge risky exposures. In the following example, it is assumed that a group of DBAR contingent claims has two states (state 1 and state 2, or s₁ or s₂), and amounts T₁, and T₂ are invested in state 1 and state 2, respectively. The unit payout π₁ for state 1 is therefore T₂/T₁ and for state 2 it is T₁/T₂. If a trader then invests amount α₁ in state 1, and state 1 then occurs, the trader in this example would receive the following payouts, P, indexed by the appropriate state subscripts:

[0745] $P_1={\alpha }_1*\left(\frac{T_2}{T_1+{\alpha }_1}+1\right)$
If state 2 occurs the trader would receive
P₂=0
If, at some point during the trading period, the trader desires to hedge his exposure, the investment in state 2 to do so is calculated as follows:

[0746] ${\alpha }_2=\frac{{\alpha }_1*T_2}{T_1}$
This is found by equating the state payouts with the proposed hedge trade, as follows:

[0747] $P_1={\alpha }_1*\left(\frac{T_2+{\alpha }_2}{T_1+{\alpha }_1}+1\right)=P_2={\alpha }_2*\left(\frac{T_1+{\alpha }_1}{T_2+{\alpha }_2}+1\right)$

[0748] Compared to the calculation required to hedge traditional derivatives, these expressions show that, in appropriate groups of DBAR contingent claims of the present invention, calculating and implementing hedges can be relatively straightforward.

[0749] The hedge ratio, α₂, just computed for a simple two state example can be adapted to a group of DBAR contingent claims which is defined over more than two states. In a preferred embodiment of a group of DBAR contingent claims, the existing investments in states to be hedged can be distinguished from the states on which a future hedge investment is to be made. The latter states can be called the “complement” states, since they comprise all the states that can occur other than those in which investment by a trader has already been made, i.e., they are complementary to the invested states. A multi-state hedge in a preferred embodiment includes two steps: (1) determining the amount of the hedge investment in the complement states, and (2) given the amount so determined, allocating the amount among the complement states. The amount of the hedge investment in the complement states pursuant to the first step is calculated as:

[0750] ${\alpha }_C=\frac{{\alpha }_H*T_C}{T_H}$
where α_C is amount of the hedge investment in the complement states, α_H is the amount of the existing investment in the states to be hedged, T_c is the existing amount invested in the complement states, and T_H is the amount invested the states to be hedged, exclusive of α_H. The second step involves allocating the hedge investment among the complement states, which can be done by allocating α_c among the complement states in proportion to the existing amounts already invested in each of those states.

[0751] An example of a four-state group of DBAR contingent claims according to the present invention illustrates this two-step hedging process. For purposes of this example, the following assumptions are made: (i) there are four states, numbered 1 through 4, respectively; (ii) $50, $80, $70 and $40 is invested in each state, (iii) a trader has previously placed a multi-state investment in the amount of $10 (α_H as defined above) for states 1 and 2; and (iv) the allocation of this multi-state investment in states 1 and 2 is $3.8462 and $6.15385, respectively. The amounts invested in each state, excluding the trader's invested amounts, are therefore $46.1538, $73.84615, $70, and $40 for states 1 through 4, respectively. It is noted that the amount invested in the states to be hedged, i.e., states 1 and 2, exclusive of the multi-state investment of $10, is the quantity T_H as defined above.

[0752] The first step in a preferred embodiment of the two-step hedging process is to compute the amount of the hedge investment to be made in the complement states. As derived above, the amount of the new hedge investment is equal to the amount of the existing investment multiplied by the ratio of the amount invested in the complement states to the amount invested in the states to be hedged, excluding the trader's existing trades, i.e., $10*($70+$40)/($46.1538+$73.84615)=$9.16667. The second step in this process is to allocate this amount between the two complement states, i.e., states 3 and 4.

[0753] Following the procedures discussed above for allocating multi-state investments, the complement state allocation is accomplished by allocating the hedge investment amount—$9.16667 in this example—in proportion to the existing amount previously invested in the complement states, i.e., $9.16667*$70/$110=$5.83333 for state 3 and $9.16667*$40/$110=$3.3333 for state 4. Thus, in this example, the trader now has the following amounts invested in states 1 through 4: ($3.8462, $6.15385, $5.8333, $3.3333); the total amount invested in each of the four states is $50, $80, $75.83333, and $43.3333); and the returns for each of the four states, based on the total amount invested in each of the four states, would be, respectively, (3.98333, 2.1146, 2.2857, and 4.75). In this example, if state 1 occurs the trader will receive a payout, including the amount invested in state 1, of 3.98333*$3.8462+$3.8462=$19.1667 which is equal to the sum invested, so the trader is fully hedged against the occurrence of state 1. Calculations for the other states yield the same results, so that the trader in this example would be fully hedged irrespective of which state occurs.

[0754] As returns can be expected to change throughout the trading period, the trader would correspondingly need to rebalance both the amount of his hedge investment for the complement states as well as the multi-state allocation among the complement states. In a preferred embodiment, a DBAR contingent claim exchange can be responsible for reallocating multi-state trades via a suspense account, for example, so the trader can assign the duty of reallocating the multi-state investment to the exchange. Similarly, the trader can also assign to an exchange the responsibility of determining the amount of the hedge investment in the complement states especially as returns change as a result of trading. The calculation and allocation of this amount can be done by the exchange in a similar fashion to the way the exchange reallocates multi-state trades to constituent states as investment amounts change.

[0755] Preferred embodiments of the systems and methods of the present invention include a trading period during which returns adjust among defined states for a group of DBAR contingent claims, and a later observation period during which the outcome is ascertained for the event on which the group of claims is based. In preferred embodiments, returns are allocated to the occurrence of a state based on the final distribution of amounts invested over all the states at the end of the trading period. Thus, in each embodiments a trader will not know his returns to a given state with certainty until the end of a given trading period. The changes in returns or “price discovery” which occur during the trading period prior to “locking-in” the final returns may provide useful information as to trader expectations regarding finalized outcomes, even though they are only indications as to what the final returns are going to be. Thus, in some preferred embodiments, a trader may not be able to realize profits or losses during the trading period. The hedging illustration of Example 3.1.18, for instance, provides an example of risk reduction but not of locking-in or realizing profit and loss.

[0756] In other preferred embodiments, a quasi-continuous market for trading in a group of DBAR contingent claims may be created. In preferred embodiments, a plurality of recurring trading periods may provide traders with nearly continuous opportunities to realize profit and loss. In one such embodiment, the end of one trading period is immediately followed by the opening of a new trading period, and the final invested amount and state returns for a prior trading period are “locked in” as that period ends, and are allocated accordingly when the outcome of the relevant event is later known. As a new trading period begins on the group of DBAR contingent claims related to the same underlying event, a new distribution of invested amounts for states can emerge along with a corresponding new distribution of state returns. In such embodiments, as the successive trading periods are made to open and close more frequently, a quasi-continuous market can be obtained, enabling traders to hedge and realize profit and loss as frequently as they currently do in the traditional markets.

[0757] An example illustrates how this feature of the present invention may be implemented. The example illustrates the hedging of a European digital call option on the yen/dollar exchange rate (a traditional market option) over a two day period during which the underlying exchange rate changes by one yen per dollar. In this example, two trading periods are assumed for the group of DBAR contingent claims

• • [0758] Traditional Option: European Digital Option
  • [0759] Payout of Option: Pays 100 million USD if exchange rate equals or exceeds strike price at maturity or expiration
  • [0760] Underlying Index Yen/dollar exchange rate
  • [0761] Option Start Aug. 12, 1999
  • [0762] Option Expiration Aug. 15, 2000
  • [0763] Assumed Volatility: 20% annualized
  • [0764] Strike Price: 120
  • [0765] Notional: 100 million USD

[0766] In this example, two dates are analyzed, Aug. 12, 1999 and Aug. 13, 1999:

[0767]

TABLE 3.1.19-1
Change in Traditional Digital Call Option Value Over Two Days
Observation Date	Aug. 12, 1999	Aug. 13, 1999
Spot Settlement Date	Aug. 16, 1999	Aug. 17, 1999
Spot Price for Settlement	115.55	116.55
Date
Forward Settlement Date	Aug. 15, 2000	Aug. 15, 2000
Forward Price	109.217107	110.1779
Option Premium	28.333% of Notional	29.8137% of Notional

[0768] Table 3.1.19-1 shows how the digital call option struck at 120 could, as an example, change in value with an underlying change in the yen/dollar exchange rate. The second column shows that the option is worth 28.333% or $28.333 million on a $100 million notional on Aug. 12, 1999 when the underlying exchange rate is 115.55. The third column shows that the value of the option, which pays $100 million should dollar yen equal or exceed 120 at the expiration date, increases to 29.8137% or $29.8137 million per $100 million when the underlying exchange rate has increased by 1 yen to 116.55. Thus, the traditional digital call option generates a profit of $29.81377-$28.333=$1.48077 million.

[0769] This example shows how this profit also could be realized in trading in a group of DBAR contingent claims with two successive trading periods. It is also assumed for purposes of this example that there are sufficient amounts invested, or liquidity, in both states such that the particular trader's investment does not materially affect the returns to each state. This is a convenient but not necessary assumption that allows the trader to take the returns to each state “as given” without concern as to how his investment will affect the closing returns for a given trading period. Using information from Table 3.1.19-1, the following closing returns for each state can be derived:

[0770] Trading Period 1:

• • [0771] Current trading period end date: Aug. 12, 1999
  • [0772] Underlying Event Closing level of yen/dollar exchange rate for Aug. 15, 2000 settlement, 4 pm EDT
  • [0773] Spot Price for Aug. 16, 1999 Settlement: 115.55

[0774]

		JPY/USD < 120 for	JPY/USD ≧ 120 for
	State	Aug. 15, 2000	Aug. 15, 2000
	Closing Returns	0.39533	2.5295

[0775] For purposes of this example, it is assumed that an illustrative trader has $28.333 million invested in the state that the yen/dollar exchange rate equals or exceeds 120 for Aug. 15, 2000 settlement.

[0776] Trading Period 2:

• • [0777] Current trading period end date: Aug. 13, 1999
  • [0778] Underlying Event Closing level of dollar/yen exchange rate for Aug. 15, 2000 settlement, 4 pm EDT
  • [0779] Spot Price for Aug. 17, 1999 Settlement: 116.55

[0780]

	JPY/USD < 120 for	JPY/USD ≧ 120 for
State	Aug. 15, 2000	Aug. 15, 2000
Closing State Returns	.424773	2.3542

[0781] For purposes of this example, it is also assumed that the illustrative trader has a $70.18755 million hedging investment in the state that the yen/dollar exchange rate is less than 120 for Aug. 15, 2000 settlement. It is noted that, for the second period, the closing returns are lower for the state that the exchange equals or exceeds 120. This is due to the change represented in Table 3.1.19-1 reflecting an assumed change in the underlying market, which would make that state more likely.

[0782] The trader now has an investment in each trading period and has locked in a profit of $1.4807 million, as shown below:

[0783]

	JPY/USD < 120 for	JPY/USD ≧ 120
State	Aug. 15, 2000	for Aug. 15, 2000
Profit and Loss	$70.18755 * .424773 −	$−70.18755 + 28.333 *
(000.000)	$28.333 = $1.48077	$2.5295 = $1.48077

[0784] The illustrative trader in this example has therefore been able to lock-in or realize the profit no matter which state finally occurs. This profit is identical to the profit realized in the traditional digital option, illustrating that systems and methods of the present invention can be used to provide at least daily if not more frequent realization of profits and losses, or that risks can be hedged in virtually real time.

[0785] In preferred embodiments, a quasi-continuous time hedge can be accomplished, in general, by the following hedge investment, assuming the effect of the size of the hedge trade does not materially effect the returns:

[0786] $H={\alpha }_t*\frac{1+r_t}{1+r_{t+1}^c}$

[0787] where

• • [0788] r_t=closing returns a state in which an investment was originally made at time t
  • [0789] α_t=amount originally invested in the state at time t
  • [0790] r^c_t+1=closing returns at time t+1 to state or states other than the state in which the original investment was made (i.e., the so-called complement states which are all states other than the state or states originally traded which are to be hedged)
  • [0791] H=the amount of the hedge investment

[0792] If H is to be invested in more than one state, then a multi-state allocation among the constituent states can be performed using the methods and procedures described above. This expression for H allows investors in DBAR contingent claims to calculate the investment amounts for hedging transactions. In the traditional markets, such calculations are often complex and quite difficult.

[0793] As previously discussed in this specification, the units of investments and payouts-used in embodiments of the present invention can be any unit of economic value recognized by investors, including, for example, currencies, commodities, number of shares, quantities of indices, amounts of swap transactions, or amounts of real estate. The invested amounts and payouts need not be in the same units and can comprise a group or combination of such units, for example 25% gold, 25% barrels of oil, and 50% Japanese Yen. The previous examples in this specification have generally used U.S. dollars as the value units for investments and payouts.

[0794] This Example 3.1.20 illustrates a group of DBAR contingent claims for a common stock in which the invested units and payouts are defined in quantities of shares. For this example, the terms and conditions of Example 3.1.1 are generally used for the group of contingent claims on MSFT common stock, except for purposes of brevity, only three states are presented in this Example 3.1.20: (0,83], (83, 88], and (88,∞]. Also in this Example 3.1.20, invested amounts are in numbers of shares for each state and the exchange makes the conversion for the trader at the market price prevailing at the time of the investment. In this example, payouts are made according to a canonical DRF in which a trader receives a quantity of shares equal to the number of shares invested in states that did not occur, in proportion to the ratio of number of shares the trader has invested in the state that did occur, divided by the total number of shares invested in that state. An indicative distribution of trader demand in units of number of shares is shown below, assuming that the total traded amount is 100,000 shares:

[0795]

		Return Per Share if State Occurs
	Amount Traded in Number of	Unit Returns in Number of
State	Share	Shares
(0, 83]	17,803	4.617
(83, 88]	72,725	.37504
(88, ∞]	9,472	9.5574

[0796] If, for instance, MSFT closes at 91 at expiration, then in this example the third state has occurred, and a trader who had previously invested 10 shares in that state would receive a payout of 10*9.5574+10=105.574 shares which includes the trader's original investment. Traders who had previously invested in the other two states would lose all of their shares upon application of the canonical DRF of this example.

[0797] An important feature of investing in value units other than units of currency is that the magnitude of the observed outcome may well be relevant, as well as the state that occurs based on that outcome. For example, if the investments in this example were made in dollars, the trader who has a dollar invested in state (88,∞] would not care, at least in theory, whether the final price of MSFT at the close of the observation period were 89 or 500. However, if the value units are numbers of shares of stock, then the magnitude of the final outcome does matter, since the trader receives as a payout a number of shares which can be converted to more dollars at a higher outcome price of $91 per share. For instance, for a payout of 105.574 shares, these shares are worth 105.574*$91=$9,607.23 at the outcome price. Had the outcome price been $125, these shares would have been worth 105.574*125=$13,196.75.

[0798] A group of DBAR contingent claims using value units of commodity having a price can therefore possess additional features compared to groups of DBAR contingent claims that offer fixed payouts for a state, regardless of the magnitude of the outcome within that state. These features may prove useful in constructing groups of DBAR contingent claims which are able to readily provide risk and return profiles similar to those provided by traditional derivatives. For example, the group of DBAR contingent claims described in this example could be of great interest to traders who transact in traditional derivatives known as “asset-or-nothing digital options” and “supershares options.”

[0799] An advantage of the systems and methods of the present invention is that, in preferred embodiments, traders can generate an arbitrary distribution of payouts across the distribution of defined states for a group of DBAR contingent claims. The ability to generate a customized payout distribution may be important to traders, since they may desire to replicate contingent claims payouts that are commonly found in traditional markets, such as those corresponding to long positions in stocks, short positions in bonds, short options positions in foreign exchange, and long option straddle positions, to cite just a few examples. In addition, preferred embodiments of the present invention may enable replicated distributions of payouts which can only be generated with difficulty and expense in traditional markets, such as the distribution of payouts for a long position in a stock that is subject to being “stopped out” by having a market-maker sell the stock when it reaches a certain price below the market price. Such stop-loss orders are notoriously difficult to execute in traditional markets, and traders are frequently not guaranteed that the execution will occur exactly at the pre-specified price.

[0800] In preferred embodiments, and as discussed above, the generation and replication of arbitrary payout distributions across a given distribution of states for a group of DBAR contingent claims may be achieved through the use of multi-state investments. In such embodiments, before making an investment, traders can specify a desired payout for each state or some of the states in a given distribution of states. These payouts form a distribution of desired payouts across the distribution of states for the group of DBAR contingent claims. In preferred embodiments, the distribution of desired payouts may be stored by an exchange, which may also calculate, given an existing distribution of investments across the distribution of states, (1) the total amount required to be invested to achieve the desired payout distribution; (2) the states into which the investment is to allocated; and (3) how much is to be invested in each state so that the desired payout distribution can be achieved. In preferred embodiments, this multi-state investment is entered into a suspense account maintained by the exchange, which reallocates the investment among the states as the amounts invested change across the distribution of states. In preferred embodiments, as discussed above, a final allocation is made at the end of the trading period when returns are finalized.

[0801] The discussion in this specification of multi-state investments has included examples in which it has been assumed that an illustrative trader desires a payout which is the same no matter which state occurs among the constituent states of a multi-state investment. To achieve this result, in preferred embodiments the amount invested by the trader in the multi-state investment can be allocated to the constituent state in proportion to the amounts that have otherwise been invested in the respective constituent states. In preferred embodiments, these investments are reallocated using the same procedure throughout the trading period as the relative proportion of amounts invested in the constituent states changes.

[0802] In other preferred embodiments, a trader may make a multi-state investment in which the multi-state allocation is not intended to generate the same payout irrespective of which state among the constituent state occurs. Rather, in such embodiments, the multi-state investment may be intended to generate a payout distribution which matches some other desired payout distribution of the trader across the distribution of states, such as, for example, for certain digital strips, as discussed in Section 6. Thus, the systems and methods of the present invention do not require amounts invested in multi-state investments to be allocated in proportion of the amounts otherwise invested in the constituent states of the multi-statement investment.

[0803] Notation previously developed in this specification is used to describe a preferred embodiment of a method by which replication of an arbitrary distribution of payouts can be achieved for a group of DBAR contingent claims according to the present invention. The following additional notation, is also used:

• • [0804] A_i,* denotes the i-th row of the matrix A containing the invested amounts by trader i for each of the n states of the group of DBAR contingent claims
    In preferred embodiments, the allocation of amounts invested in all the states which achieves the desired payouts across the distribution of states can be calculated using, for example, the computer code listing in Table 1 (or functional equivalents known to one of skill in the art), or, in the case where a trader's multi-state investment is small relative to the total investments already made in the group of DBAR contingent claims, the following approximation:
    A_i,*^T=Π⁻¹*P_i,*^T
    where the −1 superscript on the matrix Π denotes a matrix inverse operation. Thus, in these embodiments, amounts to be invested to produce an arbitrary distribution payouts can approximately be found by multiplying (a) the inverse of a diagonal matrix with the unit payouts for each state on the diagonal (where the unit payouts are determined from the amounts invested at any given time in the trading period) and (b) a vector containing the trader's desired payouts. The equation above shows that the amounts to be invested in order to produce a desired payout distribution are a function of the desired payout distribution itself (P_i,*) and the amounts otherwise invested across the distribution of states (which are used to form the matrix Π, which contains the payouts per unit along its diagonals and zeroes along the off-diagonals). Therefore, in preferred embodiments, the allocation of the amounts to be invested in each state will change if either the desired payouts change or if the amounts otherwise invested across the distribution change. As the amounts otherwise invested in various states can be expected to change during the course of a trading period, in preferred embodiments a suspense account is used to reallocate the invested amounts, A_i,*, in response to these changes, as described previously. In preferred embodiments, at the end of the trading period a final allocation is made using the amounts otherwise invested across the distribution of states. The final allocation can typically be performed using the iterative quadratic solution techniques embodied in the computer code listing in Table 1.

[0805] Example 3.1.21 illustrates a methodology for generating an arbitrary payout distribution, using the event, termination criteria, the defined states, trading period and other relevant information, as appropriate, from Example 3.1.1, and assuming that the desired multi-state investment is small in relation to the total amount of investments already made. In Example 3.1.1 above, illustrative investments are shown across the distribution of states representing possible closing prices for MSFT stock on the expiration date of Aug. 19, 1999. In that example, the distribution of investment is illustrated for Aug. 18, 1999, one day prior to expiration, and the price of MSFT on this date is given as 85. For purposes of this Example 3.1.21, it is assumed that a trader would like to invest in a group of DBAR contingent claims according to the present invention in a way that approximately replicates the profits and losses that would result from owning one share of MSFT (i.e., a relatively small amount) between the prices of 80 and 90. In other words, it is assumed that the trader would like to replicate a traditional long position in MSFT with the restrictions that a sell order is to be executed when MSFT reaches 80 or 90. Thus, for example, if MSFT closes at 87 on Aug. 19, 1999 the trader would expect to have $2 of profit from appropriate investments in a group of DBAR contingent claims. Using the defined states identified in Example 3.1.1, this profit would be approximate since the states are defined to include a range of discrete possible closing prices.

[0806] In preferred embodiments, an investment in a state receives the same return regardless of the actual outcome within the state. It is therefore assumed for purposes of this Example 3.1.21 that a trader would accept an appropriate replication of the traditional profit and loss from a traditional position, subject to only “discretization” error. For purposes of this Example 3.1.21, and in preferred embodiments, it is assumed that the profit and loss corresponding to an actual outcome within a state is determined with reference to the price which falls exactly in between the upper and lower bounds of the state as measured in units of probability, i.e., the “state average.” For this Example 3.1.21, the following desired payouts can be calculated for each of the states the amounts to be invested in each state and the resulting investment amounts to achieve those payouts:

[0807]

TABLE 3.1.21-1
			Investment Which
			Generates Desired
States	State Average ($)	Desired Payout ($)	Payout ($)
(0, 80]	NA	80	0.837258
(80, 80.5]	80.33673	80.33673	0.699493
(80.5, 81]	80.83349	80.83349	1.14091
(81, 81.5]	81.33029	81.33029	1.755077
(81.5, 82]	81.82712	81.82712	2.549131
(82, 82.5]	82.32401	82.32401	3.498683
(82.5, 83]	82.82094	82.82094	4.543112
(83, 83.5]	83.31792	83.31792	5.588056
(83.5, 84]	83.81496	83.81496	6.512429
(84, 84.5]	84.31204	84.31204	7.206157
(84.5, 85]	84.80918	84.80918	7.572248
(85, 85.5]	85.30638	85.30638	7.555924
(85.5, 86]	85.80363	85.80363	7.18022
(86, 86.5]	86.30094	86.30094	6.493675
(86.5, 87]	86.7983	86.7983	5.59628
(87, 87.5]	87.29572	87.29572	4.599353
(87.5, 88]	87.7932	87.7932	3.611403
(88, 88.5]	88.29074	88.29074	2.706645
(88.5, 89]	88.78834	88.78834	1.939457
(89, 89.5]	89.28599	89.28599	1.330046
(89.5, 90]	89.7837	89.7837	0.873212
(90, ∞]	NA	90	1.2795

The far right column of Table 3.1.21-1 is the result of the matrix computation described above. The payouts used to construct the matrix Π for this Example 3.1.21 are one plus the returns shown in Example 3.1.1 for each state.

[0808] Pertinently the systems and methods of the present invention may be used to achieve almost any arbitrary payout or return profile, e.g., a long position, a short position, an option “straddle”, etc., while maintaining limited liability and the other benefits of the invention described in this specification.

[0809] As discussed above, if many traders make multi-state investments, in a preferred embodiment an iterative procedure is used to allocate all of the multi-state investments to their respective constituent states. Computer code, as previously described and apparent to one of skill in the art, can be implemented to allocate each multi-state investment among the constituent states depending upon the distribution of amounts otherwise invested and the trader's desired payout distribution.

[0810] Corporate and investment portfolio managers recognize the utility of options to hedge exposures to foreign exchange movements. In the G7 currencies, liquid spot and forward markets support an extremely efficient options market. In contrast, many emerging market currencies lack the liquidity to support efficient, liquid spot and forward markets because of their small economic base. Without ready access to a source of tradable underlying supply, pricing and risk control of options in emerging market currencies are difficult or impossible.

[0811] Governmental intervention and credit constraints further inhibit transaction flows in emerging market currencies. Certain governments choose to restrict the convertibility of their currency for a variety of reasons, thus reducing access to liquidity at any price and effectively preventing option market-makers from gaining access to a tradable underlying supply. Mismatches between sources of local liquidity and creditworthy counterparties further restrict access to a tradable underlying supply. Regional banks that service local customers have access to indigenous liquidity but poor credit ratings while multinational commercial and investment banks with superior credit ratings have limited access to liquidity. Because credit considerations prevent external market participants from taking on significant exposures to local counterparties, transaction choices are limited.

[0812] The foreign exchange market has responded to this lack of liquidity by making use of non-deliverable forwards (NDFs) which, by definition, do not require an exchange of underlying currency. Although NDFs have met with some success, their utility is still constrained by a lack of liquidity. Moreover, the limited liquidity available to NDFs is generally insufficient to support an active options market.

[0813] Groups of DBAR contingent claims can be structured using the system and methods of the present invention to support an active options market in emerging market currencies.

[0814] In addition to the general advantages of the demand-based trading system, products on emerging market currencies will provide the following new opportunities for trading and risk management:

• [0815] (1) Credit enhancement. An investment bank can use demand-based trading emerging market currency products to overcome existing credit barriers. The ability of a demand-based market or auction to process only buy orders, combined with the limited liability of option payout profiles (vs. forward contracts), allows banks to precisely define the limits of their counterparty credit exposure and, hence, to trade with local market institutions, increasing participation and liquidity.

[0816] Portfolio managers and market-makers formulate market views based in part on their forecasts for future movements in central bank target rates. When the Federal Reserve (Fed), European Central Bank (ECB) or Bank of Japan (BOJ), for example, changes their target rate or when market participants adjust their expectations about future rate moves, global equity and fixed income financial markets can react quickly and dramatically.

[0817] Market participants currently take views on central bank target rates by trading 3-month interest rate futures, such as Eurodollar futures for the Fed and Euribor futures for the ECB. Although these markets are quite liquid, significant risks impair trading in such contracts: futures contracts have a 3-month maturity while central bank target rates change overnight; and models for credit spreads and term structure are required for futures pricing. Market participants additionally express views on the target Fed funds rate by trading Fed funds futures, which are based on the overnight Fed funds rate. Although less risky than Eurodollar futures, significant risks also impair trading in Fed funds futures: the overnight Fed funds rate can differ, sometimes significantly, from the target Fed funds rate due to overnight liquidity spikes and month-end effects; and, Fed funds futures frequently cannot accommodate the full volumes that investment managers would like to execute at a given market price.

[0818] Groups of DBAR contingent claims can be structured using the system and methods of the present invention to develop an explicit mechanism by which market participants can express views regarding central bank target rates. For example, demand-based markets or auctions can be based on central bank policy parameters such as the Federal Reserve Target Fed Funds Rate, the Bank of Japan Official Discount Rate, or the Bank of England Base Rate. For example, the underlying event may be defined as the Federal Reserve Target Fed Funds Rate as of Jun. 1, 2002. Because demand-based trading products settle using the target rate of interest, maturity and credit mismatches no longer pose market barriers.

[0819] In addition to the general advantages of the demand-based trading system, products on central bank target rates may provide the following new advantages for trading and risk management:

• [0820] (1) No basis risk. Since demand-based trading products settle using the target rate of interest, there is no maturity mismatch and no credit mismatch. Demand-based trading products for central bank target rates have no basis risk.
• [0821] (2) An exact date match to central bank meetings. Demand-based trading products can be structured to allow investors to take views on specific meetings by matching the date of expiry of a contract with the date of the central bank meeting.
• [0822] (3) A direct way to express views on intra-meeting moves. Demand-based trading products allow special tailoring so that portfolio managers can take a view on whether or not a central bank will change its target rate intra-meeting.
• [0823] (4) Managing the event risk associated with a central bank meeting. Almost all market participants have portfolios that are significantly affected by shifts in target rates. Market participants can use demand-based trading options on central bank target rates to lower their portfolio's overall volatility.
• [0824] (5) Managing short-term funding costs. Banks and large corporations often borrow short-term funds at a rate highly correlated with central bank target rates, e.g., U.S. banks borrow at a rate that closely follows target Fed funds. These institutions may better manage their funding costs using demand-based trading products on central bank rates.

[0825] In recent years, market participants have expressed increasing interest in a market for derivative instruments related to weather as a means to insure against adverse weather outcomes. Despite greater recognition of the role of weather in economic activity, the market for weather derivatives has been relatively slow to develop. Market-makers in traditional over-the-counter markets often lack the means to redistribute their risk because of limited liquidity and lack of an underlying instrument. The market for weather derivatives is further hampered by poor price discovery.

[0826] A group of DBAR contingent claims can be constructed using the methods and systems of the present invention to provide market participants with a market price for the probability that a particular weather metric will be above or below a given level. For example, participants in a demand-based market or auction on cooling degree days (CDDs) or on heating degree days (HDDs) in New York from Nov. 1, 2001 through Mar. 31, 2002 may be able to see at a glance the market consensus price that cumulative CDDs or HDDs will exceed certain levels. The event observation could be specified as taking place at a preset location such as the Weather Bureau Army Navy Observation Station #14732. Alternatively, participants in a demand-based market or auction on wind-speed in Chicago may be able to see at a glance the market consensus price that cumulative wind-speeds will exceed certain levels.

[0827] Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to offer a wide variety of products on commonly offered financial instruments or structured financial products related to fixed income securities, equities, foreign exchange, interest rates, and indices, and any derivatives thereof. When the underlying economic event is a change (or degree of change) in a financial instrument or product, the possible outcomes can include changes which are positive, negative or equal to zero when there is no change, and amounts of each positive and negative change. The following examples provide a further representative sampling:

• • [0828] Equity Prices: Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to trade DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on prices for equity securities listed on recognized exchanges throughout the world. For example, DBAR contingent claims can be based on an underlying event defined as the closing price each week of Juniper Networks. The underlying event can also be defined using an alternative measure, such as the volume weighted average price during any day.
  • [0829] Fixed Income Security Prices: Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to trade DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on a variety of fixed income securities such as government T-bills, T-notes, and T-bonds, commercial paper, CD's, zero coupon bonds, corporate, and municipal bonds, and mortgage-backed securities. For example, DBAR contingent claims can be based on an underlying event defined as the closing price each week of Qwest Capital Funding 7¼% notes, due February of 2011. The underlying event can also be defined using an alternative measure, such as the volume weighted average price during any day. DBAR contingent claims on government and municipal obligations can be traded in a similar way.
  • [0830] Hybrid Security Prices: Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to trade DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on hybrid securities that contain both fixed-income and equity features, such as convertible bond prices. For example, DBAR contingent claims can be based on an underlying event defined as the closing price each week of Amazon.com 4¾% convertible bonds due February 2009. The underlying event can also be defined using an alternative measure, such as the volume weighted average price during any day.
  • [0831] Interest Rates: Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to trade DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on interest rate measures such as LIBOR and other money market rates, an index of AAA corporate bond yields, or any of the fixed income securities listed above. For example, DBAR contingent claims can be based on an underlying event defined as the fixing price each week of 3-month LIBOR rates. Alternatively, the underlying event could be defined as an average of an interest rate over a fixed length of time, such as a week or month.
  • [0832] Foreign Exchange Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to trade DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on foreign exchange rates. For example, DBAR contingent claims can be based an underlying event defined as the exchange rate of the Korean Won on any day.
  • [0833] Price & Return Indices: Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to trade DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on a broad variety of financial instrument price indices, including those for equities (e.g., S&P 500), interest rates, commodities, etc. For example, DBAR contingent claims can be based on an underlying event defined as the closing price each quarter of the S&P Technology index. The underlying event can also be defined using an alternative measure, such as the volume weighted average price during any day. Alternatively, other index measurements can be used such as return instead of price.
  • [0834] Swaps: Demand-based markets or auctions can be structured to trade DBAR contingent claims, including, for example, digital options, based on interest rate swaps and other swap based transactions. In this example, discussed further in an embodiment described in Section 9, digital options traded in a demand-based market or auction are based on an underlying event defined as the 10 year swap rate at which a fixed 10 year yield is received against paying a floating 3 month LIBOR rate. The rate may be determined using a common fixing convention.

[0835] Other derivatives on any security or other financial product or instrument may be used as the underlying instrument for an event of economic significance in a demand-based market or auction. For example, such derivatives can include futures, forwards, swaps, floating rate notes and other structured financial products. Alternatively, derivatives strategies, securities (as well as other financial products or instruments) and derivatives thereof can be converted into equivalent DBAR contingent claims or into replication sets of DBAR contingent claims, such as digitals (for example, as in the embodiments discussed in Sections 9 and 10) and traded as a demand-enabled product alongside DBAR contingent claims in the same demand-based market or auction.

[0836] 3.2 DBAR Portfolios

[0837] It may be desirable to combine a number of groups of DBAR contingent claims based on different events into a single portfolio. In this way, traders can invest amounts within the distribution of defined states corresponding to a single event as well as across the distributions of states corresponding to all the groups of contingent claims in the portfolio. In preferred embodiments, the payouts to the amounts invested in this fashion can therefore be a function of a relative comparison of all the outcome states in the respective groups of DBAR contingent claims to each other. Such a comparison may be based upon the amount invested in each outcome state in the distribution for each group of contingent claims as well as other qualities, parameters or characteristics of the outcome state (e.g., the magnitude of change for each security underlying the respective groups of contingent claims). In this way, more complex and varied payout and return profiles can be achieved using the systems and methods of the present invention. Since a preferred embodiment of a demand reallocation function (DRF) can operate on a portfolio of DBAR contingent claims, such a portfolio is referred to as a DBAR Portfolio, or DBARP. A DBARP is a preferred embodiment of DBAR contingent claims according to the present invention based on a multi-state, multi-event DRF.

[0838] In a preferred embodiment of a DBARP involving different events relating to different financial products, a DRF is employed in which returns for each contingent claim in the portfolio are determined by (i) the actual magnitude of change for each underlying financial product and (ii) how much has been invested in each state in the distribution. A large amount invested in a financial product, such as a common stock, on the long side will depress the returns to defined states on the long side of a corresponding group of DBAR contingent claims. Given the inverse relationship in preferred embodiments between amounts invested in and returns from a particular state, one advantage to a DBAR portfolio is that it is not prone to speculative bubbles. More specifically, in preferred embodiments a massive influx of long side trading, for example, will increase the returns to short side states, thereby increasing returns and attracting investment in those states.

[0839] The following notation is used to explain further preferred embodiments of DBARP:

• • [0840] μ_i is the actual magnitude of change for financial product i
  • [0841] W_i is the amount of successful investments in financial product i
  • [0842] L_i is the amount of unsuccessful investments in financial product i
  • [0843] f is the system transaction fee

[0844] $L\mathrm{is}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{aggregate}\mathrm{losses}=\sum _i{L}_i$ ${\gamma }_i\mathrm{is}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{normalized}\mathrm{returns}\mathrm{for}\mathrm{successful}\mathrm{trades}=\frac{{\mu }_i}{\sum _i{\mu }_i}$

• • [0845] π^p_i is the payout per value unit invested in financial product i for a successful investment
  • [0846] r^p_i is the return per unit invested in financial product i for a successful investment

[0847] The payout principle of a preferred embodiment of a DBARP is to return to a successful investment a portion of aggregate losses scaled by the normalized return for the successful investment, and to return nothing to unsuccessful investments. Thus, in a preferred embodiment a large actual return on a relatively lightly traded financial product will benefit from being allocated a high proportion of the unsuccessful investments.

[0848] ${\pi }_i^p=\frac{{\gamma }_i*L}{W_i}$ $r_{i:=}^p\frac{{\gamma }_i*L}{W_i}-1$

[0849] As explained below, the correlations of returns across securities is important in preferred embodiments to determine payouts and returns in a DBARP.

[0850] An example illustrates the operation of a DBARP according to the present invention. For purposes of this example, it is assumed that a portfolio contains two stocks, IBM and MSFT (Microsoft) and that the following information applies (e.g., predetermined termination criteria):

• • [0851] Trading start date: Sep. 1, 1999
  • [0852] Expiration date: Oct. 1, 1999
  • [0853] Current trading period start date: Sep. 1, 1999
  • [0854] Current trading period end date: Sep. 5, 1999
  • [0855] Current date: Sep. 2, 1999
  • [0856] IBM start price: 129
  • [0857] MSFT start price: 96
  • [0858] Both IBM and MSFT Ex-dividends
  • [0859] No transaction fee

[0860] In this example, states can be defined so that traders can invest for IBM and MSFT to either depreciate or appreciate over the period. It is also assumed that the distribution of amounts invested in the various states is the following at the close of trading for the current trading period:

[0861]

	Financial Product	Depreciate State	Appreciate State
	MSFT	$100 million	$120 million
	IBM	$80 million	$65 million

The amounts invested express greater probability assessments that MSFT will likely appreciate over the period and IBM will likely depreciate.

[0862] For purposes of this example, it is further assumed that on the expiration date of Oct. 1, 1999, the following actual outcomes for prices are observed:

• • [0863] MSFT: 106 (appreciated by 10.42%)
  • [0864] IBM 127 (depreciated by 1.55%)

[0865] In this example, there is $100+$65=$165 million to distribute from the unsuccessful investments to the successful investments, and, for the successful investments, the relative performance of MSFT (10/42/(10.42+1.55)=0.871) is higher than for IBM ° (1.55/10.42+1.55)=0.229). In a preferred embodiment, 87.1% of the available returns is allocated to the successful MSFT traders, with the remainder due the successful IBM traders, and with the following returns computed for each state:

[0866] $\mathrm{MSFT}\text{:}\mathrm{\$120}\mathrm{million}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{successful}\mathrm{investment}\mathrm{produces}a\mathrm{payout}\mathrm{of}\mathrm{.871}*\mathrm{\$165}\mathrm{million}=\mathrm{\$143}\mathrm{.72}\mathrm{million}\mathrm{for}a\mathrm{return}\mathrm{to}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{successful}\mathrm{traders}\mathrm{of}\frac{120M+143.72M}{120M}-1=119.77\%$ $I\mathrm{BM}\text{:}\mathrm{\$80}\mathrm{million}\mathrm{in}\mathrm{successful}\mathrm{investment}\mathrm{produces}a\mathrm{payout}\mathrm{of}\left(1-\mathrm{.871}\right)*\mathrm{\$165}\mathrm{million}=\mathrm{\$21}\mathrm{.285}\mathrm{million},\mathrm{for}a\mathrm{return}\mathrm{to}\mathrm{the}\mathrm{successful}\mathrm{traders}\mathrm{of}\frac{80M+21.285M}{80M}-1=26.6\%$
The returns in this example and in preferred embodiments are a function not only of the amounts invested in each group of DBAR contingent claims, but also the relative magnitude of the changes in prices for the underlying financial products or in the values of the underlying events of economic performance. In this specific example, the MSFT traders receive higher returns since MSFT significantly outperformed IBM. In other words, the MSFT longs were “more correct” than the IBM shorts.