Endoprosthesis with coatings

[0001] This application claims priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/857,849, filed Nov. 9, 2006, the entire contents of which is hereby incorporated by reference.

[0002] This invention relates to endoprostheses with coatings.

[0003] The body includes various passageways such as arteries, other blood vessels, and other body lumens. These passageways sometimes become occluded or weakened. For example, the passageways can be occluded by a tumor, restricted by plaque, or weakened by an aneurysm. When this occurs, the passageway can be reopened or reinforced with a medical endoprosthesis. An endoprosthesis is typically a tubular member that is placed in a lumen in the body. Examples of endoprostheses include stents, covered stents, and stent-grafts.

[0004] Endoprostheses can be delivered inside the body by a catheter that supports the endoprosthesis in a compacted or reduced-size form as the endoprosthesis is transported to a desired site. Upon reaching the site, the endoprosthesis is expanded, e.g., so that it can contact the walls of the lumen. Stent delivery is further discussed in Heath, U.S. Pat. No. 6,290,721, the entire contents of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein.

[0005] The expansion mechanism may include forcing the endoprosthesis to expand radially. For example, the expansion mechanism can include the catheter carrying a balloon, which carries a balloon-expandable endoprosthesis. The balloon can be inflated to deform and to fix the expanded endoprosthesis at a predetermined position in contact with the lumen wall. The balloon can then be deflated, and the catheter withdrawn from the lumen.

[0006] Passageways containing endoprostheses can become re-occluded. Re-occlusion of such passageways is known as restenosis. It has been observed that certain drugs can inhibit the onset of restenosis when the drug is contained in the endoprosthesis. It is sometimes desirable for an endoprosthesis-contained therapeutic agent, or drug to elute into the body fluid in a predetermined manner once the endoprosthesis is implanted.

[0007] In an aspect, the document features an endoprosthesis having a first coating including a polymer, and a second coating over the first coating formed of a porous ceramic or metal.

[0008] In another aspect, the document features a method of forming an endoprosthesis, including forming a polymer coating that has a drug on the endoprosthesis, and forming a layer of porous ceramic or metal over the drug-containing polymer coating.

[0009] Embodiments may include one or more of the following features. The polymer can include a drug. The polymer can have a drug content of about 8.8% by weight or more (e.g., 15% or more, 25% or more). The polymer can be a non-biodegradable polymer such as styrene-isobutylene-styrene (SIBS) or polybutylene succinate (PBS). The first coating can have a plurality of depressions. The second coating can be formed of a porous ceramic. The second coating can have pores with a pore diameter of about 1 nm to 20 nm. The ceramic can be an oxide. The ceramic can be iridium oxide (IROX), titanium oxide (TIOX), tantalum oxide, or niobium oxide. The ceramic can have a smooth globular morphology to enhance endothelial cell growing over the ceramic. The ceramic can have a porosity of about 80% or less. The second coating can have a thickness less than the thickness of the first coating. The thickness of the second coating can be about 10 to 500 nm. The thickness of the first coating is about 0.1 to about 10 micron (e.g., about 0.5 to about 3 micron). The first coating can contact a surface of an endoprosthesis body. The endoprosthesis body can be formed of a metal. The metal is stainless steel. The endoprosthesis body can be formed of a polymer. The polymer can be a biostable polymer. The polymer can be a bioerodible polymer. The second coating can be formed of porous metal. The porous metal can be copper, gold, ruthenium, titanium, tantalum, platinum, palladium, stainless steel or an alloy thereof.

[0010] Embodiments may also include one or more of the following features. The polymer coating can be formed by spraying a solution of a polymer and a drug to a surface of an endoprosthesis body. The endoprosthesis body can be a metal. The metal can be stainless steel. The endoprosthesis body can be a polymer. The drug can be introduced by coating, dipping, or spraying in a solvent. The polymer coating can be formed by introducing a polymer to the endoprosthesis by dipping, spraying, brushing, pressing, laminating, or pulsed laser deposition (PLD). The drug can be introduced by PLD. The layer can be formed by PLD. The layer can be formed by magnetron sputtering. The layer can be a metal, such as copper, gold, silver, ruthenium, titanium, tantalum, platinum, palladium, stainless steel or an alloy thereof. The layer can be ceramic. The layer can be IROX. The ceramic can have a smooth globular morphology to enhance endothelial cell growing over the ceramic. The method can further include forming depressions in the polymer coating by laser irradiation.

[0011] Embodiments may include one or more of the following advantages. Stents can be formed with coatings of a ceramic or metal and a polymer that have morphologies and/or compositions that enhance therapeutic performance. In particular, the ceramic or metal can be deposited over the polymer coating to form a porous coating or membrane that controls drug release rate from the polymer as well as reduces the likelihood of direct contact of polymer to the body tissue. The over coating or membrane can be formed of a ceramic, e.g. IROX, which can have therapeutic advantages such as reducing the likelihood of restenosis and enhancing endothelialization. The morphology of the ceramic coating can be controlled to tune the therapeutic properties and the porosity of the membrane to provide a desired drug release profile over an extended period. The over coating or membrane may also reduce polymer flaking or delamination by further fixing it to one side, e.g., the abluminal side of an endoprosthesis body due to integrity of the over coating. The over coating can also facilitate deployment from a delivery device during deployment by reducing friction between the stent and delivery device. The membrane can be formed by low temperature deposition process, such as PLD or sputtering, which reduces the likelihood of degradation of the underlying polymer and/or a drug in the polymer coating. The polymer coating can be selected to accommodate a large quantity of drug and at the same time be relatively thin. Likewise, the membrane can be relatively thin, so as not to substantially increase the overall thickness of the stent wall.

[0012] Still further aspects, features, embodiments, and advantages follow.

[0023] Referring to FIGS. 1A-1C, a stent 20 is placed over a balloon 12 carried near a distal end of a catheter 14, and is directed through the lumen 16 (FIG. 1A) until the portion carrying the balloon and stent reaches the region of an occlusion 18. The stent 20 is then radially expanded by inflating the balloon 12 and compressed against the vessel wall with the result that occlusion 18 is compressed, and the vessel wall surrounding it undergoes a radial expansion (FIG. 1B). The pressure is then released from the balloon and the catheter is withdrawn from the vessel (FIG. 1C).

[0024] Referring to FIG. 2, the stent 20 includes a plurality of fenestrations 22 defined in a wall 23. Stent 20 includes several surface regions, including an outer, or abluminal, surface 24, an inner, adluminal, surface 26, and a plurality of cut-face surfaces 28. The stent can be balloon expandable, as illustrated above, or a self-expanding stent. Examples of stents are described in Heath '721, supra.

[0025] Referring to FIG. 3, a cross-sectional view, a stent wall 23 includes a stent body 21 formed, e.g. of a metal, and includes a first coating 25, such as a polymer that includes a drug 27 (e.g. a drug eluting polymer, “DEP”), on the abluminal side 24, and a second coating, such as a porous ceramic or metal coating 29 on both the first coating 25 and the adluminal side 26. An interface region (not shown) formed, e.g., of a mixture of the polymer and the ceramic or metal may exist between the two coatings. The polymer will have substantially no direct contact with body tissue once the stent is implanted, thus allowing the use of a broader range of polymers, optimized, for example, for drug eluting properties with less concern for biocompatibility, tissue irritation, tendency to adhere to deployment devices.

[0026] Referring to FIG. 3A, the ceramic is deposited as small clusters 28, e.g., 100 nm or less, such as 1-10 nm, and preferably smaller than the gross morphological features of the coating. In embodiments, the clusters amalgamate or bond at contact points forming an almost continuous coating with open-cell porous structures or interconnected pores 31 that serve as passageways between the interior and the exterior of the ceramic coating. The thickness, the average pore size, and/or the pore to total (solid and pores) volume ratio (e.g., porosity) of the ceramic coating 29 can be selected to control drug release profile over time by, e.g., controlling the diffusion rate of the drug to the surrounding environment and/or controlling the diffusion rate of body fluid to the DEP, when the stent is implanted. In embodiments, the coating can have a thickness Tc of about a few nanometers (“nm”) to a few hundred nanometers, e.g., of about 10 nm to 500 nm, or about 10-350 nm, or about 10-20 nm. In embodiments, the pore size d is selected to be about 1-20 nm in pore diameter. In embodiments, the porosity is selected to be about 10% to 40%.

[0027] In embodiments, the polymer coating 25 can be a drug eluting polymer (“DEP”), e.g., a biodegradable or non-biodegradable DEP. The coating 25 has a thickness Tp of about 100 nm to about 50 μm, e.g., about 200 nm to about 10 μm, or about 300 nm to about 2 μm, which is selected to control the total amount of the releasable drag once the stent is implanted. In embodiments, the drug content in the DEP is selected to be about 5 to about 50 weight percent (wt. %), e.g. about 8.8 to about 25 wt. %. In embodiments, compared to a DEP without coating 29, the polymer can be provided with higher loadings of drug since the ceramic coating 29 modulates the delivery of drug to the body.

[0028] In embodiments, the porous coating 29 is formed of a ceramic, such as iridium oxide (“IROX”). Certain ceramics, e.g. oxides, can reduce restenosis through the catalytic reduction of hydrogen peroxide and other precursors to smooth muscle cell proliferation. The oxides can also encourage endothelial growth to enhance endothelialization of the stent. When a stent is introduced into a biological environment (e.g., in vivo), one of the initial responses of the human body to the implantation of a stent, particularly into the blood vessels, is the activation of leukocytes, white blood cells which are one of the constituent elements of the circulating blood system. This activation causes an increase of reactive oxygen compound production. One of the species released in this process is hydrogen peroxide, H₂O₂, which is released by neutrophil granulocytes, which constitute one of the many types of leukocytes. The presence of H₂O₂ may increase proliferation of smooth muscle cells and compromise endothelial cell function, stimulating the expression of surface binding proteins which enhance the attachment of more inflammatory cells. A ceramic, such as IROX can catalytically reduce H₂O₂. The morphology of the ceramic can enhance the catalytic effect and reduce proliferation of smooth muscle cells. In a particular embodiment, IROX is selected to form the coating 29, which can have therapeutic benefits such as enhancing endothelialization. IROX and other ceramics are discussed further in Alt et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,980,566 and U.S. Ser. No. 10/651,562 filed Aug. 29, 2003.

[0029] Referring to FIGS. 4A-4C, cross-section views of a stent strut illustrate exemplary procedures of forming a stent. Referring particularly to FIGS. 4A and 4B, the stent strut 30 includes a body 21 over which is formed a coating 32 of polymer on a selected side of the strut, such as the abluminal side. Polymeric coating 32 is formed by, e.g., rolling, dipping, spraying, pulsed laser deposition (“PLD”), pressing, brushing, or laminating. In embodiments, the polymer can contain a drug or a therapeutic agent (circles). The drug may be co-applied to the stent with the polymer by the above-mentioned techniques or be loaded into the polymeric coating by, e.g., absorption by the polymer, after the polymer coating is formed on the stent strut. For example, a DEP coating can be formed by spraying the stent with a polymer or a drug saturated solvent which also contains the polymer and drying under low temperature, e.g. ambient conditions. The DEP coating can also be formed by PLD using a drug target and a polymer target. In other embodiments, the coating 32 may be a polymer precursor, or a mixture of a polymer precursor and a drug.

[0030] Referring particularly to FIG. 4C, a ceramic coating 34 is deposited conformally over the coating 32 and other surfaces of the strut, such as the adluminal and cut-face surfaces. The ceramic coating may be applied by physical deposition processes, such as sputtering or pulsed laser deposition (“PLD”), or by chemical methods such as sol-gel reactions.

[0031] An advantage of having coating 34 surrounding the stent strut as illustrated in FIG. 4C is that the polymer is further fixed or bound to the abluminal side of the stent due to integrity of the coating 34. As a result, polymer delamination due to, e.g., sheer force during the stent insertion in a body passageway, or body liquid seeping to the polymer-stent interface during or after the insertion, may be diminished. In embodiments, the surface topography of the polymer coating or the ceramic-polymer interface structure is selected to modify drug release profile. In other embodiments, the stent body is first coated with a conformal ceramic coating having, e.g. a high roughness defined grain morphology, a polymer coating, including drug is applied to the high roughness coating on a select portion, e.g. the adluminal portion, and a porous ceramic coating is then applied over the polymer.

[0032] Referring particularly to FIG. 5, in embodiments, a series of depressions, e.g., wells, in the polymeric coating 33 are created using, e.g., laser ablation or lithography, before depositing a substantially conformal ceramic coating over the polymer. In this embodiment, larger surface areas of the polymer are contacted by the ceramic over coating and thus possible increase of initial drug release rate can be achieved. In an alternative embodiment, the ceramic over coating is not conformal, for example, the ceramic is applied to the polymer in a manner such that at least one side of the polymer depression, e.g., the side wall, is not covered by the ceramic, allowing the drug to come out via the polymer without being obstructed by the ceramic layer. In such case, a non-porous ceramic over coating can be used instead of the porous ceramic material. This partial over coating can be achieved by, e.g., pulsed-laser depositing the ceramic under an angle such that one side of the depressions is not exposed to the ablated ceramic since PLD is a directional process. It can also be achieved by first depositing the ceramic over a flat polymer layer on a stent surface after which depressions can be formed using e.g., a excimer or ultrashort laser to selectively remove both the ceramic and the polymer in some regions.

[0033] In embodiments, the ceramic is provided over the polymeric coating by a technique that uses low temperature to reduce the likelihood of damaging the drug and/or the polymer, such as PLD. Referring to FIG. 6, a PLD system 50 includes a chamber 52 in which is provided a target assembly 54 and a stent substrate 56, such as a stent body or a pre-stent structure such as a metal tube. The target assembly includes a target material 58, such as a ceramic (e.g., IROX) or a precursor to a ceramic (e.g., iridium metal). Laser energy (double arrows) is selectively directed onto the target materials to cause the target materials to be ablated and sputtered from the target assembly. The sputtered material is imparted with kinetic energy in the ablation process such that the material is transported within the chamber (single arrows) and deposited on the stent 56. The target assembly may include more than one target (e.g., two targets) so that different materials, e.g., drugs, ceramics or mixtures of a ceramic and a polymer or of a polymer and a drug, can be deposited simultaneously or sequentially on the stent 56 for controlling drug release profiles. In addition, the temperature of the deposited material can be controlled by heating, e.g. using an infrared source (squiggly arrows).

[0034] The porosity of the ceramic can be controlled by selecting the morphology, crystallinity, thickness, and size of the clusters ablated and deposited. Higher crystallinity, more defined grain morphologies, and thinner coatings provide greater porosity. Coating thickness is controlled by controlling deposition time. Higher laser energies can provide larger cluster sizes.

[0035] In certain embodiments, if more than one targets, e.g., a polymer target and a ceramic target are needed for deposition, the composition of the deposited material is selected by controlling the exposure of the target materials to laser energy. For example, to deposit pure polymer or pure ceramic, only the polymer or ceramic material is exposed to laser energy. To deposit a composite layer of ceramic and polymer, both materials are exposed simultaneously or alternately exposed in rapid succession. The relative amount of polymer and ceramic is controlled by the laser energy and/or exposure time. In embodiments, the ceramic or polymer is deposited as small clusters, e.g., 100 nm or less, such as 1-10 nm, and preferably smaller than the gross morphological features of the layers. In embodiments, the clusters bond at contact points forming a continuous coating that is an amalgamation of the clusters. The molecular weight of the polymer can be controlled by selecting the laser wavelength and energy. In the ablation process, energy absorbed by the target can result in cleavage of covalent bonds in polymers, such that the chain lengths and molecular weight of the polymer in the target is reduced in the deposition material. The efficiency of the cleavage process can be enhanced by selecting a laser wavelength that the polymer absorbs strongly. In addition, at higher energies, the size of ablated clusters is increased, with less overall chain cleavage.

[0036] In particular embodiments, the laser energy is produced by an excimer laser operating in the ultraviolet, e.g. at a wavelength of about 248 nm. The laser energy is about 100-700 mJ, the fluence is in the range of about 10 to 50 mJ/cm2. The background pressure is in the range of about 1E-5 mbar to 1 mbar. The background gas includes oxygen. The substrate temperature is also controlled. The temperature of the substrate is between 0 to 150° C. during deposition. Substrate temperature can be controlled by directing an infrared beam onto the substrate during deposition using, e.g. a halogen source. The temperature is measured by mounting a heat sensor in the beam adjacent the substrate. The temperature can be varied to control the morphology of the ceramic and melting of the polymer. The selective sputtering of the ceramic or polymer is controlled by mounting the target material on a moving assembly that can alternately bring the materials into the path of the laser. Alternatively, a beam splitter and shutter can be used to alternatively or simultaneously expose multiple materials. PLD deposition services are available from Axyntec, Augsburg, Germany. Suitable ceramics include metal oxides and nitrides, such as of iridium, zirconium, titanium, hafnium, niobium, tantalum, ruthenium, platinum and aluminum. In embodiments, the thickness of the coatings is in the range of about 10 m to about 2 um, e.g. 100 nm to 500 nm. Pulsed laser deposition is also described in application U.S. Ser. No. 11/752,736, filed May 23, 2007 . The target can be a pure metal, e.g. IR target or iridium oxide in the form of compressed powder. The polymer, e.g. including drug, can also be deposited by PLA. In embodiments, the polymer is SIBS and the drug is paclitaxal at e.g. 8.8%. The laser power is 100 to 250 mn and the pressure between about 0.04 mbar and 0.2 mbar.

[0037] In other embodiments, another physical vapor deposition (“PVD”) process is selected such as magnetron sputtering e.g. an iridium target under an oxygen atmosphere or an IROX target. Sputtering deposition is described in application U.S. Ser. No. 11/752,772, filed May 23, 2007 . In the case of a ceramic or a metal over coating, the porosity can be further controlled by laser ablating apertures into the layer with, e.g. a U.V. laser.

[0038] Referring to FIGS. 7A and 7B, the morphology of the ceramic can be varied between relatively rough surfaces and relatively smooth surfaces, which can each provide particular mechanical and therapeutic advantages, such as a controlled porosity to modulate drug release from the polymer layer. Referring particularly to FIG. 7A, a ceramic coating can have a morphology characterized by defined grains and high roughness. Referring particularly to FIG. 7B, a ceramic coating can have a morphology characterized by a higher coverage, globular surface of generally lower roughness. The defined grain, high roughness morphology provides a high surface area characterized by crevices between and around spaced grains into which the polymer coating can be deposited and interlock to the surface, greatly enhancing adhesion. Defined grain morphologies also allow for greater freedom of motion and are less likely to fracture as the stent is flexed in use and thus the matrix coating resists delamination of the ceramic from an underlying surface and reduces delamination of a possible overlaying coating. The stresses caused by flexure of the stent, during expansion or contraction of the stent or as the stent is delivered through a tortuously curved body lumen increase as a function of the distance from the stent axis. As a result, in embodiments, a morphology with defined grains is particularly desirable on abluminal regions of the stent or at other high stress points, such as the regions adjacent fenestrations which undergo greater flexure during expansion or contraction. Smoother globular surface morphology provides a surface which is tuned to facilitate endothelial growth by selection of its chemical composition and/or morphological features. Certain ceramics, e.g. oxides, can reduce restenosis through the catalytic reduction of hydrogen peroxide and other precursors to smooth muscle cell proliferation. The oxides can also encourage endothelial cell growth to enhance endothelialization of the stent. As discussed above, when a stent, is introduced into a biological environment (e.g., in vivo), one of the initial responses of the human body to the implantation of a stent, particularly into the blood vessels, is the activation of white blood cells. This activation causes a release of hydrogen peroxide, H₂O₂. The presence of H₂O₂ may increase proliferation of smooth muscle cells and compromise endothelial cell function, stimulating the expression of surface binding proteins which enhance the attachment of more inflammatory cells. A ceramic, such as IROX can catalytically reduce H₂O₂. The smoother globular surface morphology of the ceramic can enhance the catalytic effect and enhance growth of endothelial cells.

[0039] Referring particularly to FIG. 7C, a cross-sectional view of the ceramic layer with surface morphology shown in FIG. 7B, channels formed of interconnected pores in the ceramic are visible. In embodiments, the channels have a diameter selectively controlled by deposition parameters as discussed above. The bigger the diameter, the faster the drug release rate. In particular embodiments, the channel diameter is selected to be about 10 nm or less to control the drug release over a extended period of time.

[0040] The morphology of the ceramic is controlled by controlling the energy of the sputtered clusters on the stent substrate. Higher energies and higher temperatures result in defined grain, higher roughness surfaces. Higher energies are provided by increasing the temperature of the ceramic on the substrate, e.g. by heating the substrate or heating the ceramic with infrared radiation. In embodiments, defined grain morphologies are formed at temperatures of about 250° C. or greater. Globular morphologies are formed at lower temperatures, e.g. ambient temperatures without external factors. The heating enhances the formation of a more crystalline ceramic, which forms the grains. Intermediate morphologies are formed at intermediate values of these parameters. The composition of the ceramic can also be varied. For example, oxygen content can be increased by providing oxygen gas in the chamber.

[0041] The morphology of the surface of the ceramic is characterized by its visual appearance, its roughness, and/or the size and arrangement of particular morphological features such as local maxima. In embodiments, the surface is characterized by definable sub-micron sized grains. Referring particularly to FIG. 7A, for example, in embodiments, the grains have a length, L, of the of about 50 to 500 nm, e.g. about 100-300 nm, and a width, W, of about 5 nm to 50 nm, e.g. about 10-15 nm. The grains have an aspect ratio (length to width) of about 5:1 or more, e.g. 10:1 to 20:1. The grains overlap in one or more layers. The separation between grains can be about 1-50 nm. In particular embodiments, the grains resemble rice grains.

[0042] Referring particularly to FIG. 7B, in embodiments, the surface is characterized by a more continuous surface having a series of shallow globular features. The globular features are closely adjacent with a narrow minima between features. In embodiments, the surface resembles an orange peel. The diameter of the globular features is about 100 nm or less, and the depth of the minima, or the height of the maxima of the globular function is e.g. about 50 nm or less, e.g. about 20 nm or less. In other embodiments, the surface has characteristics between high aspect ratio definable grains and the more continuous globular surface and/or has a combination of these characteristics. For example, the morphology can include a substantially globular base layer and a relatively low density of defined grains. In other embodiments, the surface can include low aspect ratio, thin planar flakes. The morphology type is visible in FESEM images at 50 KX.

[0043] Referring to FIGS. 8A-8C, morphologies are also characterized by the size and arrangement of morphological features such as the spacing, height and width of local morphological maxima. Referring particularly to FIG. 5A, a coating 40 on a substrate 42 is characterized by the center-to-center distance and/or height, and/or diameter and/or density of local maxima. In particular embodiments, the average height, distance and diameter are in the range of about 400 nm or less, e.g. about 20-200 nm. In particular, the average center-to-center distance is about 0.5 to 2× the diameter.

[0044] Referring to FIG. 8B, in particular embodiments, the morphology type is a globular morphology, the width of local maxima is in the range of about 100 nm or less and the peak height is about 20 nm or less. In particular embodiments, the ceramic has a peak height of less than about 5 nm, e.g., about 1-5 nm, and/or a peak distance less than about 15 m, e.g., about 10-15 nm. Referring to FIG. 8C, in embodiments, the morphology is defined as a grain type morphology. The width of local maxima is about 400 nm or less, e.g. about 100-400 nm, and the height of local maxima is about 400 nm or less, e.g. about 100-400 nm. As illustrated in FIGS. 8B and 8C, the select morphologies of the ceramic can be formed on a thin layer of substantially uniform, generally amorphous IROX, which is in turn formed on a layer of iridium metal, which is in turn deposited on a metal substrate, such as titanium or stainless steel. The spacing, height and width parameters can be calculated from AFM data.

[0045] The roughness of the surface is characterized by the average roughness, Sa, the root mean square roughness, Sq, and/or the developed interfacial area ratio, Sdr. The Sa and Sq parameters represent an overall measure of the texture of the surface. Sa and Sq are relatively insensitive in differentiating peaks, valleys and the spacing of the various texture features. Surfaces with different visual morphologies can have similar Sa and Sq values. For a surface type, the Sa and Sq parameters indicate significant deviations in the texture characteristics. Sdr is expressed as the percentage of additional surface area contributed by the texture as compared to an ideal plane the size of the measurement region. Sdr further differentiates surfaces of similar amplitudes and average roughness. Typically Sdr will increase with the spatial intricacy of the texture whether or not Sa changes.

[0046] In embodiments, the ceramic has a defined grain type morphology. The Sdr is about 30 or more, e.g. about 40 to 60. In addition or in the alternative, the morphology has an Sq of about 15 or more, e.g. about 20 to 30. In embodiments, the Sdr is about 100 or more and the Sq is about 15 or more. In other embodiments, the ceramic has a globular type surface morphology. The Sdr is about 20 or less, e.g. about 8 to 15. The Sq is about 15 or less, e.g. about less than 8 to 14. In still other embodiments, the ceramic has a morphology between the defined grain and the globular surface, and Sdr and Sq values between the ranges above, e.g. an Sdr of about 1 to 200 and/or an Sq of about 1 to 30. The Sa, Sq, and Sdr can be calculated from AFM data.

[0047] The morphology of the ceramic coating can exhibit high uniformity. The uniformity provides predictable, tuned therapeutic and mechanical performance of the ceramic. The uniformity of the morphology as characterized by Sa, Sq or Sdr and/or average peak spacing parameters can be within about +/−20% or less, e.g. +/−10% or less within a tam square. In a given stent region, the uniformity is within about +/−10%, e.g. about +/−1%. For example, in embodiments, the ceramic exhibits high uniformity over an entire surface region of stent, such as the entire abluminal or adluminal surface, or a portion of a surface region, such as the center 25% or 50% of the surface region. The uniformity is expressed as standard deviation. Uniformity in a region of a stent can be determined by determining the average in five randomly chosen 1 μm square regions and calculating the standard deviation. Uniformity of a morphology type in a region is determined by inspection of FESEM data at 50 kx.

[0048] The ceramics are also characterized by surface composition, composition as a function of depth, and crystallinity. In particular, the amounts of oxygen or nitride in the ceramic is selected for a desired catalytic effect on, e.g., the reduction of H₂O₂ in biological processes. The composition of metal oxide or nitride ceramics can be determined as a ratio of the oxide or nitride to the base metal. In particular embodiments, the ratio is about 2 to 1 or greater, e.g. about 3 to 1 or greater, indicating high oxygen content of the surface. In other embodiments, the ratio is about 1 to 1 or less, e.g. about 1 to 2 or less, indicating a relatively low oxygen composition. In particular embodiments, low oxygen content globular morphologies are formed to enhance endothelialization. In other embodiments, high oxygen content defined grain morphologies are formed, e.g., to enhance adhesion and catalytic reduction. Composition can be determined by x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS). Depth studies are conducted by XPS after FAB sputtering. The crystalline nature of the ceramic can be characterized by crystal shapes as viewed in FESEM images, or Miller indices as determined by x-ray diction. In embodiments, defined grain morphologies have a Miller index of <101>. Globular materials have blended amorphous and crystalline phases that vary with oxygen content. Higher oxygen content typically indicates greater crystallinity. Further discussion of ceramics and ceramic morphology and computation of roughness parameters is provided in U.S. Ser. No. 11/752,736, filed May 23, 2007, U.S. Ser. No. 11/752,772, filed May 23, 2007, and appendices.

[0049] In certain embodiments, referring back to FIG. 3, the second coating 29 can be a porous metallic coating, formed for example, by using a nanocluster deposition system (“NCDS”). Referring particularly to FIG. 9, an NCDS 100 includes several differentially pumped chambers: a cluster source chamber 120 and a deposition chamber 140. The system may also have a load lock for rapid substrate change; a time of flight mass spectrometer (TOF) chamber (not shown) for analysis of the cluster size distribution; and/or an XPS system for elemental analysis with a separate transfer chamber (not shown). In the cluster source chamber, nanoparticles or clusters, such as copper, gold, ruthenium, stainless steel, iron, magnesium, and tungsten can be produced by high-pressure magnetron sputtering, for example, operating a magnetron head 122 in a pressure of about 0.1 to a few millibars with a flow of a working gas, e.g., argon provided by “Gas Source 1” shown in the figure. The relative high pressure allows the sputtered atoms or small clusters to aggregate or condensate in an aggregation zone 124 to form nanoparticles or clusters of desired size before they are transported to the deposition chamber. The clusters are carried by the flowing gas through an aperture 112, whose diameter can be varied during operation of the cluster source. After aperture 112, the clusters enter a differential pumping zone 126, where most of the carrier gas, atoms and/or lighter clusters are pumped away through vacuum port 130, while the heavier clusters pass through a further aperture 110 into the deposition chamber. Clusters are then electrically separated by ion optics 150 into a neutral (n) and a charged (c) beam. The charged clusters of one polarity can be accelerated up to about 50 keV and impinge on the substrate holder 128, which is connected to a voltage source 160 and can be moved horizontally (double-head arrow 101) and rotated (arrow 103) by a small motor (not shown). The charged clusters or nanoparticles generated may further be mass selected by a linear quadrupole (not shown) and selectively deposited on the substrate. For example, typical diameter of the clusters generated can be about 0.7 to 20 nm and size distribution of the clusters can be selectively narrowed to about +/−20%, or even to +/−2%.

[0050] The kinetic energy (e.g., about 100 V to 50 keV) of the clusters partly controlled by the applied voltage on the substrate holder may induce clusters melting upon impact the substrate and may cause damage to the polymeric substrate due to local heating. In embodiments, a first collection of clusters are deposited with a kinetic energy, e.g., 0.1 keV, that is high enough for the clusters to adhere to or penetrate the polymer substrate but substantially causes no heat damage to the polymer and/or the drug incorporated in the polymer. A second collection of clusters with higher kinetic energy, e.g., 5 keV, can then be deposited on top of the first collection. In embodiments, the magnetron head can be moved within the aggregation zone. Reducing the distance from the magnetron head to the first aperture reduces the distance and time whereby condensation can occur so the average cluster size is reduced. In embodiments, several other gases (shown as “Gas Source 2”) can be added into the source chamber. For example, introducing helium can lead to a reduction of the cluster size while introducing oxygen or nitrogen can lead to generation of ceramic clusters or nanoparticles by reactive sputtering and ceramic coating on the polymer substrate. Nanocluster or nanoparticle deposition services are available, e.g., from Mantis Deposition Ltd., England (http://www.mantisdeposition.com) and the relevant techniques are further disclosed by Weber et al., Provisional Application No. 60/857,849, A. H. Kean et al., Mantis Deposition Ltd., NSTI Nano Tech 2006, Boston, May 7-11, 2006, in Y. Qiang et al., Surface and Coating Technology, 100-101, 27-32 (1998) and in Kraft et al., Surface and Coating Technology, 158-159, 131-135 (2002).

[0051] In embodiments, the ceramic or metal is adhered only on the abluminal surface of the stent. This construction may be accomplished by, e.g. coating the stent before forming the fenestrations, as described in e.g., Weber, U.S. Pat. No. 6,517,888. In other embodiments, the ceramic or metal is adhered only on abluminal and cut-face surfaces of the stent. This construction may be accomplished by, e.g., coating a stent containing a mandrel, which shields the luminal surfaces. Masks can be used to shield portions of the stent. In embodiments, the stent metal can be stainless steel, chrome, nickel, cobalt, tantalum, superelastic alloys such as nitinol, cobalt chromium, MP35N, and other metals. Suitable stent materials and stent designs are described in Heath '721, supra. Other suitable ceramics include metal oxides and nitrides, such as of iridium, zirconium, titanium, hafnium, niobium, tantalum, ruthenium, platinum and aluminum. The ceramic can be crystalline, partly crystalline or amorphous. The ceramic can be formed entirely of inorganic materials or a blend of inorganic and organic material (e.g. a polymer). In other embodiments, the morphologies described herein can be formed of metal. As discussed above, different ceramic materials can be provided in different regions of a stent. For example, different materials may be provided on different stent surfaces. A rougher, defined grain material may be provided on the abluminal surface to, e.g. enhance porosity or adhesion to the polymer while a smooth globular material can be provided on the adluminal surface to enhance endothelialization. In yet some embodiments, a material of a defined grain morphology may be provided first on the stent surface to, e.g. enhance adhesion of the polymer while a smooth globular material can be provided on top of the polymer to enhance endothelialization.

[0052] The ceramic material can also be selected for compatibility with a particular polymer coating to, e.g. enhance adhesion. For example, for a hydrophilic polymer, the surface chemistry of the ceramic is made more hydrophilic by e.g., increasing the oxygen content, which increases polar oxygen moieties, such as OH groups. Suitable drug eluting polymers may be hydrophilic or hydrophobic. Suitable polymers include, for example, polycarboxylic acids, cellulosic polymers, including cellulose acetate and cellulose nitrate, gelatin, polyvinylpyrrolidone, cross-linked polyvinylpyrrolidone, polyanhydrides including maleic anhydride polymers, polyamides, polyvinyl alcohols, copolymers of vinyl monomers such as EVA, polyvinyl ethers, polyvinyl aromatics such as polystyrene and copolymers thereof with other vinyl monomers such as isobutylene, isoprene and butadiene, for example, styrene-isobutylene-styrene (SIBS), styrene-isoprene-styrene (SIS) copolymers, styrene-butadiene-styrene (SBS) copolymers, polyethylene oxides, glycosaminoglycans, polysaccharides, polyesters including polyethylene terephthalate, polybutylene succinate (PBS), and polybutylene suucinate adipate (PBSA), polyacrylamides, polyethers, polyether sulfone, polycarbonate, polyalkylenes including polypropylene, polyethylene and high molecular weight polyethylene, halogenerated polyalkylenes including polytetrafluoroethylene, natural and synthetic rubbers including polyisoprene, polybutadiene, polyisobutylene and copolymers thereof with other vinyl monomers such as styrene, polyurethanes, polyorthoesters, proteins, polypeptides, silicones, siloxane polymers, polylactic acid, polyglycolic acid, polycaprolactone, polyhydroxybutyrate valerate and blends and copolymers thereof as well as other biodegradable, bioabsorbable and biostable polymers and copolymers. Coatings from polymer dispersions such as polyurethane dispersions (BAYHDROL®, etc.) and acrylic latex dispersions are also within the scope of the present disclosure. The polymer may be a protein polymer, fibrin, collagen and derivatives thereof, polysaccharides such as celluloses, starches, dextrans, alginates and derivatives of these polysaccharides, an extracellular matrix component, hyaluronic acid, or another biologic agent or a suitable mixture of any of these, for example. U.S. Pat. No. 5,091,205 describes medical devices coated with one or more polyiocyanates such that the devices become instantly lubricious when exposed to body fluids. In embodiments, a suitable polymer is polyacrylic acid, available as HYDROPLUS®. (Boston Scientific Corporation, Natick, Mass.), and described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,091,205, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. Another polymer can be a copolymer of polylactic acid and polycaprolactone. The polymer can be biostable or biodegradable. Suitable polymers are discussed in U.S. Publication No. 2006/0038027.

[0053] In embodiments, the polymer is capable of absorbing a substantial amount of drug solution. In embodiments, when applied as a coating on a medical device, the dry polymer is typically on the order of from about 1 to about 50 microns thick, preferably about 1 to 10 microns thick, and more preferably about 2 to 5 microns. In embodiments, very thin polymer coatings, e.g., of about 0.2-0.3 microns and much thicker coatings, e.g., more than 10 microns, are also possible. In some embodiments, multiple layers of polymer coating can be provided onto a medical device. Such multiple layers are of the same or different polymer materials. Such multiple layers can contain different drugs in each layer, or some of the multiple layers may not contain any drugs. Suitable DEP coating are further disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,605,696 and 5,447,724. In certain embodiments, the polymer can only act as a membrane to regulate drug release. For example, drug particles can first be applied to the stent, then a layer of polymer can be applied on top of the drugs and between the drugs and the ceramic coating to function a first drug release regulating layer while the ceramic coating functions as a second drug release regulating layer.

[0054] The terms “therapeutic agent”, “pharmaceutically active agent”, “pharmaceutically active material”, “pharmaceutically active ingredient”, “drug” and other related terms may be used interchangeably herein and include, but are not limited to, small organic molecules, peptides, oligopeptides, proteins, nucleic acids, oligonucleotides, genetic therapeutic agents, non-genetic therapeutic agents, vectors for delivery of genetic therapeutic agents, cells, and therapeutic agents identified as candidates for vascular treatment regimens, for example, as agents that reduce or inhibit restenosis. By small organic molecule is meant an organic molecule having 50 or fewer carbon atoms, and fewer than 100 non-hydrogen atoms in total.

[0055] Exemplary non-genetic therapeutic agents for use in conjunction with the present invention include: (a) anti-thrombotic agents such as heparin, heparin derivatives, urokinase, and PPack (dextrophenylalanine proline arginine chloromethylketone); (b) anti-inflammatory agents such as dexamethasone, prednisolone, corticosterone, budesonide, estrogen, sulfasalazine and mesalamine; (c) antineoplastic/antiproliferative/anti-miotic agents such as paclitaxel, 5-fluorouracil, cisplatin, vinblastine, vincristine, epothilones, endostatin, angiostatin, angiopeptin, monoclonal antibodies capable of blocking smooth muscle cell proliferation, and thymidine kinase inhibitors; (d) anesthetic agents such as lidocaine, bupivacaine and ropivacaine; (e) anti-coagulants such as D-Phe-Pro-Arg chloromethyl ketone, an RGD peptide-containing compound, heparin, hirudin, antithrombin compounds, platelet receptor antagonists, anti-thrombin antibodies, anti-platelet receptor antibodies, aspirin, prostaglandin inhibitors, platelet inhibitors and tick antiplatelet peptides; (f) vascular cell growth promoters such as growth factors, transcriptional activators, and translational promotors; (g) vascular cell growth inhibitors such as growth factor inhibitors, growth factor receptor antagonists, transcriptional repressors, translational repressors, replication inhibitors, inhibitory antibodies, antibodies directed against growth factors, bifunctional molecules consisting of a growth factor and a cytotoxin, bifunctional molecules consisting of an antibody and a cytotoxin; (h) protein kinase and tyrosine kinase inhibitors (e.g., tyrphostins, genistein, quinoxalines); (i) prostacyclin analogs; (j) cholesterol-lowering agents; (k) angiopoietins; (l) antimicrobial agents such as triclosan, cephalosporins, aminoglycosides and nitrofurantoin; (m) cytotoxic agents, cytostatic agents and cell proliferation affectors; (n) vasodilating agents; (o) agents that interfere with endogenous vasoactive mechanisms; p) inhibitors of leukocyte recruitment, such as monoclonal antibodies; (q) cytokines; (r) hormones; (s) inhibitors of HSP 90 protein (i.e., Heat Shock Protein, which is a molecular chaperone or housekeeping protein and is needed for the stability and function of other client proteins/signal transduction proteins responsible for growth and survival of cells) including geldanamycin, (t) alpha receptor antagonist (such as doxazosin, Tamsulosin) and beta receptor agonists (such as dobutamine, salmeterol), beta receptor antagonist (such as atenolol, metaprolol, butoxamine), angiotensin-II receptor antagonists (such as losartan, valsartan, irbesartan, candesartan and telmisartan), and antispasmodic drugs (such as oxybutynin chloride, flavoxate, tolterodine, hyoscyamine sulfate, diclomine), (u) bARKct inhibitors, (v) phospholamban inhibitors, (w) Serca 2 gene/protein, (x) immune response modifiers including aminoquizolines, for instance, imidazoquinolines such as resiquimod and imiquimod, and (y) human apolioproteins (e.g., AI, AII, AIII, AIV, AV, etc.).

[0056] Specific examples of non-genetic therapeutic agents include paclitaxel, (including particulate forms thereof, for instance, protein-bound paclitaxel particles such as albumin-bound paclitaxel nanoparticles, e.g., ABRAXANE), sirolimus, everolimus, tacrolimus, Epo D, dexamethasone, estadiol, halofuginone, cilostazole, geldanamycin, ABT-578 (Abbott Laboratories), trapidil, liprostin, Actinomcin D, Resten-NG, Ap-17, abciximab, clopidogrel, Ridogrel, beta-blockers, bARKct inhibitors, phospholamban inhibitors, Serca 2 gene/protein, imiquimod, human apolioproteins (e.g., AI-AV), growth factors (e.g., VEGF-2), as well a derivatives of the forgoing, among others.

[0057] Exemplary genetic therapeutic agents for use in conjunction with the present invention include anti-sense DNA and RNA as well as DNA coding for the various proteins (as well as the proteins themselves): (a) anti-sense RNA, (b) tRNA or rRNA to replace defective or deficient endogenous molecules, (c) angiogenic and other factors including growth factors such as acidic and basic fibroblast growth factors, vascular endothelial growth factor, endothelial mitogenic growth factors, epidermal growth factor, transforming growth factor α and β, platelet-derived endothelial growth factor, platelet-derived growth factor, tumor necrosis factor α, hepatocyte growth factor and insulin-like growth factor, (d) cell cycle inhibitors including CD inhibitors, and (e) thymidine kinase (“TK”) and other agents useful for interfering with cell proliferation. Also of interest is DNA encoding for the family of bone morphogenic proteins (“BMP's”), including BMP-2, BMP-3, BMP-4, BMP-5, BMP-6 (Vgr-1), BMP-7 (OP-1), BMP-8, BMP-9, BMP-10, BMP-11, BMP-12, BMP-13, BMP-14, BMP-15, and BMP-16. Currently preferred BMP's are any of BMP-2, BMP-3, BMP-4, BMP-5, BMP-6 and BMP-7. These dimeric proteins can be provided as homodimers, heterodimers, or combinations thereof, alone or together with other molecules. Alternatively, or in addition, molecules capable of inducing an upstream or downstream effect of a BMP can be provided. Such molecules include any of the “hedgehog” proteins, or the DNA's encoding them.

[0058] Vectors for delivery of genetic therapeutic agents include viral vectors such as adenoviruses, gutted adenoviruses, adeno-associated virus, retroviruses, alpha virus (Semliki Forest, Sindbis, etc.), lentiviruses, herpes simplex virus, replication competent viruses (e.g., ONYX-015) and hybrid vectors; and non-viral vectors such as artificial chromosomes and mini-chromosomes, plasmid DNA vectors (e.g., pCOR), cationic polymers (e.g., polyethyleneimine, polyethyleneimine (PEI)), graft copolymers (e.g., polyether-PEI and polyethylene oxide-PEI), neutral polymers PVP, SP1017 (SUPRATEK), lipids such as cationic lipids, liposomes, lipoplexes, nanoparticles, or microparticles, with and without targeting sequences such as the protein transduction domain (PTD).

[0059] Cells for use in conjunction with the present invention include cells of human origin (autologous or allogeneic), including whole bone marrow, bone marrow derived mono-nuclear cells, progenitor cells (e.g., endothelial progenitor cells), stem cells (e.g., mesenchymal, hematopoietic, neuronal), pluripotent stem cells, fibroblasts, myoblasts, satellite cells, pericytes, cardiomyocytes, skeletal myocytes or macrophage, or from an animal, bacterial or fungal source (xenogeneic), which can be genetically engineered, if desired, to deliver proteins of interest.

[0060] Numerous therapeutic agents, not necessarily exclusive of those listed above, have been identified as candidates for vascular treatment regimens, for example, as agents targeting restenosis. Such agents are useful for the practice of the present invention and include one or more of the following: (a) Ca-channel blockers including benzothiazapines such as diltiazem and clentiazem, dihydropyridines such as nifedipine, amlodipine and nicardapine, and phenylalkylamines such as verapamil, (b) serotonin pathway modulators including: 5-HT antagonists such as ketanserin and naftidrofuryl, as well as 5-HT uptake inhibitors such as fluoxetine, (c) cyclic nucleotide pathway agents including phosphodiesterase inhibitors such as cilostazole and dipyridamole, adenylate/Guanylate cyclase stimulants such as forskolin, as well as adenosine analogs, (d) catecholamine modulators including α-antagonists such as prazosin and bunazosine, β-antagonists such as propranolol and α/β-antagonists such as labetalol and carvedilol, (e) endothelin receptor antagonists, (f) nitric oxide donors/releasing molecules including organic nitrates/nitrites such as nitroglycerin, isosorbide dinitrate and amyl nitrite, inorganic nitroso compounds such as sodium nitroprusside, sydnonimines such as molsidomine and linsidomine, nonoates such as diazenium diolates and NO adducts of alkanediamines, S-nitroso compounds including low molecular weight compounds (e.g., S-nitroso derivatives of captopril, glutathione and N-acetyl penicillamine) and high molecular weight compounds (e.g., S-nitroso derivatives of proteins, peptides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, synthetic polymers/oligomers and natural polymers/oligomers), as well as C-nitroso-compounds, O-nitroso-compounds, N-nitroso-compounds and L-arginine, (g) ACE inhibitors such as cilazapril, fosinopril and enalapril, (h) ATII-receptor antagonists such as saralasin and losartin, (i) platelet adhesion inhibitors such as albumin and polyethylene oxide, (j) platelet aggregation inhibitors including cilostazole, aspirin and thienopyridine (ticlopidine, clopidogrel) and GP IIb/IIIa inhibitors such as abciximab, epitifibatide and tirofiban, (k) coagulation pathway modulators including heparinoids such as heparin, low molecular weight heparin, dextran sulfate and f-cyclodextrin tetradecasulfate, thrombin inhibitors such as hirudin, hirulog, PPACK(D-phe-L-propyl-L-arg-chloromethylketone) and argatroban, FXa inhibitors such as antistatin and TAP (tick anticoagulant peptide), Vitamin K inhibitors such as warfarin, as well as activated protein C, (l) cyclooxygenase pathway inhibitors such as aspirin, ibuprofen, flurbiprofen, indomethacin and sulfinpyrazone, (m) natural and synthetic corticosteroids such as dexamethasone, prednisolone, methprednisolone and hydrocortisone, (n) lipoxygenase pathway inhibitors such as nordihydroguairetic acid and caffeic acid, (o) leukotriene receptor antagonists, (p) antagonists of E- and P-selectins, (q) inhibitors of VCAM-1 and ICAM-1 interactions, (r) prostaglandins and analogs thereof including prostaglandins such as PGE1 and PGI2 and prostacyclin analogs such as ciprostene, epoprostenol, carbacyclin, iloprost and beraprost, (s) macrophage activation preventers including bisphosphonates, (t) HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors such as lovastatin, pravastatin, fluvastatin, simvastatin and cerivastatin, (u) fish oils and omega-3-fatty acids, (v) free-radical scavengers/antioxidants such as probucol, vitamins C and E, ebselen, trans-retinoic acid and SOD mimics, (w) agents affecting various growth factors including FGF pathway agents such as bFGF antibodies and chimeric fusion proteins, PDGF receptor antagonists such as trapidil, IGF pathway agents including somatostatin analogs such as angiopeptin and ocreotide, TGF-β pathway agents such as polyanionic agents (heparin, fucoidin), decorin, and TGF-β antibodies, EGF pathway agents such as EGF antibodies, receptor antagonists and chimeric fusion proteins, TNF-α pathway agents such as thalidomide and analogs thereof, Thromboxane A2 (TXA2) pathway modulators such as sulotroban, vapiprost, dazoxiben and ridogrel, as well as protein tyrosine kinase inhibitors such as tyrphostin, genistein and quinoxaline derivatives, (x) MMP pathway inhibitors such as marimastat, ilomastat and metastat, (y) cell motility inhibitors such as cytochalasin B, (z) antiproliferative/antineoplastic agents including antimetabolites such as purine analogs (e.g., 6-mercaptopurine or cladribine, which is a chlorinated purine nucleoside analog), pyrimidine analogs (e.g., cytarabine and 5-fluorouracil) and methotrexate, nitrogen mustards, alkyl sulfonates, ethylenimines, antibiotics (e.g., daunorubicin, doxorubicin, macrolide antibiotics such as erythromycin), nitrosoureas, cisplatin, agents affecting microtubule dynamics (e.g., vinblastine, vincristine, colchicine, Epo D, paclitaxel and epothilone), caspase activators, proteasome inhibitors, angiogenesis inhibitors (e.g., endostatin, angiostatin and squalamine), rapamycin, cerivastatin, flavopiridol and suramin, (aa) matrix deposition/organization pathway inhibitors such as halofuginone or other quinazolinone derivatives and trailast (bb) endothelialization facilitators such as VEGF and RGD peptide, and (cc) blood rheology modulators such as pentoxifylline.

[0061] Further additional therapeutic agents include immunosuppressents such as sirolimus and antibiotics such as macrolide antibiotics, evorolimus, and Tacrolimus for the practice of the present invention are also disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,733,925.

[0062] Where a therapeutic agent is included, a wide range of therapeutic agent loadings can be used in conjunction with the medical devices of the present invention, with the therapeutically effective amount being readily determined by those of ordinary skill in the art and ultimately depending, for example, upon the condition to be treated, the age, sex and condition of the patient, the nature of the therapeutic agent, the nature of the ceramic region(s), and/or the nature of the medical device, among other factors.

[0063] In a particular embodiment a 1% toluene solution of SIBS with 8.8 wt. % paclitaxel was sprayed onto a stainless steel stent with masks on its adluminal and cut-face surfaces until the thickness reached a desired value, e.g., 10 microns. The stent coated with DEP was then dried in air. The drug content of the dry DEP coating was about 8.8% by weight. Subsequently, the DEP-coated stent was mount in an Axplorer PLD system by Axyntec, Augsburg, Germany. An iridium (99.9 wt. %) target was ablated by a 248 nm laser of 10 ns pulse at an energy of 600 ml, base pressure of 0.8 mbar oxygen, and substrate temperature of 50 degrees of Celsius. The resultant IROX layer had a thickness of about 15 nm to 150 nm.

[0064] Referring to FIG. 10, a field emission scanning electron microscopy (“FESEM”) image of the surface of a strut of a stainless steel stent processed with the method disclosed in EXAMPLE is shown. As shown in FIG. 10, about 10-15 nm thick of IROX covers the stent surface, underneath which is about several microns thick of SIBS/paclitaxel (“PTX”).

[0065] In further embodiments, the polymeric coating may incorporate magnetic particles, e.g., nanoparticles. The embodiments may have one or more additional following advantages, including that the release profile of a therapeutic agent from an endoprosthesis can be controlled through non-invasive means, e.g., a magnetic field. The magnetic field can be used to selectively agitate the particles, to modify drug release from the polymeric coating. Use of magnetic particles is described further in U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/845,136, filed Sep. 15, 2006.

[0066] Any stent described herein can be dyed or rendered radiopaque by addition of, e.g., radiopaque materials such as barium sulfate, platinum or gold, or by coating with a radiopaque material. The stent can include (e.g., be manufactured from) metallic materials, e.g., biostable metallic materials such as stainless steel (e.g., 316L, BioDur® 108 (UNS S29108), and 304L stainless steel, and an alloy including stainless steel and 5-60% by weight of one or more radiopaque elements (e.g., Pt, Ir, Au, W) (PERSS®) as described in US-2003-0018380-A1, US-2002-0144757-A1, and US-2003-0077200-A1), Nitinol (a nickel-titanium alloy), cobalt alloys such as Elgiloy, L605 alloys, MP35N, titanium, titanium alloys (e.g., Ti-6Al-4V, Ti-50Ta, Ti-10Ir), platinum, platinum alloys, niobium, niobium alloys (e.g., Nb-1Zr) Co-28Cr-6Mo, tantalum, and tantalum alloys. Other examples of materials are described in commonly assigned U.S. application Ser. No. 10/672,891, filed Sep. 26, 2003; and U.S. application Ser. No. 11/035,316, filed Jan. 3, 2005. The stent can be formed of bioerodible metal such as magnesium, iron, calcium, aluminum, or their alloys. Other materials include elastic biocompatible metal such as a superelastic or pseudo-elastic metal alloy, as described, for example, in Schetsky, L. McDonald, “Shape Memory Alloys”, Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology (3rd ed.), John Wiley & Sons, 1982, vol. 20. pp. 726-736; and commonly assigned U.S. application Ser. No. 10/346,487, filed Jan. 17, 2003.

[0067] The stents described herein can be configured for vascular, e.g. coronary and peripheral vasculature or non-vascular lumens. For example, they can be configured for use in the esophagus or the prostate. Other lumens include biliary lumens, hepatic lumens, pancreatic lumens, and urethral lumens.

[0068] The stent can be of a desired shape and size (e.g., coronary stents, aortic stents, peripheral vascular stents, gastrointestinal stents, urology stents, tracheal/bronchial stents, and neurology stents). Depending on the application, the stent can have a diameter of between, e.g., about 1 mm to about 46 mm. In certain embodiments, a coronary stent can have an expanded diameter of from about 2 mm to about 6 mm. In some embodiments, a peripheral stent can have an expanded diameter of from about 4 mm to about 24 mm. In certain embodiments, a gastrointestinal and/or urology stent can have an expanded diameter of from about 6 mm to about 30 mm. In some embodiments, a neurology stent can have an expanded diameter of from about 1 mm to about 12 mm. An abdominal aortic aneurysm (AAA) stent and a thoracic aortic aneurysm (TAA) stent can have a diameter from about 20 mm to about 46 mm. The stent can be balloon-expandable, self-expandable, or a combination of both (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,290,721). Other medical devices, particularly implantable devices can be formed, such as catheters, guide wires, and filters, having implants and electrodes.

[0069] A number of embodiments have been described in the disclosure. Nevertheless, it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the disclosure. For example, referring back to FIG. 3, the first coating 25, e.g., a polymeric coating can be provided as well or only on the adluminal surface and/or cut-face surfaces; while the second coating, e.g., a porous ceramic coating, can be provided only on the abluminal surface or as well on the cut-face surfaces. Also for another example, a stent formed of a polymeric material (e.g., a biostable polymer such as polyurethane or a bioerodible polymer such as poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid)) can be coated with a similar construction on select surfaces as discussed above, e.g., a DEP or drug coating covered with a porous ceramic or metallic layer over the abluminal surface. In a particular example, in case of a bioerodible polymer stent, porous iron or magnesium can be the over coating. The bioerodible stent can also be covered with an initial porous ceramic or metallic underlayer (e.g., a bioerodible ceramic or metal, for example, calcium carbonate or iron), after which a DEP can be applied to select regions of the underlayer, which then is covered with a porous ceramic or metal over coating. Such an arrangement allows that the drug eluting process lasts longer then the stent erosion process: the drug elutes only through the over coating if the stent is still intact and the drug can elute both through the over coating and the underlayer once the stent is eroded.

[0070] All publications, patent applications, patents, and other references mentioned herein are incorporated by reference herein in their entirety.

[0071] Still other embodiments are in the following claims.