High temperature methods for forming oxidizer fuel

[0001] This patent application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent No. 60/999,839 entitled “SYSTEMS AND PROCESSES FOR USE IN TREATING SUBSURFACE FORMATIONS” to Vinegar et al. filed on Oct. 19, 2007 and to U.S. Provisional Patent No. 61/046,329 entitled “METHODS, SYSTEMS AND PROCESSES FOR USE IN TREATING SUBSURFACE FORMATIONS” to Vinegar et al. filed on Apr. 18, 2008.

[0002] This patent application incorporates by reference in its entirety each of U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,688,387 to Wellington et al.; 6,991,036 to Sumnu-Dindoruk et al.; 6,698,515 to Karanikas et al.; 6,880,633 to Wellington et al.; 6,782,947 to de Rouffignac et al; 6,991,045 to Vinegar et al.; 7,073,578 to Vinegar et al.; 7,121,342 to Vinegar et al; and 7,320,364 to Fairbanks. This patent application incorporates by reference in its entirety each of U.S. Patent Application Publication 2007-0133960 to Vinegar et al., U.S. Patent Application Publication 2007-0221377 to Vinegar et al., U.S. Patent Application Publication 2008-0017380 to Vinegar et al, and U.S. Patent Application Publication 2008-0217015 to Vinegar et al. This patent application incorporates by reference in its entirety U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/106,035 to Vinegar et al.

[0003] The Government has certain rights in the invention pursuant to Agreement Nos. SD 10634 and NFE 062050824 between Sandia National Laboratories (operating under Agreement DE-AC04-94AL85000Sa for the U.S. Department of Energy) and Shell Exploration and Production Company.

[0004] 1. Field of the Invention

[0005] The present invention relates generally to methods and systems for production of hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and/or other products from various subsurface formations such as hydrocarbon containing formations.

[0006] 2. Description of Related Art

[0007] Hydrocarbons obtained from subterranean formations are often used as energy resources, as feedstocks, and as consumer products. Concerns over depletion of available hydrocarbon resources and concerns over declining overall quality of produced hydrocarbons have led to development of processes for more efficient recovery, processing and/or use of available hydrocarbon resources. In situ processes may be used to remove hydrocarbon materials from subterranean formations. Chemical and/or physical properties of hydrocarbon material in a subterranean formation may need to be changed to allow hydrocarbon material to be more easily removed from the subterranean formation. The chemical and physical changes may include in situ reactions that produce removable fluids, composition changes, solubility changes, density changes, phase changes, and/or viscosity changes of the hydrocarbon material in the formation. A fluid may be, but is not limited to, a gas, a liquid, an emulsion, a slurry, and/or a stream of solid particles that has flow characteristics similar to liquid flow.

[0008] During some in situ processes, wax may be used to reduce vapors and/or to encapsulate contaminants in the ground. Wax may be used during remediation of wastes to encapsulate contaminated material. U.S. Pat. Nos. 7,114,880 to Carter, and 5,879,110 to Carter, each of which is incorporated herein by reference, describe methods for treatment of contaminants using wax during the remediation procedures.

[0009] In some embodiments, a casing or other pipe system may be placed or formed in a wellbore. U.S. Pat. No. 4,572,299 issued to Van Egmond et al., which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes spooling an electric heater into a well. In some embodiments, components of a piping system may be welded together. Quality of formed wells may be monitored by various techniques. In some embodiments, quality of welds may be inspected by a hybrid electromagnetic acoustic transmission technique known as EMAT. EMAT is described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,652,389 to Schaps et al.; 5,760,307 to Latimer et al.; 5,777,229 to Geier et al.; and 6,155,117 to Stevens et al., each of which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.

[0010] In some embodiments, an expandable tubular may be used in a wellbore. Expandable tubulars are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,366,012 to Lohbeck, and 6,354,373 to Vercaemer et al., each of which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.

[0011] Heaters may be placed in wellbores to heat a formation during an in situ process. Examples of in situ processes utilizing downhole heaters are illustrated in U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,634,961 to Ljungstrom; 2,732,195 to Ljungstrom; 2,780,450 to Ljungstrom; 2,789,805 to Ljungstrom; 2,923,535 to Ljungstrom; and 4,886,118 to Van Meurs et al.; each of which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.

[0012] Application of heat to oil shale formations is described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 2,923,535 to Ljungstrom and 4,886,118 to Van Meurs et al. Heat may be applied to the oil shale formation to pyrolyze kerogen in the oil shale formation. The heat may also fracture the formation to increase permeability of the formation. The increased permeability may allow formation fluid to travel to a production well where the fluid is removed from the oil shale formation. In some processes disclosed by Ljungstrom, for example, an oxygen containing gaseous medium is introduced to a permeable stratum, preferably while still hot from a preheating step, to initiate combustion.

[0013] A heat source may be used to heat a subterranean formation. Electric heaters may be used to heat the subterranean formation by radiation and/or conduction. An electric heater may resistively heat an element. U.S. Pat. No. 2,548,360 to Germain, which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes an electric heating element placed in a viscous oil in a wellbore. The heater element heats and thins the oil to allow the oil to be pumped from the wellbore. U.S. Pat. No. 4,716,960 to Eastlund et al., which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes electrically heating tubing of a petroleum well by passing a relatively low voltage current through the tubing to prevent formation of solids. U.S. Pat. No. 5,065,818 to Van Egmond, which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes an electric heating element that is cemented into a well borehole without a casing surrounding the heating element.

[0014] U.S. Pat. No. 6,023,554 to Vinegar et al., which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes an electric heating element that is positioned in a casing. The heating element generates radiant energy that heats the casing. A granular solid fill material may be placed between the casing and the formation. The casing may conductively heat the fill material, which in turn conductively heats the formation.

[0015] U.S. Pat. No. 4,570,715 to Van Meurs et al., which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes an electric heating element. The heating element has an electrically conductive core, a surrounding layer of insulating material, and a surrounding metallic sheath. The conductive core may have a relatively low resistance at high temperatures. The insulating material may have electrical resistance, compressive strength, and heat conductivity properties that are relatively high at high temperatures. The insulating layer may inhibit arcing from the core to the metallic sheath. The metallic sheath may have tensile strength and creep resistance properties that are relatively high at high temperatures.

[0016] U.S. Pat. No. 5,060,287 to Van Egmond, which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes an electrical heating element having a copper-nickel alloy core.

[0017] Obtaining permeability in an oil shale formation between injection and production wells tends to be difficult because oil shale is often substantially impermeable. Many methods have attempted to link injection and production wells. These methods include: hydraulic fracturing such as methods investigated by Dow Chemical and Laramie Energy Research Center; electrical fracturing by methods investigated by Laramie Energy Research Center; acid leaching of limestone cavities by methods investigated by Dow Chemical; steam injection into permeable nahcolite zones to dissolve the nahcolite by methods investigated by Shell Oil and Equity Oil; fracturing with chemical explosives by methods investigated by Talley Energy Systems; fracturing with nuclear explosives by methods investigated by Project Bronco; and combinations of these methods. Many of these methods, however, have relatively high operating costs and lack sufficient injection capacity.

[0018] Large deposits of heavy hydrocarbons (heavy oil and/or tar) contained in relatively permeable formations (for example in tar sands) are found in North America, South America, Africa, and Asia. Tar can be surface-mined and upgraded to lighter hydrocarbons such as crude oil, naphtha, kerosene, and/or gas oil. Surface milling processes may further separate the bitumen from sand. The separated bitumen may be converted to light hydrocarbons using conventional refinery methods. Mining and upgrading tar sand is usually substantially more expensive than producing lighter hydrocarbons from conventional oil reservoirs.

[0019] In situ production of hydrocarbons from tar sand may be accomplished by heating and/or injecting a gas into the formation. U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,211,230 to Ostapovich et al. and 5,339,897 to Leaute, which are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describe a horizontal production well located in an oil-bearing reservoir. A vertical conduit may be used to inject an oxidant gas into the reservoir for in situ combustion.

[0020] U.S. Pat. No. 2,780,450 to Ljungstrom describes heating bituminous geological formations in situ to convert or crack a liquid tar-like substance into oils and gases.

[0021] U.S. Pat. No. 4,597,441 to Ware et al., which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes contacting oil, heat, and hydrogen simultaneously in a reservoir. Hydrogenation may enhance recovery of oil from the reservoir.

[0022] U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,046,559 to Glandt and 5,060,726 to Glandt et al., which are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describe preheating a portion of a tar sand formation between an injector well and a producer well. Steam may be injected from the injector well into the formation to produce hydrocarbons at the producer well.

[0023] As outlined above, there has been a significant amount of effort to develop methods and systems to economically produce hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and/or other products from hydrocarbon containing formations. At present, however, there are still many hydrocarbon containing formations from which hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and/or other products cannot be economically produced. Thus, there is still a need for improved methods and systems for production of hydrocarbons, hydrogen, and/or other products from various hydrocarbon containing formations.

[0024] Embodiments described herein generally relate to systems, methods, and heaters for treating a subsurface formation. Embodiments described herein also generally relate to heaters that have novel components therein. Such heaters can be obtained by using the systems and methods described herein.

[0025] In certain embodiments, the invention provides one or more systems, methods, and/or heaters. In some embodiments, the systems, methods, and/or heaters are used for treating a subsurface formation.

[0026] In certain embodiments, a method of treating a formation fluid includes providing formation fluid from a subsurface in situ heat treatment process; separating the formation fluid to produce a liquid stream and a first gas stream, wherein the first gas stream comprises carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, hydrocarbons, hydrogen or mixtures thereof; separating molecular oxygen from air to form a molecular oxygen stream comprising molecular oxygen; combining the first gas stream with the molecular oxygen stream to form a combined stream comprising molecular oxygen and the first gas stream; and providing the combined stream to one or more downhole burners.

[0027] In certain embodiments, a system includes a separating unit configured to receive formation fluid from a subsurface in situ heat treatment process and separate the formation fluid to produce a liquid stream and a first gas stream, wherein the first gas stream comprises carbon dioxide, sulfur compounds, hydrocarbons, hydrogen, or mixtures thereof; a fuel conduit configured to receive the first gas stream and transport the first gas stream; an oxidizing fluid production system configured to apply current to water to form an oxidizing fluid; an oxidizing fluid conduit configured to receive the oxidizing fluid and transport the oxidizing fluid; and one or more downhole burners in or near the formation or another formation and coupled to the fuel conduit and oxidizing fluid conduit, wherein at least one of the burners is configured to receive the first gas stream and/or the oxidizing fluid from the fuel and/or oxidizing fluid conduits and combust the first gas stream and/or the oxidizing fluid stream, thereby heating at least a portion of the formation or another formation.

[0028] In certain embodiments, a method of treating formation fluid includes providing formation fluid from a subsurface in situ heat treatment process; separating the formation fluid to produce a liquid stream and a gas stream, wherein the gas stream comprises hydrocarbons; providing the gas stream to a reformation unit; reforming the gas stream to produce a hydrogen gas stream; and providing at least a portion of the hydrogen in the hydrogen gas stream to one or more downhole burners in or near the formation or another formation.

[0029] In further embodiments, features from specific embodiments may be combined with features from other embodiments. For example, features from one embodiment may be combined with features from any of the other embodiments.

[0030] In further embodiments, treating a subsurface formation is performed using any of the methods, systems, or heaters described herein.

[0031] In further embodiments, additional features may be added to the specific embodiments described herein.

[0405] While the invention is susceptible to various modifications and alternative forms, specific embodiments thereof are shown by way of example in the drawings and may herein be described in detail. The drawings may not be to scale. It should be understood, however, that the drawings and detailed description thereto are not intended to limit the invention to the particular form disclosed, but on the contrary, the intention is to cover all modifications, equivalents and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the present invention as defined by the appended claims.

[0406] The following description generally relates to systems and methods for treating hydrocarbons in the formations. Such formations may be treated to yield hydrocarbon products, hydrogen, and other products.

[0407] “Alternating current (AC)” refers to a time-varying current that reverses direction substantially sinusoidally. AC produces skin effect electricity flow in a ferromagnetic conductor.

[0408] “Annular region” is the region between an outer conduit and an inner conduit positioned in the outer conduit.

[0409] “API gravity” refers to API gravity at 15.5° C. (60° F.). API gravity is as determined by ASTM Method D6822 or ASTM Method D1298.

[0410] “ASTM” refers to American Standard Testing and Materials.

[0411] In the context of reduced heat output heating systems, apparatus, and methods, the term “automatically” means such systems, apparatus, and methods function in a certain way without the use of external control (for example, external controllers such as a controller with a temperature sensor and a feedback loop, PID controller, or predictive controller).

[0412] “Bare metal” and “exposed metal” refer to metals of elongated members that do not include a layer of electrical insulation, such as mineral insulation, that is designed to provide electrical insulation for the metal throughout an operating temperature range of the elongated member. Bare metal and exposed metal may encompass a metal that includes a corrosion inhibitor such as a naturally occurring oxidation layer, an applied oxidation layer, and/or a film. Bare metal and exposed metal include metals with polymeric or other types of electrical insulation that cannot retain electrical insulating properties at typical operating temperature of the elongated member. Such material may be placed on the metal and may be thermally degraded during use of the heater.

[0413] Boiling range distributions for the formation fluid and liquid streams described herein are as determined by ASTM Method D5307 or ASTM Method D2887. Content of hydrocarbon components in weight percent for paraffins, iso-paraffins, olefins, naphthenes and aromatics in the liquid streams is as determined by ASTM Method D6730. Content of aromatics in volume percent is as determined by ASTM Method D1319. Weight percent of hydrogen in hydrocarbons is as determined by ASTM Method D3343.

[0414] “Bromine number” refers to a weight percentage of olefins in grams per 100 gram of portion of the produced fluid that has a boiling range below 246° C. and testing the portion using ASTM Method D1159.

[0415] “Carbon number” refers to the number of carbon atoms in a molecule. A hydrocarbon fluid may include various hydrocarbons with different carbon numbers. The hydrocarbon fluid may be described by a carbon number distribution. Carbon numbers and/or carbon number distributions may be determined by true boiling point distribution and/or gas-liquid chromatography.

[0416] “Chemically stability” refers to the ability of a formation fluid to be transported without components in the formation fluid reacting to form polymers and/or compositions that plug pipelines, valves, and/or vessels.

[0417] “Clogging” refers to impeding and/or inhibiting flow of one or more compositions through a process vessel or a conduit.

[0418] “Column X element” or “Column X elements” refer to one or more elements of Column X of the Periodic Table, and/or one or more compounds of one or more elements of Column X of the Periodic Table, in which X corresponds to a column number (for example, 13-18) of the Periodic Table. For example, “Column 15 elements” refer to elements from Column 15 of the Periodic Table and/or compounds of one or more elements from Column 15 of the Periodic Table.

[0419] “Column X metal” or “Column X metals” refer to one or more metals of Column X of the Periodic Table and/or one or more compounds of one or more metals of Column X of the Periodic Table, in which X corresponds to a column number (for example, 1-12) of the Periodic Table. For example, “Column 6 metals” refer to metals from Column 6 of the Periodic Table and/or compounds of one or more metals from Column 6 of the Periodic Table.

[0420] “Condensable hydrocarbons” are hydrocarbons that condense at 25° C. and one atmosphere absolute pressure. Condensable hydrocarbons may include a mixture of hydrocarbons having carbon numbers greater than 4. “Non-condensable hydrocarbons” are hydrocarbons that do not condense at 25° C. and one atmosphere absolute pressure. Non-condensable hydrocarbons may include hydrocarbons having carbon numbers less than 5.

[0421] “Coring” is a process that generally includes drilling a hole into a formation and removing a substantially solid mass of the formation from the hole.

[0422] “Cracking” refers to a process involving decomposition and molecular recombination of organic compounds to produce a greater number of molecules than were initially present. In cracking, a series of reactions take place accompanied by a transfer of hydrogen atoms between molecules. For example, naphtha may undergo a thermal cracking reaction to form ethene and H₂.

[0423] “Curie temperature” is the temperature above which a ferromagnetic material loses all of its ferromagnetic properties. In addition to losing all of its ferromagnetic properties above the Curie temperature, the ferromagnetic material begins to lose its ferromagnetic properties when an increasing electrical current is passed through the ferromagnetic material.

[0424] “Cycle oil” refers to a mixture of light cycle oil and heavy cycle oil. “Light cycle oil” refers to hydrocarbons having a boiling range distribution between 430° F. (221° C.) and 650° F. (343° C.) that are produced from a fluidized catalytic cracking system. Light cycle oil content is determined by ASTM Method D5307. “Heavy cycle oil” refers to hydrocarbons having a boiling range distribution between 650° F. (343° C.) and 800° F. (427° C.) that are produced from a fluidized catalytic cracking system. Heavy cycle oil content is determined by ASTM Method D5307.

[0425] “Diad” refers to a group of two items (for example, heaters, wellbores, or other objects) coupled together.

[0426] “Diesel” refers to hydrocarbons with a boiling range distribution between 260° C. and 343° C. (500-650° F.) at 0.101 MPa. Diesel content is determined by ASTM Method D2887.

[0427] “Enriched air” refers to air having a larger mole fraction of oxygen than air in the atmosphere. Air is typically enriched to increase combustion-supporting ability of the air.

[0428] “Fluid injectivity” is the flow rate of fluids injected per unit of pressure differential between a first location and a second location.

[0429] “Fluid pressure” is a pressure generated by a fluid in a formation. “Lithostatic pressure” (sometimes referred to as “lithostatic stress”) is a pressure in a formation equal to a weight per unit area of an overlying rock mass. “Hydrostatic pressure” is a pressure in a formation exerted by a column of water.

[0430] A “formation” includes one or more hydrocarbon containing layers, one or more non-hydrocarbon layers, an overburden, and/or an underburden. “Hydrocarbon layers” refer to layers in the formation that contain hydrocarbons. The hydrocarbon layers may contain non-hydrocarbon material and hydrocarbon material. The “overburden” and/or the “underburden” include one or more different types of impermeable materials. For example, the overburden and/or underburden may include rock, shale, mudstone, or wet/tight carbonate. In some embodiments of in situ heat treatment processes, the overburden and/or the underburden may include a hydrocarbon containing layer or hydrocarbon containing layers that are relatively impermeable and are not subjected to temperatures during in situ heat treatment processing that result in significant characteristic changes of the hydrocarbon containing layers of the overburden and/or the underburden. For example, the underburden may contain shale or mudstone, but the underburden is not allowed to heat to pyrolysis temperatures during the in situ heat treatment process. In some cases, the overburden and/or the underburden may be somewhat permeable.

[0431] “Formation fluids” refer to fluids present in a formation and may include pyrolyzation fluid, synthesis gas, mobilized hydrocarbons, and water (steam). Formation fluids may include hydrocarbon fluids as well as non-hydrocarbon fluids. The term “mobilized fluid” refers to fluids in a hydrocarbon containing formation that are able to flow as a result of thermal treatment of the formation. “Produced fluids” refer to fluids removed from the formation.

[0432] “Freezing point” of a hydrocarbon liquid refers to the temperature below which solid hydrocarbon crystals may form in the liquid. Freezing point is as determined by ASTM Method D5901.

[0433] “Gasoline hydrocarbons” refer to hydrocarbons having a boiling point range from 32° C. (90° F.) to about 204° C. (400° F.). Gasoline hydrocarbons include, but are not limited to, straight run gasoline, naphtha, fluidized or thermally catalytically cracked gasoline, VB gasoline, and coker gasoline. Gasoline hydrocarbons content is determined by ASTM Method D2887.

[0434] A “heat source” is any system for providing heat to at least a portion of a formation substantially by conductive and/or radiative heat transfer. For example, a heat source may include electric heaters such as an insulated conductor, an elongated member, and/or a conductor disposed in a conduit. A heat source may also include systems that generate heat by burning a fuel external to or in a formation. The systems may be surface burners, downhole gas burners, flameless distributed combustors, and natural distributed combustors. In some embodiments, heat provided to or generated in one or more heat sources may be supplied by other sources of energy. The other sources of energy may directly heat a formation, or the energy may be applied to a transfer medium that directly or indirectly heats the formation. It is to be understood that one or more heat sources that are applying heat to a formation may use different sources of energy. Thus, for example, for a given formation some heat sources may supply heat from electric resistance heaters, some heat sources may provide heat from combustion, and some heat sources may provide heat from one or more other energy sources (for example, chemical reactions, solar energy, wind energy, biomass, or other sources of renewable energy). A chemical reaction may include an exothermic reaction (for example, an oxidation reaction). A heat source may also include a heater that provides heat to a zone proximate and/or surrounding a heating location such as a heater well.

[0435] A “heater” is any system or heat source for generating heat in a well or a near wellbore region. Heaters may be, but are not limited to, electric heaters, burners, combustors that react with material in or produced from a formation, and/or combinations thereof.

[0436] “Heavy hydrocarbons” are viscous hydrocarbon fluids. Heavy hydrocarbons may include highly viscous hydrocarbon fluids such as heavy oil, tar, and/or asphalt. Heavy hydrocarbons may include carbon and hydrogen, as well as smaller concentrations of sulfur, oxygen, and nitrogen. Additional elements may also be present in heavy hydrocarbons in trace amounts. Heavy hydrocarbons may be classified by API gravity. Heavy hydrocarbons generally have an API gravity below about 20°. Heavy oil, for example, generally has an API gravity of about 10-20°, whereas tar generally has an API gravity below about 10°. The viscosity of heavy hydrocarbons is generally greater than about 100 centipoise at 15° C. Heavy hydrocarbons may include aromatics or other complex ring hydrocarbons.

[0437] Heavy hydrocarbons may be found in a relatively permeable formation. The relatively permeable formation may include heavy hydrocarbons entrained in, for example, sand or carbonate. “Relatively permeable” is defined, with respect to formations or portions thereof, as an average permeability of 10 millidarcy or more (for example, 10 or 100 millidarcy). “Relatively low permeability” is defined, with respect to formations or portions thereof, as an average permeability of less than about 10 millidarcy. One darcy is equal to about 0.99 square micrometers. An impermeable layer generally has a permeability of less than about 0.1 millidarcy.

[0438] Certain types of formations that include heavy hydrocarbons may also include, but are not limited to, natural mineral waxes, or natural asphaltites. “Natural mineral waxes” typically occur in substantially tubular veins that may be several meters wide, several kilometers long, and hundreds of meters deep. “Natural asphaltites” include solid hydrocarbons of an aromatic composition and typically occur in large veins. In situ recovery of hydrocarbons from formations such as natural mineral waxes and natural asphaltites may include melting to form liquid hydrocarbons and/or solution mining of hydrocarbons from the formations.

[0439] “Hydrocarbons” are generally defined as molecules formed primarily by carbon and hydrogen atoms. Hydrocarbons may also include other elements such as, but not limited to, halogens, metallic elements, nitrogen, oxygen, and/or sulfur. Hydrocarbons may be, but are not limited to, kerogen, bitumen, pyrobitumen, oils, natural mineral waxes, and asphaltites. Hydrocarbons may be located in or adjacent to mineral matrices in the earth. Matrices may include, but are not limited to, sedimentary rock, sands, silicilytes, carbonates, diatomites, and other porous media. “Hydrocarbon fluids” are fluids that include hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbon fluids may include, entrain, or be entrained in non-hydrocarbon fluids such as hydrogen, nitrogen, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, water, and ammonia.

[0440] An “in situ conversion process” refers to a process of heating a hydrocarbon containing formation from heat sources to raise the temperature of at least a portion of the formation above a pyrolysis temperature so that pyrolyzation fluid is produced in the formation.

[0441] An “in situ heat treatment process” refers to a process of heating a hydrocarbon containing formation with heat sources to raise the temperature of at least a portion of the formation above a temperature that results in mobilized fluid, visbreaking, and/or pyrolysis of hydrocarbon containing material so that mobilized fluids, visbroken fluids, and/or pyrolyzation fluids are produced in the formation.

[0442] “Insulated conductor” refers to any elongated material that is able to conduct electricity and that is covered, in whole or in part, by an electrically insulating material.

[0443] “Karst” is a subsurface shaped by the dissolution of a soluble layer or layers of bedrock, usually carbonate rock such as limestone or dolomite. The dissolution may be caused by meteoric or acidic water. The Grosmont formation in Alberta, Canada is an example of a karst (or “karsted”) carbonate formation.

[0444] “Kerogen” is a solid, insoluble hydrocarbon that has been converted by natural degradation and that principally contains carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Coal and oil shale are typical examples of materials that contain kerogen. “Bitumen” is a non-crystalline solid or viscous hydrocarbon material that is substantially soluble in carbon disulfide. “Oil” is a fluid containing a mixture of condensable hydrocarbons.

[0445] “Kerosene” refers to hydrocarbons with a boiling range distribution between 204° C. and 260° C. at 0.101 MPa. Kerosene content is determined by ASTM Method D2887.

[0446] “Modulated direct current (DC)” refers to any substantially non-sinusoidal time-varying current that produces skin effect electricity flow in a ferromagnetic conductor.

[0447] “Naphtha” refers to hydrocarbon components with a boiling range distribution between 38° C. and 200° C. at 0.101 MPa. Naphtha content is determined by ASTM Method D5307.

[0448] “Nitride” refers to a compound of nitrogen and one or more other elements of the Periodic Table. Nitrides include, but are not limited to, silicon nitride, boron nitride, or alumina nitride.

[0449] “Nitrogen compound content” refers to an amount of nitrogen in an organic compound. Nitrogen content is as determined by ASTM Method D5762.

[0450] “Octane Number” refers to a calculated numerical representation of the antiknock properties of a motor fuel compared to a standard reference fuel. A calculated octane number is determined by ASTM Method D6730.

[0451] “Olefins” are molecules that include unsaturated hydrocarbons having one or more non-aromatic carbon-carbon double bonds.

[0452] “Olefin content” refers to an amount of non-aromatic olefins in a fluid. Olefin content for a produced fluid is determined by obtaining a portion of the produce fluid that has a boiling point of 246° C. and testing the portion using ASTM Method D1159 and reporting the result as a bromine factor in grams per 100 gram of portion. Olefin content is also determined by the Canadian Association of Petroleum Producers (CAPP) olefin method and is reported in percent olefin as 1-decene equivalent.

[0453] “Organonitrogen compounds” refers to hydrocarbons that contain at least one nitrogen atom. Non-limiting examples of organonitrogen compounds include, but are not limited to, alkyl amines, aromatic amines, alkyl amides, aromatic amides, pyridines, pyrazoles, and oxazoles.

[0454] “Orifices” refer to openings, such as openings in conduits, having a wide variety of sizes and cross-sectional shapes including, but not limited to, circles, ovals, squares, rectangles, triangles, slits, or other regular or irregular shapes.

[0455] “P (peptization) value” or “P-value” refers to a numerical value, which represents the flocculation tendency of asphaltenes in a formation fluid. P-value is determined by ASTM method D7060.

[0456] “Perforations” include openings, slits, apertures, or holes in a wall of a conduit, tubular, pipe or other flow pathway that allow flow into or out of the conduit, tubular, pipe or other flow pathway.

[0457] “Periodic Table” refers to the Periodic Table as specified by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC), November 2003. In the scope of this application, weight of a metal from the Periodic Table, weight of a compound of a metal from the Periodic Table, weight of an element from the Periodic Table, or weight of a compound of an element from the Periodic Table is calculated as the weight of metal or the weight of element. For example, if 0.1 grams of MoO₃ is used per gram of catalyst, the calculated weight of the molybdenum metal in the catalyst is 0.067 grams per gram of catalyst.

[0458] “Phase transformation temperature” of a ferromagnetic material refers to a temperature or a temperature range during which the material undergoes a phase change (for example, from ferrite to austenite) that decreases the magnetic permeability of the ferromagnetic material. The reduction in magnetic permeability is similar to reduction in magnetic permeability due to the magnetic transition of the ferromagnetic material at the Curie temperature.

[0459] “Physical stability” refers to the ability of a formation fluid to not exhibit phase separation or flocculation during transportation of the fluid. Physical stability is determined by ASTM Method D7060.

[0460] “Pyrolysis” is the breaking of chemical bonds due to the application of heat. For example, pyrolysis may include transforming a compound into one or more other substances by heat alone. Heat may be transferred to a section of the formation to cause pyrolysis.

[0461] “Pyrolyzation fluids” or “pyrolysis products” refers to fluid produced substantially during pyrolysis of hydrocarbons. Fluid produced by pyrolysis reactions may mix with other fluids in a formation. The mixture would be considered pyrolyzation fluid or pyrolyzation product. As used herein, “pyrolysis zone” refers to a volume of a formation (for example, a relatively permeable formation such as a tar sands formation) that is reacted or reacting to form a pyrolyzation fluid.

[0462] “Residue” refers to hydrocarbons that have a boiling point above 537° C. (1000° F.).

[0463] “Rich layers” in a hydrocarbon containing formation are relatively thin layers (typically about 0.2 m to about 0.5 m thick). Rich layers generally have a richness of about 0.150 L/kg or greater. Some rich layers have a richness of about 0.170 L/kg or greater, of about 0.190 L/kg or greater, or of about 0.210 L/kg or greater. Lean layers of the formation have a richness of about 0.100 L/kg or less and are generally thicker than rich layers. The richness and locations of layers are determined, for example, by coring and subsequent Fischer assay of the core, density or neutron logging, or other logging methods. Rich layers may have a lower initial thermal conductivity than other layers of the formation. Typically, rich layers have a thermal conductivity 1.5 times to 3 times lower than the thermal conductivity of lean layers. In addition, rich layers have a higher thermal expansion coefficient than lean layers of the formation.

[0464] “Smart well technology” or “smart wellbore” refers to wells that incorporate downhole measurement and/or control. For injection wells, smart well technology may allow for controlled injection of fluid into the formation in desired zones. For production wells, smart well technology may allow for controlled production of formation fluid from selected zones. Some wells may include smart well technology that allows for formation fluid production from selected zones and simultaneous or staggered solution injection into other zones. Smart well technology may include fiber optic systems and control valves in the wellbore. A smart wellbore used for an in situ heat treatment process may be Westbay Multilevel Well System MP55 available from Westbay Instruments Inc. (Burnaby, British Columbia, Canada).

[0465] “Subsidence” is a downward movement of a portion of a formation relative to an initial elevation of the surface.

[0466] “Sulfur compound content” refers to an amount of sulfur in an organic compound. Sulfur content is as determined by ASTM Method D4294.

[0467] “Superposition of heat” refers to providing heat from two or more heat sources to a selected section of a formation such that the temperature of the formation at least at one location between the heat sources is influenced by the heat sources.

[0468] “Synthesis gas” is a mixture including hydrogen and carbon monoxide. Additional components of synthesis gas may include water, carbon dioxide, nitrogen, methane, and other gases. Synthesis gas may be generated by a variety of processes and feedstocks. Synthesis gas may be used for synthesizing a wide range of compounds.

[0469] “TAN” refers to a total acid number expressed as milligrams (“mg”) of KOH per gram (“g”) of sample. TAN is as determined by ASTM Method D3242.

[0470] “Tar” is a viscous hydrocarbon that generally has a viscosity greater than about 10,000 centipoise at 15° C. The specific gravity of tar generally is greater than 1.000. Tar may have an API gravity less than 10°.

[0471] A “tar sands formation” is a formation in which hydrocarbons are predominantly present in the form of heavy hydrocarbons and/or tar entrained in a mineral grain framework or other host lithology (for example, sand or carbonate). Examples of tar sands formations include formations such as the Athabasca formation, the Grosmont formation, and the Peace River formation, all three in Alberta, Canada; and the Faja formation in the Orinoco belt in Venezuela.

[0472] “Temperature limited heater” generally refers to a heater that regulates heat output (for example, reduces heat output) above a specified temperature without the use of external controls such as temperature controllers, power regulators, rectifiers, or other devices. Temperature limited heaters may be AC (alternating current) or modulated (for example, “chopped”) DC (direct current) powered electrical resistance heaters.

[0473] “Thermally conductive fluid” includes fluid that has a higher thermal conductivity than air at standard temperature and pressure (STP) (0° C. and 101.325 kPa).

[0474] “Thermal conductivity” is a property of a material that describes the rate at which heat flows, in steady state, between two surfaces of the material for a given temperature difference between the two surfaces.

[0475] “Thermal fracture” refers to fractures created in a formation caused by expansion or contraction of a formation and/or fluids in the formation, which is in turn caused by increasing/decreasing the temperature of the formation and/or fluids in the formation, and/or by increasing/decreasing a pressure of fluids in the formation due to heating.

[0476] “Thermal oxidation stability” refers to thermal oxidation stability of a liquid. Thermal oxidation stability is as determined by ASTM Method D3241.

[0477] “Thickness” of a layer refers to the thickness of a cross section of the layer, wherein the cross section is normal to a face of the layer.

[0478] “Time-varying current” refers to electrical current that produces skin effect electricity flow in a ferromagnetic conductor and has a magnitude that varies with time. Time-varying current includes both alternating current (AC) and modulated direct current (DC).

[0479] “Triad” refers to a group of three items (for example, heaters, wellbores, or other objects) coupled together.

[0480] “Turndown ratio” for the temperature limited heater in which current is applied directly to the heater is the ratio of the highest AC or modulated DC resistance below the Curie temperature to the lowest resistance above the Curie temperature for a given current. Turndown ratio for an inductive heater is the ratio of the highest heat output below the Curie temperature to the lowest heat output above the Curie temperature for a given current applied to the heater.

[0481] A “u-shaped wellbore” refers to a wellbore that extends from a first opening in the formation, through at least a portion of the formation, and out through a second opening in the formation. In this context, the wellbore may be only roughly in the shape of a “v” or “u”, with the understanding that the “legs” of the “u” do not need to be parallel to each other, or perpendicular to the “bottom” of the “u” for the wellbore to be considered “u-shaped”.

[0482] “Upgrade” refers to increasing the quality of hydrocarbons. For example, upgrading heavy hydrocarbons may result in an increase in the API gravity of the heavy hydrocarbons.

[0483] “Visbreaking” refers to the untangling of molecules in fluid during heat treatment and/or to the breaking of large molecules into smaller molecules during heat treatment, which results in a reduction of the viscosity of the fluid.

[0484] “Viscosity” refers to kinematic viscosity at 40° C. unless otherwise specified. Viscosity is as determined by ASTM Method D445.

[0485] “VGO” or “vacuum gas oil” refers to hydrocarbons with a boiling range distribution between 343° C. and 538° C. at 0.101 MPa. VGO content is determined by ASTM Method D5307.

[0486] A “vug” is a cavity, void or large pore in a rock that is commonly lined with mineral precipitates.

[0487] “Wax” refers to a low melting organic mixture, or a compound of high molecular weight that is a solid at lower temperatures and a liquid at higher temperatures, and when in solid form can form a barrier to water. Examples of waxes include animal waxes, vegetable waxes, mineral waxes, petroleum waxes, and synthetic waxes.

[0488] The term “wellbore” refers to a hole in a formation made by drilling or insertion of a conduit into the formation. A wellbore may have a substantially circular cross section, or another cross-sectional shape. As used herein, the terms “well” and “opening,” when referring to an opening in the formation may be used interchangeably with the term “wellbore.”

[0489] A formation may be treated in various ways to produce many different products. Different stages or processes may be used to treat the formation during an in situ heat treatment process. In some embodiments, one or more sections of the formation are solution mined to remove soluble minerals from the sections. Solution mining minerals may be performed before, during, and/or after the in situ heat treatment process. In some embodiments, the average temperature of one or more sections being solution mined may be maintained below about 120° C.

[0490] In some embodiments, one or more sections of the formation are heated to remove water from the sections and/or to remove methane and other volatile hydrocarbons from the sections. In some embodiments, the average temperature may be raised from ambient temperature to temperatures below about 220° C. during removal of water and volatile hydrocarbons.

[0491] In some embodiments, one or more sections of the formation are heated to temperatures that allow for movement and/or visbreaking of hydrocarbons in the formation. In some embodiments, the average temperature of one or more sections of the formation are raised to mobilization temperatures of hydrocarbons in the sections (for example, to temperatures ranging from 100° C. to 250° C., from 120° C. to 240° C., or from 150° C. to 230° C.).

[0492] In some embodiments, one or more sections are heated to temperatures that allow for pyrolysis reactions in the formation. In some embodiments, the average temperature of one or more sections of the formation may be raised to pyrolysis temperatures of hydrocarbons in the sections (for example, temperatures ranging from 230° C. to 900° C., from 240° C. to 400° C. or from 250° C. to 350° C.).

[0493] Heating the hydrocarbon containing formation with a plurality of heat sources may establish thermal gradients around the heat sources that raise the temperature of hydrocarbons in the formation to desired temperatures at desired heating rates. The rate of temperature increase through mobilization temperature range and/or pyrolysis temperature range for desired products may affect the quality and quantity of the formation fluids produced from the hydrocarbon containing formation. Slowly raising the temperature of the formation through the mobilization temperature range and/or pyrolysis temperature range may allow for the production of high quality, high API gravity hydrocarbons from the formation. Slowly raising the temperature of the formation through the mobilization temperature range and/or pyrolysis temperature range may allow for the removal of a large amount of the hydrocarbons present in the formation as hydrocarbon product.

[0494] In some in situ heat treatment embodiments, a portion of the formation is heated to a desired temperature instead of slowly heating the temperature through a temperature range. In some embodiments, the desired temperature is 300° C., 325° C., or 350° C. Other temperatures may be selected as the desired temperature.

[0495] Superposition of heat from heat sources allows the desired temperature to be relatively quickly and efficiently established in the formation. Energy input into the formation from the heat sources may be adjusted to maintain the temperature in the formation substantially at a desired temperature.

[0496] Mobilization and/or pyrolysis products may be produced from the formation through production wells. In some embodiments, the average temperature of one or more sections is raised to mobilization temperatures and hydrocarbons are produced from the production wells. The average temperature of one or more of the sections may be raised to pyrolysis temperatures after production due to mobilization decreases below a selected value. In some embodiments, the average temperature of one or more sections may be raised to pyrolysis temperatures without significant production before reaching pyrolysis temperatures. Formation fluids including pyrolysis products may be produced through the production wells.

[0497] In some embodiments, the average temperature of one or more sections may be raised to temperatures sufficient to allow synthesis gas production after mobilization and/or pyrolysis. In some embodiments, hydrocarbons may be raised to temperatures sufficient to allow synthesis gas production without significant production before reaching the temperatures sufficient to allow synthesis gas production. For example, synthesis gas may be produced in a temperature range from about 400° C. to about 1200° C., about 500° C. to about 1100° C., or about 550° C. to about 1000° C. A synthesis gas generating fluid (for example, steam and/or water) may be introduced into the sections to generate synthesis gas. Synthesis gas may be produced from production wells.

[0498] Solution mining, removal of volatile hydrocarbons and water, mobilizing hydrocarbons, pyrolyzing hydrocarbons, generating synthesis gas, and/or other processes may be performed during the in situ heat treatment process. In some embodiments, some processes may be performed after the in situ heat treatment process. Such processes may include, but are not limited to, recovering heat from treated sections, storing fluids (for example, water and/or hydrocarbons) in previously treated sections, and/or sequestering carbon dioxide in previously treated sections.

[0499] FIG. 1 depicts a schematic view of an embodiment of a portion of the in situ heat treatment system for treating the hydrocarbon containing formation. The in situ heat treatment system may include barrier wells 200. Barrier wells are used to form a barrier around a treatment area. The barrier inhibits fluid flow into and/or out of the treatment area. Barrier wells include, but are not limited to, dewatering wells, vacuum wells, capture wells, injection wells, grout wells, freeze wells, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, barrier wells 200 are dewatering wells. Dewatering wells may remove liquid water and/or inhibit liquid water from entering a portion of the formation to be heated, or to the formation being heated. In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 1, the barrier wells 200 are shown extending only along one side of heat sources 202, but the barrier wells typically encircle all heat sources 202 used, or to be used, to heat a treatment area of the formation.

[0500] Heat sources 202 are placed in at least a portion of the formation. Heat sources 202 may include heaters such as insulated conductors, conductor-in-conduit heaters, surface burners, flameless distributed combustors, and/or natural distributed combustors. Heat sources 202 may also include other types of heaters. Heat sources 202 provide heat to at least a portion of the formation to heat hydrocarbons in the formation. Energy may be supplied to heat sources 202 through supply lines 204. Supply lines 204 may be structurally different depending on the type of heat source or heat sources used to heat the formation. Supply lines 204 for heat sources may transmit electricity for electric heaters, may transport fuel for combustors, or may transport heat exchange fluid that is circulated in the formation. In some embodiments, electricity for an in situ heat treatment process may be provided by a nuclear power plant or nuclear power plants. The use of nuclear power may allow for reduction or elimination of carbon dioxide emissions from the in situ heat treatment process.

[0501] When the formation is heated, the heat input into the formation may cause expansion of the formation and geomechanical motion. The heat sources may be turned on before, at the same time, or during a dewatering process. Computer simulations may model formation response to heating. The computer simulations may be used to develop a pattern and time sequence for activating heat sources in the formation so that geomechanical motion of the formation does not adversely affect the functionality of heat sources, production wells, and other equipment in the formation.

[0502] Heating the formation may cause an increase in permeability and/or porosity of the formation. Increases in permeability and/or porosity may result from a reduction of mass in the formation due to vaporization and removal of water, removal of hydrocarbons, and/or creation of fractures. Fluid may flow more easily in the heated portion of the formation because of the increased permeability and/or porosity of the formation. Fluid in the heated portion of the formation may move a considerable distance through the formation because of the increased permeability and/or porosity. The considerable distance may be over 1000 m depending on various factors, such as permeability of the formation, properties of the fluid, temperature of the formation, and pressure gradient allowing movement of the fluid. The ability of fluid to travel considerable distance in the formation allows production wells 206 to be spaced relatively far apart in the formation.

[0503] Production wells 206 are used to remove formation fluid from the formation. In some embodiments, production well 206 includes a heat source. The heat source in the production well may heat one or more portions of the formation at or near the production well. In some in situ heat treatment process embodiments, the amount of heat supplied to the formation from the production well per meter of the production well is less than the amount of heat applied to the formation from a heat source that heats the formation per meter of the heat source. Heat applied to the formation from the production well may increase formation permeability adjacent to the production well by vaporizing and removing liquid phase fluid adjacent to the production well and/or by increasing the permeability of the formation adjacent to the production well by formation of macro and/or micro fractures.

[0504] More than one heat source may be positioned in the production well. A heat source in a lower portion of the production well may be turned off when superposition of heat from adjacent heat sources heats the formation sufficiently to counteract benefits provided by heating the formation with the production well. In some embodiments, the heat source in an upper portion of the production well may remain on after the heat source in the lower portion of the production well is deactivated. The heat source in the upper portion of the well may inhibit condensation and reflux of formation fluid.

[0505] In some embodiments, the heat source in production well 206 allows for vapor phase removal of formation fluids from the formation. Providing heating at or through the production well may: (1) inhibit condensation and/or refluxing of production fluid when such production fluid is moving in the production well proximate the overburden, (2) increase heat input into the formation, (3) increase production rate from the production well as compared to a production well without a heat source, (4) inhibit condensation of high carbon number compounds (C₆ hydrocarbons and above) in the production well, and/or (5) increase formation permeability at or proximate the production well.

[0506] Subsurface pressure in the formation may correspond to the fluid pressure generated in the formation. As temperatures in the heated portion of the formation increase, the pressure in the heated portion may increase as a result of thermal expansion of in situ fluids, increased fluid generation and vaporization of water. Controlling rate of fluid removal from the formation may allow for control of pressure in the formation. Pressure in the formation may be determined at a number of different locations, such as near or at production wells, near or at heat sources, or at monitor wells.

[0507] In some hydrocarbon containing formations, production of hydrocarbons from the formation is inhibited until at least some hydrocarbons in the formation have been mobilized and/or pyrolyzed. Formation fluid may be produced from the formation when the formation fluid is of a selected quality. In some embodiments, the selected quality includes an API gravity of at least about 20°, 30°, or 40°. Inhibiting production until at least some hydrocarbons are mobilized and/or pyrolyzed may increase conversion of heavy hydrocarbons to light hydrocarbons. Inhibiting initial production may minimize the production of heavy hydrocarbons from the formation. Production of substantial amounts of heavy hydrocarbons may require expensive equipment and/or reduce the life of production equipment.

[0508] In some hydrocarbon containing formations, hydrocarbons in the formation may be heated to mobilization and/or pyrolysis temperatures before substantial permeability has been generated in the heated portion of the formation. An initial lack of permeability may inhibit the transport of generated fluids to production wells 206. During initial heating, fluid pressure in the formation may increase proximate heat sources 202. The increased fluid pressure may be released, monitored, altered, and/or controlled through one or more heat sources 202. For example, selected heat sources 202 or separate pressure relief wells may include pressure relief valves that allow for removal of some fluid from the formation.

[0509] In some embodiments, pressure generated by expansion of mobilized fluids, pyrolysis fluids or other fluids generated in the formation may be allowed to increase although an open path to production wells 206 or any other pressure sink may not yet exist in the formation. The fluid pressure may be allowed to increase towards a lithostatic pressure. Fractures in the hydrocarbon containing formation may form when the fluid approaches the lithostatic pressure. For example, fractures may form from heat sources 202 to production wells 206 in the heated portion of the formation. The generation of fractures in the heated portion may relieve some of the pressure in the portion. Pressure in the formation may have to be maintained below a selected pressure to inhibit unwanted production, fracturing of the overburden or underburden, and/or coking of hydrocarbons in the formation.

[0510] After mobilization and/or pyrolysis temperatures are reached and production from the formation is allowed, pressure in the formation may be varied to alter and/or control a composition of formation fluid produced, to control a percentage of condensable fluid as compared to non-condensable fluid in the formation fluid, and/or to control an API gravity of formation fluid being produced. For example, decreasing pressure may result in production of a larger condensable fluid component. The condensable fluid component may contain a larger percentage of olefins.

[0511] In some in situ heat treatment process embodiments, pressure in the formation may be maintained high enough to promote production of formation fluid with an API gravity of greater than 20°. Maintaining increased pressure in the formation may inhibit formation subsidence during in situ heat treatment. Maintaining increased pressure may reduce or eliminate the need to compress formation fluids at the surface to transport the fluids in collection conduits to treatment facilities.

[0512] Maintaining increased pressure in a heated portion of the formation may surprisingly allow for production of large quantities of hydrocarbons of increased quality and of relatively low molecular weight. Pressure may be maintained so that formation fluid produced has a minimal amount of compounds above a selected carbon number. The selected carbon number may be at most 25, at most 20, at most 12, or at most 8. Some high carbon number compounds may be entrained in vapor in the formation and may be removed from the formation with the vapor. Maintaining increased pressure in the formation may inhibit entrainment of high carbon number compounds and/or multi-ring hydrocarbon compounds in the vapor. High carbon number compounds and/or multi-ring hydrocarbon compounds may remain in a liquid phase in the formation for significant time periods. The significant time periods may provide sufficient time for the compounds to pyrolyze to form lower carbon number compounds.

[0513] Generation of relatively low molecular weight hydrocarbons is believed to be due, in part, to autogenous generation and reaction of hydrogen in a portion of the hydrocarbon containing formation. For example, maintaining an increased pressure may force hydrogen generated during pyrolysis into the liquid phase within the formation. Heating the portion to a temperature in a pyrolysis temperature range may pyrolyze hydrocarbons in the formation to generate liquid phase pyrolyzation fluids. The generated liquid phase pyrolyzation fluids components may include double bonds and/or radicals. Hydrogen (H₂) in the liquid phase may reduce double bonds of the generated pyrolyzation fluids, thereby reducing a potential for polymerization or formation of long chain compounds from the generated pyrolyzation fluids. In addition, H₂ may also neutralize radicals in the generated pyrolyzation fluids. H₂ in the liquid phase may inhibit the generated pyrolyzation fluids from reacting with each other and/or with other compounds in the formation.

[0514] Formation fluid produced from production wells 206 may be transported through collection piping 208 to treatment facilities 210. Formation fluids may also be produced from heat sources 202. For example, fluid may be produced from heat sources 202 to control pressure in the formation adjacent to the heat sources. Fluid produced from heat sources 202 may be transported through tubing or piping to collection piping 208 or the produced fluid may be transported through tubing or piping directly to treatment facilities 210. Treatment facilities 210 may include separation units, reaction units, upgrading units, fuel cells, turbines, storage vessels, and/or other systems and units for processing produced formation fluids. The treatment facilities may form transportation fuel from at least a portion of the hydrocarbons produced from the formation. In some embodiments, the transportation fuel may be jet fuel, such as JP-8.

[0515] Formation fluid may be hot when produced from the formation through the production wells. Hot formation fluid may be produced during solution mining processes and/or during in situ heat treatment processes. In some embodiments, electricity may be generated using the heat of the fluid produced from the formation. Also, heat recovered from the formation after the in situ process may be used to generate electricity. The generated electricity may be used to supply power to the in situ heat treatment process. For example, the electricity may be used to power heaters, or to power a refrigeration system for forming or maintaining a low temperature barrier. Electricity may be generated using a Kalina cycle, Rankine cycle or other thermodynamic cycle. In some embodiments, the working fluid for the cycle used to generate electricity is aqua ammonia.

[0516] FIGS. 2-8 depict schematics representation of systems for producing crude products and/or commercial products from the in situ heat treatment process liquid stream and/or the in situ heat treatment process gas stream. As shown in FIGS. 2, 7 and 8, formation fluid 212 enters fluid separation unit 214 and is separated into in situ heat treatment process liquid stream 216, in situ heat treatment process gas 218 and aqueous stream 220. In some embodiments, liquid stream 216 may be transported to other processing units and/or facilities.

[0517] Formation fluid 212 enters fluid separation unit 214 and is separated into in situ heat treatment process liquid stream 216, in situ heat treatment process gas 218, and aqueous stream 220. Liquid stream 216 may be transported to other processing units and/or facilities. In some embodiments, fluid separation unit 214 includes a quench zone.

[0518] In situ heat treatment process gas 218 may enter gas separation unit 222 to separate gas hydrocarbon stream 224 from the in situ heat treatment process gas. In some embodiments, the gas separation unit is a rectified adsorption and high pressure fractionation unit. Gas hydrocarbon stream 224 includes hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 3.

[0519] In some embodiments, fluid separation unit 214 includes a quench zone. As produced formation fluid enters the quench zone, quenching fluid such as water, nonpotable water, hydrocarbon diluent, and/or other components may be added to the formation fluid to quench and/or cool the formation fluid to a temperature suitable for handling in downstream processing equipment. Quenching the formation fluid may inhibit formation of compounds that contribute to physical and/or chemical instability of the fluid (for example, inhibit formation of compounds that may precipitate from solution, contribute to corrosion, and/or fouling of downstream equipment and/or piping). The quenching fluid may be introduced into the formation fluid as a spray and/or a liquid stream. In some embodiments, the formation fluid is introduced into the quenching fluid. In some embodiments, the formation fluid is cooled by passing the fluid through a heat exchanger to remove some heat from the formation fluid. The quench fluid may be added to the cooled formation fluid when the temperature of the formation fluid is near or at the dew point of the quench fluid. Quenching the formation fluid near or at the dew point of the quench fluid may enhance solubilization of salts that may cause chemical and/or physical instability of the quenched fluid (for example, ammonium salts). In some embodiments, an amount of water used in the quench is minimal so that salts of inorganic compounds and/or other components do not separate from the mixture. In separation unit 214, at least a portion of the quench fluid may be separated from the quench mixture and recycled to the quench zone with a minimal amount of treatment. Heat produced from the quench may be captured and used in other facilities. In some embodiments, vapor may be produced during the quench. The produced vapor may be sent to gas separation unit 222 and/or sent to other facilities for processing.

[0520] In situ heat treatment process gas 218 may enter gas separation unit 222 to separate gas hydrocarbon stream 224 from the in situ heat treatment process gas. In some embodiments, the gas separation unit is a rectified adsorption and high pressure fractionation unit. Gas hydrocarbon stream 224 includes hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 3. In gas separation unit 222, treatment of in situ heat conversion treatment gas 218 removes sulfur compounds, carbon dioxide, and/or hydrogen to produce gas hydrocarbon stream 224. In some embodiments, in situ heat treatment process gas 218 includes about 20 vol % hydrogen, about 30% methane, about 12% carbon dioxide, about 14 vol % C₂ hydrocarbons, about 5 vol % hydrogen sulfide, about 10 vol % C₃ hydrocarbons, about 7 vol % C₄ hydrocarbons, about 2 vol % C₅ hydrocarbons, and mixtures thereof, with the balance being heavier hydrocarbons, water, ammonia, COS, thiols and thiophenes.

[0521] Gas separation unit 222 may include a physical treatment system and/or a chemical treatment system. The physical treatment system may include, but is not limited to, a membrane unit, a pressure swing adsorption unit, a liquid absorption unit, and/or a cryogenic unit. The chemical treatment system may include units that use amines (for example, diethanolamine or di-isopropanolamine), zinc oxide, sulfolane, water, or mixtures thereof in the treatment process. In some embodiments, gas separation unit 222 uses a Sulfinol gas treatment process for removal of sulfur compounds. Carbon dioxide may be removed using Catacarb® (Catacarb, Overland Park, Kans., U.S.A.) and/or Benfield (UOP, Des Plaines, Ill., U.S.A.) gas treatment processes. In some embodiments, the gas separation unit is a rectified adsorption and high pressure fractionation unit. In some embodiments, in situ heat treatment process gas is treated to remove at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 70%, at least 80% or at least 90% by volume of ammonia present in the gas stream.

[0522] In situ heat treatment process gas 218 may include one or more carbon oxides and sulfur compounds that render the in situ heat treatment process gas unacceptable for sale, transportation, and/or use as a fuel. The in situ heat treatment process gas 218 may be processed as described herein to produce a gas stream acceptable for sale, transportation, and/or use as a fuel. It would be advantageous to separate the in situ treatment process gas 218 at the treatment site to produce streams useable as energy sources to lower overall energy costs. For example, streams containing hydrocarbons and/or hydrogen may be used as fuel for burners and/or process equipment. Streams containing sulfur compounds may be used as fuel for burners. Streams containing one or more carbon oxides and/or hydrocarbons may be used to form barriers around a treatment site. Streams containing hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at most 2 may be provided to ammonia processing facilities and/or barrier well systems. In situ heat treatment process gas 218 may include a sufficient amount of hydrogen such that the freezing point of carbon dioxide is depressed. Depression of the freezing point of carbon dioxide may allow cryogenic separation of hydrogen and/or hydrocarbons from the carbon dioxide using distillation methods instead of removing the carbon dioxide by cryogenic precipitation methods. In some embodiments, the freezing point of carbon dioxide may be depressed by adjusting the concentration of molecular hydrogen and/or addition of heavy hydrocarbons to the process gas stream.

[0523] As shown in FIG. 2, in situ heat treatment process gas 218 may enter compressor 232 of gas separation unit 222 to form compressed gas stream 234 and heavy stream 236. Heavy stream 236 may be transported to one or more liquid separation units for further processing. Compressor 232 may be any compressor suitable for compressing gas. In certain embodiments, compressor 232 is a multistage compressor (for example 2 to 3 compressor trains) having an outlet pressure of about 40 bars. In some embodiments, compressed gas stream 234 may include at least 1 vol % carbon dioxide, at least 10 vol % hydrogen, at least 1 vol % hydrogen sulfide, at least 50 vol % of hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at most 4, or mixtures thereof. Compression of in situ heat treatment process gas 218 removes hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 5 and water. Removal of water and hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 5 from the in situ process gas allows compressed gas stream 234 to be treated cryogenically. Cryogenic treatment of compressed gas stream 234 having small amounts of high boiling materials may be done more efficiently. In certain embodiments, compressed gas stream 234 is dried by passing the gas through a water adsorption unit. In some embodiments, compressing in situ heat treatment process gas 218 is not necessary.

[0524] As shown in FIGS. 2 through 6, gas separation unit 222 includes one or more cryogenic units or zones. Cryogenic units described herein may include one or more theoretical distillation stages. In FIGS. 2 through 6, one or more heat exchangers may be positioned prior to or after cryogenic units and/or separation units described herein to assist in removing and/or adding heat to one or more streams described herein. At least a portion or all of the separated hydrocarbons streams and/or the separated carbon dioxides streams may be transported to the heat exchangers. Heat integration from one or more heat exchangers to various units or zones may be applied to improve the energy efficiency of the process.

[0525] In some embodiments, theoretical distillation stages may include from 1 to about 100 stages, from about 5 to about 50 theoretical distillation stages, or from about 10 to about 40 theoretical distillation stages. Zones of the cryogenic units may be cooled to temperatures ranging from about −110° C. to about 0° C. For example, zone 1 (top theoretical distillation stage) in a cryogenic unit is cooled to about −110° C., zone 5 (theoretical distillation stage 5) is cooled to about −25° C., and zone 10 (theoretical distillation stage 10) is cooled to about −1° C. Total pressures in cryogenic units may range from about 1 bar to about 50 bar, from about 5 bar to about 40 bar, or from about 10 bar to about 30 bar. Operating the cryogenic zones and/or units at these temperatures and pressures may allow separation of hydrogen sulfide and/or carbon dioxide from hydrocarbons in the process stream. Cryogenic units described herein may include condenser recycle conduits 238 and reboiler recycle conduits 240. Condenser recycle conduits 238 allow recycle of the cooled condensed gases so that the feed may be cooled as it enters the cryogenic units. Condenser liquid recycle or reflux may improve fractionation effectiveness. Temperatures in condensation loops may range from about −110° C. to about −1° C., from about −90° C. to about −5° C., or from about −80° C. to about −10° C. Temperatures in reboiler loops may range from about 25° C. to about 200° C., from about 50° C. to about 150° C., or from about 75° C. to about 100° C. Reboiler recycle conduits 240 allow recycle of the stream exiting the cryogenic unit to heat the feed as it enters the cryogenic unit. Recycle of the cooled and/or warmed separated stream may enhance energy efficiency of the cryogenic unit.

[0526] As shown in FIG. 2, compressed gas stream 234 enters methane/hydrogen cryogenic unit 242. In cryogenic unit 242, compressed gas stream 234 may be separated into a methane/molecular hydrogen gas stream 244 and a bottoms stream 246. Bottoms stream 246 may include, but is not limited to carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulfide, and hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 2. A majority of methane/hydrogen stream 244 is methane and molecular hydrogen. Methane/hydrogen stream 244 may include a minimal amount of C₂ hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide. For example, methane/hydrogen stream 244 may include about 1 vol % C₂ hydrocarbons and about 1 vol % carbon dioxide. In some embodiments, the methane/hydrogen stream is recycled to one or more heat exchangers positioned prior to cryogenic unit 242. In some embodiments, the methane/hydrogen stream is used as a fuel for downhole burners and/or an energy source for surface facilities.

[0527] In some embodiments, cryogenic unit 242 may include one distillation column having 1 to about 30 theoretical distillation stages, about 5 to about 25 theoretical distillation stages, or about 10 to about 20 theoretical distillation stages. Zones of cryogenic unit 242 may be cooled to temperatures ranging from about −150° C. to about 10° C. For example, zone 1 (top theoretical distillation stage) is cooled to about −138° C., zone 5 (theoretical distillation stage 5) is cooled to about −25° C., and zone 10° C. (theoretical distillation stage 10) is cooled to at about −1° C. At temperatures lower than −79° C. cryogenic separation of the carbon dioxide from other gases may be difficult due to the freezing point of carbon dioxide. In some embodiments, cryogenic unit 242 includes about 20 theoretical distillation stages. Cryogenic unit 242 may be operated at a pressure of 40 bar with distillation temperatures ranging from about −45° C. to about −94° C.

[0528] Compressed gas stream 234 may include sufficient hydrogen and/or hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 1 to inhibit solid carbon dioxide formation. For example, in situ heat treatment process gas 218 may include from about 30 vol % to about 40 vol % of hydrogen, from about 50 vol % to 60 vol % of hydrocarbons having a carbon number from 1 to 2, from about 0.1 vol % to about 15 vol % of carbon dioxide with the balance being other gases such as, but not limited to, carbon monoxide, nitrogen, and hydrogen sulfide. Inhibiting solid carbon dioxide formation may allow for better separation of gases and/or less fouling of the cryogenic unit. In some embodiments, hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least five may be added to cryogenic unit 242 to inhibit formation of solid carbon dioxide. The resulting methane/hydrogen gas stream 244 may be used as an energy source. For example, methane/hydrogen gas stream 244 may be transported to surface facilities and burned to generate electricity.

[0529] As shown in FIG. 2, bottoms stream 246 enters cryogenic separation unit 248. In cryogenic separation unit 248, bottoms stream 246 is separated into C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 and gas stream 252. C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 may include hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 3. C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 may be a liquid and/or a gas depending on the separation conditions. In some embodiments, C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 includes at least 50 vol %, at least 70 vol % or at least 90 vol % of C₃ hydrocarbons. C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 may include at most 1 ppm of carbon dioxide, and about 0.1 vol % of hydrogen sulfide. In some embodiments, C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 includes hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 2 and organosulfur compounds. In some embodiments, C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 includes hydrocarbons having a carbon number from 3 to 5. In some embodiments, C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 includes hydrogen sulfide in quantities sufficient to require treatment of the stream to remove the hydrogen sulfide. In some embodiments, C₃ hydrocarbons gas stream 250 is suitable for transportation and/or use as an energy source without further treatment. In some embodiments, C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 is used as an energy source for in situ heat treatment processes.

[0530] Gas stream 252 may include hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 2, carbon oxides and sulfur compounds. In some embodiments, gas stream 252 includes hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at most 2. A portion of gas stream 252 may be transported to one or more portions of the formation and sequestered. In some embodiments, all of gas stream 252 is sequestered in one or more portions of the formation. In some embodiments, a portion of gas stream 252 enters cryogenic unit 256. In cryogenic unit 256, gas stream 252 is separated into C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream 258 and hydrogen sulfide stream 260. In some embodiments, C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream 258 includes at most 0.5 vol % of hydrogen sulfide.

[0531] In some embodiments, hydrogen sulfide stream 260 includes about 0.01 vol % to about 5 vol % of C₃ hydrocarbons. In some embodiments, hydrogen sulfide stream 260 includes hydrogen sulfide, carbon dioxide, C₃ hydrocarbons, or mixtures thereof. For example, hydrogen sulfide stream 260 includes, about 32 vol % of hydrogen sulfide, 67 vol % carbon dioxide, and 1 vol % C₃ hydrocarbons. In some embodiments, hydrogen sulfide stream 260 is used as an energy source for an in situ heat treatment process and/or sent to a Claus plant for further treatment.

[0532] A portion or all of C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream 258 may enter separation unit 262. In separation unit 262, C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream 258 is separated into C₂ hydrocarbons stream 264 and carbon dioxide stream 266. Separation of C₂ hydrocarbons from carbon dioxide is performed using separation methods known in the art, for example, pressure swing adsorption units, and/or extractive distillation units. In some embodiments, C₂ hydrocarbons are separated from carbon dioxide using extractive distillation methods. For example, hydrocarbons having a carbon number from 3 to 8 may be added to separation unit 262. Addition of a higher carbon number hydrocarbon solvent allows C₂ hydrocarbons to be extracted from the carbon dioxide. C₂ hydrocarbons are then separated from the higher carbon number hydrocarbons using distillation techniques. In some embodiments, C₂ hydrocarbons stream 264 is transported to other process facilities and/or used as an energy source. For example, C₂ hydrocarbons stream 264 may be provided to one or more ammonia processing facilities. Carbon dioxide stream 266 may be sequestered in one or more portions of the formation. In some embodiments, carbon dioxide stream 266 is provided to one or more barrier well systems. In some embodiments, carbon dioxide stream 266 contains at most 0.005 grams of non-carbon dioxide compounds per gram of carbon dioxide stream. In some embodiments, carbon dioxide stream 266 is mixed with one or more oxidant sources supplied to one or more downhole burners.

[0533] In some embodiments, a portion or all of C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream 258 is sequestered and/or transported to other facilities and/or provided to one or more barrier well systems. In some embodiments, a portion or all of C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream 258 is mixed with one or more oxidant sources supplied to one or more downhole burners.

[0534] As depicted in FIG. 3, bottoms stream 246 enters cryogenic separation unit 270. In cryogenic separation unit 270, bottoms stream 246 may be separated into C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream 258 and hydrogen sulfide/hydrocarbon gas stream 272. In some embodiments, C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream 258 contains hydrogen sulfide. Hydrogen sulfide/hydrocarbon gas stream 272 may include hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 3.

[0535] In some embodiments, a portion or all of C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream 258 are transported via conduit 268 to other processes and/or to one or more portions of the formation to be sequestered. In some embodiments, a portion or all of C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream 258 are treated in separation unit 262. Separation unit 262 is described above with reference to FIG. 2.

[0536] Hydrogen sulfide/hydrocarbon gas stream 272 may enter cryogenic separation unit 274. In cryogenic separation unit 274, hydrogen sulfide may be separated from hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 3 to produce hydrogen sulfide stream 260 and C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250. Hydrogen sulfide stream 260 may include, but is not limited to, hydrogen sulfide, C₃ hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, or mixtures thereof. In some embodiments, hydrogen sulfide stream 260 may contain from about 20 vol % to about 80 vol % of hydrogen sulfide, from about 4 vol % to about 18 vol % of propane and from about 2 vol % to about 70 vol % of carbon dioxide. In some embodiments, hydrogen sulfide stream 260 is burned to produce SO_x. The SO_x may be sequestered and/or treated using known techniques in the art.

[0537] In some embodiments, C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 includes a minimal amount of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide. For example, C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 may include about 99.6 vol % of hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 3, about 0.4 vol % of hydrogen sulfide and at most 1 ppm of carbon dioxide. In some embodiments, C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 is transported to other processing facilities as an energy source. In some embodiments, C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 needs no further treatment.

[0538] As depicted in FIG. 4, bottoms stream 246 may enter cryogenic separation unit 276. In cryogenic separation unit 276, bottoms stream 246 may be separated into C₂ hydrocarbons/hydrogen sulfide/carbon dioxide gas stream 278 and hydrogen sulfide/hydrocarbon gas stream 272. In some embodiments, cryogenic separation unit 276 includes 45 theoretical distillation stages. A top zone (top theoretical distillation stage) of cryogenic separation unit 276 may be operated at a temperature of −31° C. and a pressure of about 20 bar.

[0539] A portion or all of C₂ hydrocarbons/hydrogen sulfide/carbon dioxide gas stream 278 and hydrocarbon stream 280 may enter cryogenic separation unit 282. Hydrocarbon stream 280 may be any hydrocarbon stream suitable for use in a cryogenic extractive distillation system. In some embodiments, hydrocarbon stream 280 is n-hexane. In cryogenic separation unit 282, C₂ hydrocarbons/hydrogen sulfide/carbon dioxide gas stream 278 is separated into carbon dioxide stream 266 and additional hydrocarbon/hydrogen sulfide stream 284. In some embodiments, cryogenic separation unit 282 includes 40 theoretical distillation stages. Cryogenic separation unit 282 may be operated at a temperature of about −19° C. and a pressure of about 20 bar.

[0540] In some embodiments, carbon dioxide stream 266 includes about 2.5 vol % of hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at most 2. In some embodiments, carbon dioxide stream 266 may be mixed with diluent fluid and/or oxidant for downhole burners, may be used as a carrier fluid for oxidizing fluid for downhole burners, may be used as a drive fluid for producing hydrocarbons, may be vented, may be used in barrier wells, and/or may be sequestered. In some embodiments carbon dioxide stream 266 is solidified.

[0541] Additional hydrocarbon/hydrogen sulfide stream 284 may be in the gas or liquid phase depending on the composition of the stream and/or the process conditions. Additional hydrocarbon/hydrogen sulfide stream 284 may enter cryogenic separation unit 286. Additional hydrocarbon/hydrogen sulfide stream 284 may include solvent hydrocarbons, C₂ hydrocarbons and hydrogen sulfide. In cryogenic separation unit 286, additional hydrocarbon/hydrogen sulfide stream 284 may be separated into C₂ hydrocarbons/hydrogen sulfide gas stream 288 and hydrocarbon stream 290. Hydrocarbon stream 290 may contain hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 3. Hydrocarbon stream 290 may be a liquid or gas depending on the composition of the stream and/or process conditions. In some embodiments, separation unit 286 includes 20 theoretical distillation stages. Cryogenic separation unit 286 may be operated at temperatures of about −16° C. and a pressure of about 10 bar.

[0542] Hydrogen sulfide/hydrocarbon gas stream 272 may enter cryogenic separation unit 274. In cryogenic separation unit 274, hydrogen sulfide may be separated from hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 3 to produce hydrogen sulfide stream 260 and C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250. Hydrogen sulfide stream 260 may include, but is not limited to, hydrogen sulfide, C₂ hydrocarbons, C₃ hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, or mixtures thereof. In some embodiments, hydrogen sulfide stream 260 contains about 31 vol % hydrogen sulfide with the balance being C₂ and C₃ hydrocarbons. Hydrogen sulfide stream 260 may be burned to produce SO_x. The SO_x may be sequestered and/or treated using known techniques in the art.

[0543] In some embodiments, cryogenic separation unit 274 includes about 40 theoretical distillation stages. Temperatures in cryogenic separation unit 274 may range from about 0° C. to about 10° C. Pressure in cryogenic separation unit 274 may be about 20 bar.

[0544] C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 may be a gas or liquid stream depending on the composition of the stream and/or process conditions. C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 may include a minimal amount of hydrogen sulfide and carbon dioxide. In some embodiments, C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 includes about 50 ppm of hydrogen sulfide. In some embodiments, C₃ hydrocarbons stream 250 is transported to other processing facilities as an energy source. In some embodiments, hydrocarbons stream C₃ hydrocarbon stream 250 needs no further treatment.

[0545] As depicted in FIG. 5, compressed gas stream 234 may be treated using a modified Ryan/Holmes type process to recover the carbon dioxide from the compressed gas stream. Compressed gas stream 234 enters cryogenic separation unit 292. In some embodiments cryogenic separation unit 292 includes 40 theoretical distillation stages. Cryogenic separation unit 292 may be operated at a temperature ranging from about 60° C. to about −56° C. and a pressure of about 30 bar. In cryogenic separation unit 292, compressed gas stream 234 may be separated into methane/carbon dioxide gas stream 294 and hydrocarbon/hydrogen sulfide stream 296.

[0546] Methane/carbon dioxide gas stream 294 may include hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at most 2 and carbon dioxide. Methane/carbon dioxide gas stream 294 may be compressed in compressor 298 and enter cryogenic separation unit 300. In cryogenic separation unit 300, methane/carbon dioxide gas stream 294 is separated into carbon dioxide stream 266 and methane stream 244. In some embodiments, cryogenic separation unit 300 includes 20 theoretical distillation stages. Temperatures in cryogenic separation unit 300 may range from about −56° C. to about −96° C. at a pressure of about 45 bar.

[0547] Carbon dioxide stream 266 may include some hydrogen sulfide. For example, carbon dioxide stream 266 may include about 80 ppm of hydrogen sulfide. At least a portion of carbon dioxide stream 266 may be used as a heat exchange medium in heat exchanger 302. In some embodiments, at least a portion of carbon dioxide stream 266 is sequestered in the formation and/or at least a portion of the carbon dioxide stream is used as a diluent in downhole oxidizer assemblies.

[0548] Hydrocarbon/hydrogen sulfide stream 296 may include hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 2 and hydrogen sulfide. Hydrocarbon/hydrogen sulfide stream 296 may be a gas or liquid stream depending on the hydrocarbon content of the stream and/or process conditions. Hydrocarbon/hydrogen sulfide stream 296 may pass through heat exchanger 302 and enter separation unit 304. In separation unit 304, hydrocarbon/hydrogen sulfide stream 296 may be separated into hydrocarbon stream 306 and hydrogen sulfide stream 260. In some embodiments, separation unit 304 includes 30 theoretical distillation stages. Temperatures in separation unit 304 may range from about 60° C. to about 27° C. at a pressure of about 10 bar.

[0549] Hydrocarbon stream 306 may include hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 3. Hydrocarbon stream 306 may include some hydrocarbons having a carbon number greater than 5. Hydrocarbon stream 306 may include hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at most 5. In some embodiments, hydrocarbon stream 306 includes 10 vol % n-butanes and 85 vol % hydrocarbons having a carbon number of 5. At least a portion of hydrocarbon stream 306 may be recycled to cryogenic separation unit 292 to maintain a ratio of about 1.4:1 of hydrocarbons to compressed gas stream 234.

[0550] Hydrogen sulfide stream 260 may include hydrogen sulfide, C₂ hydrocarbons, and some carbon dioxide. In some embodiments, hydrogen sulfide stream 260 includes about 13 vol % hydrogen sulfide, about 0.8 vol % carbon dioxide with the balance being C₂ hydrocarbons. At least a portion of the hydrogen sulfide stream 260 may be burned as an energy source. In some embodiments, hydrogen sulfide stream 260 is used as a fuel source in downhole burners.

[0551] In some embodiments, substantial removal of all the hydrogen sulfide from the C₂ hydrocarbons is desired. C₂ hydrocarbons may be used as an energy source in surface facilities. Recovery of C₂ hydrocarbons may enhance the energy efficiency of the process. Separation of hydrogen sulfide from C₂ hydrocarbons may be difficult because C₂ hydrocarbons boil at approximately the same temperature as a hydrogen sulfide/C₂ hydrocarbons mixture. Addition of higher molecular weight (higher boiling) hydrocarbons does not enable the separation between hydrogen sulfide and C₂ hydrocarbons as the addition of higher molecular weight hydrocarbons decreases the volatility of the C₂ hydrocarbons. It has been advantageously found that the addition of carbon dioxide to the hydrogen sulfide/C₂ hydrocarbons mixture allows separation of hydrogen sulfide from the C₂ hydrocarbons.

[0552] As shown in FIG. 6, bottoms stream 246 and carbon dioxide stream 314 enter cryogenic separation unit 316. In some embodiments, the carbon dioxide stream is added to the bottom stream prior to entering the cryogenic separation unit. In cryogenic separation unit 316, bottoms stream 246 may be separated into C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide gas stream 258 and hydrogen sulfide/hydrocarbon stream 318 by addition of sufficient carbon dioxide to form a C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide azeotrope (for example, a C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide volume ratio of 0.17:1 may be used). The C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide azeotrope has a boiling point lower than the boiling point of C₂ hydrocarbons. For example, the C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide azeotrope, where the C₂ hydrocarbons are ethane, has a boiling point that is 14° C. lower than C₂ boiling point at 10 bar, and a boiling point that is 22° C. lower than the C₂ boiling point at 40 bar. Use of a C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide azeotrope allows formation of a C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream having a minimal amount of hydrogen sulfide (for example, a C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream having at most 30 ppm, at most 25 ppm, at most 20 ppm, or at most 10 ppm of hydrogen sulfide). In some embodiments, cryogenic separation unit 316 includes 40 theoretical distillation stages and may be operated at a pressure of about 10 bar.

[0553] At least a portion of C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream 258 and hydrocarbon recovery stream 320 may enter separation unit 262. Hydrocarbon recovery stream 320 may include hydrocarbons having a carbon number ranging from 4 to 7. In separation unit 262, contact of C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream 258 with hydrocarbon recovery stream 320 allows for separation of hydrocarbons from the C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream to form separated carbon dioxide stream 266 and C₂ rich hydrocarbon stream 322. For example, a hydrocarbon recovery stream to C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream ratio of 1.25 to 1 may effectively extract all the hydrocarbons from the carbon dioxide. The ratio of hydrocarbon recovery stream to C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream may depend on the relative concentrations of C₂ hydrocarbons and carbon dioxide in the C₂ hydrocarbons/carbon dioxide stream. Separated carbon dioxide stream 266 may be sequestered in the formation, used as a drive fluid, recycled to cryogenic separation unit 316, or used as a cooling fluid in other processes.

[0554] C₂ rich hydrocarbon stream 322 may enter hydrocarbon recovery unit 324. In hydrocarbon recovery unit 324, C₂ rich hydrocarbon stream 322 may be separated into light hydrocarbons stream 326 and bottom hydrocarbon stream 328. In some embodiments, hydrocarbon recovery unit 324 includes 30 theoretical distillation stages and is operated at a pressure of 10 bar. Light hydrocarbons stream 326 may include hydrocarbons having a carbon number from 2 to 4, a residual amount of hydrogen sulfide, thiols, and/or COS. For example, light hydrocarbons stream 326 may have about 30 ppm hydrogen sulfide, 280 ppm thiols and 260 ppm COS. Light hydrocarbons stream 326 may be treated further (for example, contacted with molecular sieves) to remove the sulfur compounds. In some embodiments, light hydrocarbons stream 326 requires no further purification and is suitable for transportation and/or use as a fuel.

[0555] Hydrocarbon stream 328 may include hydrocarbons having a carbon number ranging from 3 to 7. Some of hydrocarbon stream 328 may be directed to separation unit 330 and/or separation unit 262 after passing through one or more heat exchangers 302. Heat exchangers 302 may be integrated with one or more units to maximize energy efficiency. Mixing of hydrocarbon stream 328 with hydrocarbon recovery stream 320 stabilize the composition of hydrocarbon recovery stream 320 and avoid build-up of heavy hydrocarbons and sulfur compounds (for example, organosulfur compounds). In some embodiments, hydrocarbon stream 328 and hydrocarbon recovery stream 320 are the same stream. In some embodiments, hydrocarbon stream 328 is treated to remove sulfur compounds (for example, the hydrocarbon stream is contacted with caustic).

[0556] Hydrogen sulfide/hydrocarbon gas stream 318 from cryogenic separation unit 316 may include, but is not limited to, hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 3, hydrocarbons that include organosulfur compounds, hydrogen sulfide, or mixtures thereof. A portion or all of hydrogen sulfide/hydrocarbon gas stream 318 and hydrocarbon recovery stream 320 enter hydrogen sulfide separation unit 330. Output from cryogenic separation unit 330 may include hydrogen sulfide stream 260 and rich C₃ hydrocarbons stream 332. To facilitate separation of the hydrogen sulfide from rich C₃ hydrocarbon stream 332, a volume ratio of 0.73 to 1 of rich C₃ hydrocarbons stream to hydrogen sulfide may be used. In some embodiments, separation unit 330 includes 30 theoretical distillation stages. Cryogenic separation unit 330 may be operated at a temperature of about −16° C. and a pressure of about 10 bar. C₃ hydrocarbon stream 332 may contain hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 3. At least a portion of C₃ hydrocarbon stream 332 may enter hydrocarbon recovery unit 324.

[0557] Hydrogen sulfide stream 260 may include, but is not limited to, hydrogen sulfide, C₂ hydrocarbons, C₃ hydrocarbons, carbon dioxide, or mixtures thereof. In some embodiments, hydrogen sulfide stream 260 contains about 99 vol % hydrogen sulfide with the balance being C₂ and C₃ hydrocarbons. Hydrogen sulfide stream 260 may be burned to produce SO_x. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the hydrogen sulfide stream is used as a fuel in downhole burners. The SO_x may be used as a drive fluid, sequestered and/or treated using known techniques in the art.

[0558] As shown in FIGS. 7 and 8, in situ heat treatment process liquid stream 216 enters liquid separation unit 226. In some embodiments, liquid separation unit 226 is not necessary. In liquid separation unit 226, separation of in situ heat treatment process liquid stream 216 produces gas hydrocarbon stream 228 and salty process liquid stream 230. Gas hydrocarbon stream 228 may include hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at most 5. A portion of gas hydrocarbon stream 228 may be combined with gas hydrocarbon stream 224.

[0559] Salty process liquid stream 230 may be processed through desalting unit 336 to form liquid stream 338. Desalting unit 336 removes mineral salts and/or water from salty process liquid stream 230 using known desalting and water removal methods. In certain embodiments, desalting unit 336 is upstream of liquid separation unit 226.

[0560] Liquid stream 338 includes, but is not limited to, hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 5 and/or hydrocarbon containing heteroatoms (for example, hydrocarbons containing nitrogen, oxygen, sulfur, and phosphorus). Liquid stream 338 may include at least 0.001 g, at least 0.005 g, or at least 0.01 g of hydrocarbons with a boiling range distribution between about 95° C. and about 200° C. at 0.101 MPa; at least 0.01 g, at least 0.005 g, or at least 0.001 g of hydrocarbons with a boiling range distribution between about 200° C. and about 300° C. at 0.101 MPa; at least 0.001 g, at least 0.005 g, or at least 0.01 g of hydrocarbons with a boiling range distribution between about 300° C. and about 400° C. at 0.101 MPa; and at least 0.001 g, at least 0.005 g, or at least 0.01 g of hydrocarbons with a boiling range distribution between 400° C. and 650° C. at 0.101 MPa. In some embodiments, liquid stream 338 contains at most 10% by weight water, at most 5% by weight water, at most 1% by weight water, or at most 0.1% by weight water.

[0561] In some embodiments, the separated liquid stream may have a boiling range distribution between about 50° C. and about 350° C., between about 60° C. and 340° C., between about 70° C. and 330° C. or between about 80° C. and 320° C. In some embodiments, the separated liquid stream has a boiling range distribution between 180° C. and 330° C.

[0562] In some embodiments, at least 50%, at least 70%, or at least 90% by weight of the total hydrocarbons in the separated liquid stream have a carbon number from 8 to 13. About 50% to about 100%, about 60% to about 95%, about 70% to about 90%, or about 75% to 85% by weight of liquid stream may have a carbon number distribution from 8 to 13. At least 50% by weight of the total hydrocarbons in the separated liquid stream may have a carbon number from about 9 to 12 or from 10 to 11.

[0563] In some embodiments, the separated liquid stream has at most 15%, at most 10%, at most 5% by weight of naphthenes; at least 70%, at least 80%, or at least 90% by weight total paraffins; at most 5%, at most 3%, or at most 1% by weight olefins; and at most 30%, at most 20%, or at most 10% by weight aromatics.

[0564] In some embodiments, the separated liquid stream has a nitrogen compound content of at least 0.01%, at least 0.1% or at least 0.4% by weight nitrogen compound. The separated liquid stream may have a sulfur compound content of at least 0.01%, at least 0.5% or at least 1% by weight sulfur compound.

[0565] In some embodiments, liquid stream 338 includes organonitrogen compounds. As shown in FIG. 7 liquid stream 338 enters separation unit 366. In some embodiments, liquid stream 338 is passed through one or more filtration units in separation unit 226 to remove solids from the liquid stream. In separation unit 366, liquid stream 338 may be treated with an aqueous acid solution 368 to form an aqueous stream 370 and product hydrocarbon stream 372. Hydrocarbon stream 372 may include at most 0.01% by weight nitrogen compounds. Hydrocarbon stream 372 may enter hydrotreating unit 358.

[0566] Aqueous acid solution 368 includes water and acids suitable to complex with nitrogen compounds (for example, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, acetic acid, formic acid and/or other suitable acidic compounds). Aqueous stream 370 includes salts of the organonitrogen compounds and acid and water. At least a portion of aqueous stream 370 is sent separation unit 374. In separation unit 374, aqueous stream 370 is separated (for example, distilled) to form aqueous acid stream 368′ and concentrated organonitrogen stream 375. Concentrated organonitrogen stream 375 includes organonitrogen compounds, water, and/or acid. Separated aqueous stream 368′ may be introduced into separation unit 366. In some embodiments, separated aqueous stream 368′ is combined with aqueous acid solution 368 prior to entering the separation unit.

[0567] In some embodiments, at least a portion of aqueous stream 370 and/or concentrated organonitrogen stream 375 are introduced in a hydrocarbon portion or layer of subsurface formation that has been at least partially treated by an in situ heat treatment process. Aqueous stream 370 and/or concentrated organonitrogen stream 375 may be heated prior to injection in the formation. In some embodiments, the hydrocarbon portion or layer includes a shale and/or nahcolite (for example, a nahcolite zone in the Piceance Basin). In some embodiments, the aqueous stream 370 and/or concentrated organonitrogen stream 375 is used a part of the water source for solution mining nahcolite from the formation. In some embodiments, the aqueous stream 370 and/or concentrated organonitrogen stream 375 is introduced in a portion of a formation that contains nahcolite after at least a portion of the nahcolite has been removed. In some embodiments, the aqueous stream 370 and/or concentrated organonitrogen stream 375 374 is introduced in a portion of a formation that contains nahcolite after at least a portion of the nahcolite has been removed and/or the portion has been at least partially treated using an in situ heat treatment process. The hydrocarbon layer may be heated to temperatures above 200° C. prior to introduction of the aqueous stream. In the heated formation, the organonitrogen compounds may form hydrocarbons, amines, and/or ammonia and at least some of such hydrocarbons, amines and/or ammonia may be produced. In some embodiments, at least some of the acid used in the extraction process is produced.

[0568] In some embodiments, the desalting unit may produce a liquid hydrocarbon stream and a salty process liquid stream, as shown in FIG. 8. In situ heat treatment process liquid stream 216 enters liquid separation unit 226. Separation unit 226 may include one or more distillation units. In liquid separation unit 226, separation of in situ heat treatment process liquid stream 216 produces gas hydrocarbon stream 228, salty process liquid stream 230, and liquid hydrocarbon stream 350. Gas hydrocarbon stream 228 may include hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at most 5. A portion of gas hydrocarbon stream 228 may be combined with gas hydrocarbon stream 224. Salty process liquid stream 230 may be processed as described in the discussion of FIG. 7. Salty process liquid stream 230 may include hydrocarbons having a boiling point above 260° C. In some embodiments and as depicted in FIG. 8, salty process liquid stream 230 enters desalting unit 336. In desalting unit 336, salty process liquid stream 230 may be treated to form liquid stream 338 using known desalting and water removal methods. Liquid stream 338 may enter separation unit 352. In separation unit 352, liquid stream 338 is separated into bottoms stream 354 and hydrocarbon stream 356. In some embodiments, hydrocarbon stream 356 may have a boiling range distribution between about 200° C. and about 350° C., between about 220° C. and 340° C., between about 230° C. and 330° C. or between about 240° C. and 320° C.

[0569] In some embodiments, at least 50%, at least 70%, or at least 90% by weight of the total hydrocarbons in hydrocarbon stream 356 have a carbon number from 8 to 13. About 50% to about 100%, about 60% to about 95%, about 70% to about 90%, or about 75% to 85% by weight of liquid stream may have a carbon number distribution from 8 to 13. At least 50% by weight of the total hydrocarbons in the separated liquid stream may have a carbon number from about 9 to 12 or from 10 to 11.

[0570] In some embodiments, hydrocarbon stream 356 has at most 15%, at most 10%, at most 5% by weight of naphthenes; at least 70%, at least 80%, or at least 90% by weight total paraffins; at most 5%, at most 3%, or at most 1% by weight olefins; and at most 30%, at most 20%, or at most 10% by weight aromatics.

[0571] In some embodiments, hydrocarbon stream 356 has a nitrogen compound content of at least 0.01%, at least 0.1% or at least 0.4% by weight nitrogen compound. The separated liquid stream may have a sulfur compound content of at least 0.01%, at least 0.5% or at least 1% by weight sulfur compound.

[0572] Hydrocarbon stream 356 enters hydrotreating unit 358. In hydrotreating unit 358, liquid stream 338 may be hydrotreated to form compounds suitable for processing to hydrogen and/or commercial products.

[0573] Liquid hydrocarbon stream 350 from liquid separation unit 226 may include hydrocarbons having a boiling point up to 260° C. Liquid hydrocarbon stream 350 may include entrained asphaltenes and/or other compounds that may contribute to the instability of hydrocarbon streams. For example, liquid hydrocarbon stream 350 is a naphtha/kerosene fraction that includes entrained, partially dissolved, and/or dissolved asphaltenes and/or high molecular weight compounds that may contribute to phase instability of the liquid hydrocarbon stream. In some embodiments, liquid hydrocarbon stream 350 may include at least 0.5% by weight asphaltenes, 1% by weight asphaltenes or at least 5% by weight asphaltenes.

[0574] As properties of the liquid hydrocarbon stream 350 are changed during processing (for example, TAN, asphaltenes, P-value, olefin content, mobilized fluids content, visbroken fluids content, pyrolyzed fluids content, or combinations thereof), the asphaltenes and other components may become less soluble in the liquid hydrocarbon stream. In some instances, components in the produced fluids and/or components in the separated hydrocarbons may form two phases and/or become insoluble. Formation of two phases, through flocculation of asphaltenes, change in concentration of components in the produced fluids, change in concentration of components in separated hydrocarbons, and/or precipitation of components may cause processing problems (for example, plugging) and/or result in hydrocarbons that do not meet pipeline, transportation, and/or refining specifications. In some embodiments, further treatment of the produced fluids and/or separated hydrocarbons is necessary to produce products with desired properties.

[0575] During processing, the P-value of the separated hydrocarbons may be monitored and the stability of the produced fluids and/or separated hydrocarbons may be assessed. Typically, a P-value that is at most 1.0 indicates that flocculation of asphaltenes from the separated hydrocarbons may occur. If the P-value is initially at least 1.0 and such P-value increases or is relatively stable during heating, then this indicates that the separated hydrocarbons are relatively stable.

[0576] Liquid hydrocarbon stream 350 may be treated to at least partially remove asphaltenes and/or other compounds that may contribute to instability. Removal of the asphaltenes and/or other compounds that may contribute to instability may inhibit plugging in downstream processing units. Removal of the asphaltenes and/or other compounds that may contribute to instability may enhance processing unit efficiencies and/or prevent plugging of transportation pipelines.

[0577] Liquid hydrocarbon stream 350 may enter filtration system 342. Filtration system 342 separates at least a portion of the asphaltenes and/or other compounds that contribute to instability from liquid hydrocarbon stream 350. In some embodiments, filtration system 342 is skid mounted. Skid mounting filtration system 342 may allow the filtration system to be moved from one processing unit to another. In some embodiments, filtration system 342 includes one or more membrane separators, for example, one or more nanofiltration membranes or one or more reverse osmosis membranes. Use of a filtration system that operates at below ambient, ambient, or slightly higher than ambient temperatures may reduce energy costs as compared to conventional catalytic and/or thermal methods to remove asphaltenes from a hydrocarbon stream.

[0578] The membranes may be ceramic membranes and/or polymeric membranes. The ceramic membranes may be ceramic membranes having a molecular weight cut off of at most 2000 Daltons (Da), at most 1000 Da, or at most 500 Da. Ceramic membranes may not swell during removal of the desired materials from a substrate (for example, asphaltenes from the liquid stream). In addition, ceramic membranes may be used at elevated temperatures. Examples of ceramic membranes include, but are not limited to, mesoporous titania, mesoporous gamma-alumina, mesoporous zirconia, mesoporous silica, and combinations thereof.

[0579] Polymeric membranes may include top layers made of dense membrane and base layers (supports) made of porous membranes. The polymeric membranes may be arranged to allow the liquid stream (permeate) to flow first through the top layers and then through the base layer so that the pressure difference over the membrane pushes the top layer onto the base layer. The polymeric membranes are organophilic or hydrophobic membranes so that water present in the liquid stream is retained or substantially retained in the retentate.

[0580] The dense membrane layer of the polymeric membrane may separate at least a portion or substantially all of the asphaltenes from liquid hydrocarbon stream 350. In some embodiments, the dense polymeric membrane has properties such that liquid hydrocarbon stream 350 passes through the membrane by dissolving in and diffusing through the structure of dense membrane. At least a portion of the asphaltenes may not dissolve and/or diffuse through the dense membrane, thus they are removed. The asphaltenes may not dissolve and/or diffuse through the dense membrane because of the complex structure of the asphaltenes and/or their high molecular weight. The dense membrane layer may include cross-linked structure as described in WO 96/27430 to Schmidt et al., which is incorporated by reference herein. A thickness of the dense membrane layer may range from 1 micrometer to 15 micrometers, from 2 micrometers to 10 micrometers, or from 3 micrometers to 5 micrometers.

[0581] The dense membrane may be made from polysiloxane, poly-di-methyl siloxane, poly-octyl-methyl siloxane, polyimide, polyaramide, poly-tri-methyl silyl propyne, or mixtures thereof. Porous base layers may be made of materials that provide mechanical strength to the membrane. The porous base layers may be any porous membranes used for ultra filtration, nanofiltration, and/or reverse osmosis. Examples of such materials are polyacrylonitrile, polyamideimide in combination with titanium oxide, polyetherimide, polyvinylidenedifluoroide, polytetrafluoroethylene, or combinations thereof.

[0582] During separation of asphaltenes from liquid stream 350, the pressure difference across the membrane may range from about 0.5 MPa to about 6 MPa, from about 1 MPa to about 5 MPa, or from about 2 MPa to about 4 MPa. A temperature of the unit during separation may range from the pour point of liquid hydrocarbon stream 350 up to 100° C., from about −20° C. to about 100° C., from about 10° C. to about 90° C., or from about 20° C. to about 85° C. During continuous operation, the permeate flux rate may be at most 50% of the initial flux, at most 70% of the initial flux, or at most 90% of the initial flux. A weight recovery of the permeate on feed may range from about 50% by weight to 97% by weight, from about 60% by weight to 90% by weight, or from about 70% by weight to 80% by weight.

[0583] Filtration system 342 may include one or more membrane separators. The membrane separators may include one or more membrane modules. When two or more membrane separators are used, the separators may be arranged in a parallel configuration to allow feed (retentate) from a first membrane separator to flow into a second membrane separator. Examples of membrane modules include, but are not limited to, spirally wound modules, plate and frame modules, hollow fibers, and tubular modules. Membrane modules are described in Encyclopedia of Chemical Engineering, 4^th Ed., 1995, John Wiley & Sons Inc., Vol. 16, pages 158-164. Examples of spirally wound modules are described in, for example, WO/2006/040307 to Boestert et al., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,102,551 to Pasternak; 5,093,002 to Pasternak; 5,275,726 to Feimer et al.; 5,458,774 to Mannapperuma; and 5,150,118 to Finkle et al, all of which are incorporated by reference herein.

[0584] In some embodiments, a spirally wound module is used when a dense membrane is used in filtration system 342. A spirally wound module may include a membrane assembly of two membrane sheets between which a permeate spacer sheet is sandwiched. The membrane assembly may be sealed at three sides. The fourth side is connected to a permeate outlet conduit such that the area between the membranes is in fluid communication with the interior of the conduit. A feed spacer sheet may be arranged on top of one of the membranes. The assembly with feed spacer sheet is rolled up around the permeate outlet conduit to form a substantially cylindrical spirally wound membrane module. The feed spacer may have a thickness of at least 0.6 mm, at least 1 mm, or at least 3 mm to allow sufficient membrane surface to be packed into the spirally wound module. In some embodiments, the feed spacer is a woven feed spacer. During operation, the feed mixture may be passed from one end of the cylindrical module between the membrane assemblies along the feed spacer sheet sandwiched between feed sides of the membranes. Part of the feed mixture passes through either one of the membrane sheets to the permeate side. The resulting permeate flows along the permeate spacer sheet into the permeate outlet conduit.

[0585] In some embodiments, the membrane separation is a continuous process. Liquid stream 350 passes over the membrane due to the pressure difference to obtain filtered liquid stream 360 (permeate) and/or recycle liquid stream 362 (retentate). In some embodiments, filtered liquid stream 360 may have reduced concentrations of asphaltenes and/or high molecular weight compounds that may contribute to phase instability. Continuous recycling of recycle liquid stream 362 through the filter system can increase the production of filtered liquid stream 360 to as much as 95% of the original volume of filtered liquid stream 360. Recycle liquid stream 362 may be continuously recycled through a spirally wound membrane module for at least 10 hours, for at least one day, or for at least one week without cleaning the feed side of the membrane. Upon completion of the filtration, asphaltene enriched stream 364 (retentate) may include a high concentration of asphaltenes and/or high molecular weight compounds.

[0586] In some embodiments, liquid stream 338 is contacted with hydrogen in the presence of one or more catalysts to change one or more desired properties of the crude feed to meet transportation and/or refinery specifications using known hydrodemetallation, hydrodesulfurization, hydrodenitrofication techniques. Other methods to change one or more desired properties of the crude feed are described in U.S. Published Patent Applications Nos. 2005-0133414; 2006-0231465; and 2007-0000810 to Bhan et al.; 2005-0133405 to Wellington et al.; and 2006-0289340 to Brownscombe et al., all of which are incorporated by reference herein.

[0587] In some embodiments, the hydrotreated liquid stream has a nitrogen compound content of at most 200 ppm by weight, at most 150 ppm, at most 110 ppm, at most 50 ppm, or at most 10 ppm of nitrogen compounds. The separated liquid stream may have a sulfur compound content of at most 1000 ppm, at most 500 ppm, at most 300 ppm, at most 100 ppm, or at most 10 ppm by weight of sulfur compounds.

[0588] As shown in FIG. 7 and FIG. 8, liquid stream 338 and/or filtered liquid stream 344 may enter hydrotreating unit 358. In some embodiments, hydrogen source 376 enters hydrotreating unit 358 in addition to liquid stream 338 and/or filtered liquid stream 344. In some embodiments, the hydrogen source is not needed. Liquid stream 338 and/or filtered liquid stream 344 may be selectively hydrogenated in hydrotreating unit 358 such that di-olefins are reduced to mono-olefins. For example, liquid stream 338 and/or filtered liquid stream 344 is contacted with hydrogen in the presence of DN-200 (Criterion Catalysts & Technologies, Houston Tex., U.S.A.) at temperatures ranging from 100° C. to 200° C. and total pressures of 0.1 MPa to 40 MPa to produce liquid stream 378. In some embodiments, filtered liquid stream 344 is hydrotreated at a temperature ranging from about 190° C. to about 200° C. at a pressure of at least 6 MPa. Liquid stream 378 includes a reduced content of di-olefins and an increased content of mono-olefins relative to the di-olefin and mono-olefin content of liquid stream 338. In some embodiments, the conversion of di-olefins to mono-olefins under these conditions is at least 50%, at least 60%, at least 80% or at least 90%. Liquid stream 378 exits hydrotreating unit 358 and enters one or more processing units positioned downstream of hydrotreating unit 358. The units positioned downstream of hydrotreating unit 358 may include distillation units, catalytic reforming units, hydrocracking units, hydrotreating units, hydrogenation units, hydrodesulfurization units, catalytic cracking units, delayed coking units, gasification units, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, hydrotreating prior to fractionation is not necessary. In some embodiments, liquid stream 378 may be severely hydrotreated to remove undesired compounds from the liquid stream prior to fractionation. In certain embodiments, liquid stream 378 may be fractionated and the produced streams may each be hydrotreated to meet industry standards and/or transportation standards.

[0589] Liquid stream 378 may exit hydrotreating unit 358 and enter fractionation unit 380. In fractionation unit 380, liquid stream 378 may be distilled to form one or more crude products. Crude products include, but are not limited to, C₃-C₅ hydrocarbon stream 382, naphtha stream 384, kerosene stream 386, diesel stream 388, and bottoms stream 354. Fractionation unit 380 may be operated at atmospheric and/or under vacuum conditions.

[0590] In some embodiments, hydrotreated liquid streams and/or streams produced from fractions (for example, aromatic rich streams, distillates and/or naphtha) are blended with the in situ heat treatment process liquid and/or formation fluid to produce a blended fluid. The blended fluid may have enhanced physical stability and chemical stability as compared to the formation fluid. The blended fluid may have a reduced amount of reactive species (for example, di-olefins, other olefins and/or compounds containing oxygen, sulfur and/or nitrogen) relative to the formation fluid. Thus, chemical stability of the blended fluid is enhanced. The blended fluid may decrease an amount of asphaltenes relative to the formation fluid. Thus, physical stability of the blended fluid is enhanced. The blended fluid may be a more a fungible feed than the formation fluid and/or the liquid stream produced from the in situ heat treatment process. The blended feed may be more suitable for transportation, for use in chemical processing units and/or for use in refining units than formation fluid.

[0591] In some embodiments, a fluid produced by methods described herein from an oil shale formation may be blended with heavy oil/tar sands in situ heat treatment process (IHTP) fluid. Blended fluids may have properties (for example, viscosity and/or P-value) that make the blended fluid more acceptable for transportation and/or distribution to processing units. In some embodiments, produced oil shale fluid may be blended with bitumen to produce a blended bitumen having acceptable viscosity and/or stability properties. Thus, the blended bitumen may be transported and/or distributed to processing units.

[0592] As shown in FIG. 7 and FIG. 8, C₃-C₅ hydrocarbon stream 382 produced from fractionation unit 380 and/or hydrocarbon gas stream 224 enter alkylation unit 396. In alkylation unit 396, reaction of the olefins in hydrocarbon gas stream 224 (for example, propylene, butylenes, amylenes, or combinations thereof) with the iso-paraffins in C₃-C₅ hydrocarbon stream 382 produces hydrocarbon stream 398. In some embodiments, the olefin content in hydrocarbon gas stream 224 is acceptable and an additional source of olefins is not needed. Hydrocarbon stream 398 includes hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 4. Hydrocarbons having a carbon number of at least 4 include, but are not limited to, butanes, pentanes, hexanes, heptanes, and octanes. In certain embodiments, hydrocarbons produced from alkylation unit 396 have an octane number greater than 70, greater than 80, or greater than 90. In some embodiments, hydrocarbon stream 398 is suitable for use as gasoline without further processing.

[0593] In some embodiments, and as depicted in FIG. 7 and FIG. 8, bottoms stream 354 may be hydrocracked to produce naphtha and/or other products. The resulting naphtha may, however, need reformation to alter the octane level so that the product may be sold commercially as gasoline. Alternatively, bottoms stream 354 may be treated in a catalytic cracker to produce naphtha and/or feed for an alkylation unit. In some embodiments, naphtha stream 384, kerosene stream 386, and diesel stream 388 have an imbalance of paraffinic hydrocarbons, olefinic hydrocarbons, and/or aromatic hydrocarbons. The streams may not have a suitable quantity of olefins and/or aromatics for use in commercial products. This imbalance may be changed by combining at least a portion of the streams to form combined stream 400 which has a boiling range distribution from about 38° C. to about 343° C. Catalytically cracking combined stream 400 may produce olefins and/or other streams suitable for use in an alkylation unit and/or other processing units. In some embodiments, naphtha stream 384 is hydrocracked to produce olefins.

[0594] Combined stream 400 and bottoms stream 354 from fractionation unit 380 enter catalytic cracking unit 402. Under controlled cracking conditions (for example, controlled temperatures and pressures), catalytic cracking unit 402 produces additional C₃-C₅ hydrocarbon stream 382′, gasoline hydrocarbons stream 404, and additional kerosene stream 386′.

[0595] Additional C₃-C₅ hydrocarbon stream 382′ may be sent to alkylation unit 396, combined with C₃-C₅ hydrocarbon stream 382, and/or combined with hydrocarbon gas stream 224 to produce gasoline suitable for commercial sale. In some embodiments, the olefin content in hydrocarbon gas stream 224 is acceptable and an additional source of olefins is not needed.

[0596] Many wells are needed for treating the hydrocarbon formation using the in situ heat treatment process. In some embodiments, vertical or substantially vertical wells are formed in the formation. In some embodiments, horizontal or U-shaped wells are formed in the formation. In some embodiments, combinations of horizontal and vertical wells are formed in the formation.

[0597] A manufacturing approach for forming wellbores in the formation may be used due to the large number of wells that need to be formed for the in situ heat treatment process. The manufacturing approach may be particularly applicable for forming wells for in situ heat treatment processes that utilize u-shaped wells or other types of wells that have long non-vertically oriented sections. Surface openings for the wells may be positioned in lines running along one or two sides of the treatment area. FIG. 9 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of a system for forming wellbores of the in situ heat treatment process.

[0598] The manufacturing approach for forming wellbores may include: 1) delivering flat rolled steel to near site tube manufacturing plant that forms coiled tubulars and/or pipe for surface pipelines; 2) manufacturing large diameter coiled tubing that is tailored to the required well length using electrical resistance welding (ERW), wherein the coiled tubing has customized ends for the bottom hole assembly (BHA) and hang off at the wellhead; 3) deliver the coiled tubing to a drilling rig on a large diameter reel; 4) drill to total depth with coil and a retrievable bottom hole assembly; 5) at total depth, disengage the coil and hang the coil on the wellhead; 6) retrieve the BHA; 7) launch an expansion cone to expand the coil against the formation; 8) return empty spool to the tube manufacturing plant to accept a new length of coiled tubing; 9) move the gantry type drilling platform to the next well location; and 10) repeat.

[0599] In situ heat treatment process locations may be distant from established cities and transportation networks. Transporting formed pipe or coiled tubing for wellbores to the in situ process location may be untenable due to the lengths and quantity of tubulars needed for the in situ heat treatment process. One or more tube manufacturing facilities 406 may be formed at or near to the in situ heat treatment process location. The tubular manufacturing facility may form plate steel into coiled tubing. The plate steel may be delivered to tube manufacturing facilities 406 by truck, train, ship or other transportation system. In some embodiments, different sections of the coiled tubing may be formed of different alloys. The tubular manufacturing facility may use ERW to longitudinally weld the coiled tubing.

[0600] Tube manufacturing facilities 406 may be able to produce tubing having various diameters. Tube manufacturing facilities may initially be used to produce coiled tubing for forming wellbores. The tube manufacturing facilities may also be used to produce heater components, piping for transporting formation fluid to surface facilities, and other piping and tubing needs for the in situ heat treatment process.

[0601] Tube manufacturing facilities 406 may produce coiled tubing used to form wellbores in the formation. The coiled tubing may have a large diameter. The diameter of the coiled tubing may be from about 4 inches to about 8 inches in diameter. In some embodiments, the diameter of the coiled tubing is about 6 inches in diameter. The coiled tubing may be placed on large diameter reels. Large diameter reels may be needed due to the large diameter of the tubing. The diameter of the reel may be from about 10 m to about 50 m. One reel may hold all of the tubing needed for completing a single well to total depth.

[0602] In some embodiments, tube manufacturing facilities 406 has the ability to apply expandable zonal inflow profiler (EZIP) material to one or more sections of the tubing that the facility produces. The EZIP material may be placed on portions of the tubing that are to be positioned near and next to aquifers or high permeability layers in the formation. When activated, the EZIP material forms a seal against the formation that may serve to inhibit migration of formation fluid between different layers. The use of EZIP layers may inhibit saline formation fluid from mixing with non-saline formation fluid.

[0603] The size of the reels used to hold the coiled tubing may prohibit transport of the reel using standard moving equipment and roads. Because tube manufacturing facility 406 is at or near the in situ heat treatment location, the equipment used to move the coiled tubing to the well sites does not have to meet existing road transportation regulations and can be designed to move large reels of tubing. In some embodiments the equipment used to move the reels of tubing is similar to cargo gantries used to move shipping containers at ports and other facilities. In some embodiments, the gantries are wheeled units. In some embodiments, the coiled tubing may be moved using a rail system or other transportation system.

[0604] The coiled tubing may be moved from the tubing manufacturing facility to the well site using gantries 408. Drilling gantry 410 may be used at the well site. Several drilling gantries 410 may be used to form wellbores at different locations. Supply systems for drilling fluid or other needs may be coupled to drilling gantries 410 from central facilities 412.

[0605] Drilling gantry 410 or other equipment may be used to set the conductor for the well. Drilling gantry 410 takes coiled tubing, passes the coiled tubing through a straightener, and a BHA attached to the tubing is used to drill the wellbore to depth. In some embodiments, a composite coil is positioned in the coiled tubing at tube manufacturing facility 406. The composite coil allows the wellbore to be formed without having drilling fluid flowing between the formation and the tubing. The composite coil also allows the BHA to be retrieved from the wellbore. The composite coil may be pulled from the tubing after wellbore formation. The composite coil may be returned to the tubing manufacturing facility to be placed in another length of coiled tubing. In some embodiments, the BHAs are not retrieved from the wellbores.

[0606] In some embodiments, drilling gantry 410 takes the reel of coiled tubing from gantry 408. In some embodiments, gantry 408 is coupled to drilling gantry 410 during the formation of the wellbore. For example, the coiled tubing may be fed from gantry 408 to drilling gantry 410, or the drilling gantry lifts the gantry to a feed position and the tubing is fed from the gantry to the drilling gantry.

[0607] The wellbore may be formed using the bottom hole assembly, coiled tubing and the drilling gantry. The BHA may be self-seeking to the destination. The BHA may form the opening at a fast rate. In some embodiments, the BHA forms the opening at a rate of about 100 meters per hour.

[0608] After the wellbore is drilled to total depth, the tubing may be suspended from the wellhead. An expansion cone may be used to expand the tubular against the formation. In some embodiments, the drilling gantry is used to install a heater and/or other equipment in the wellbore.

[0609] When drilling gantry 410 is finished at well site 414, the drilling gantry may release gantry 408 with the empty reel or return the empty reel to the gantry. Gantry 408 may take the empty reel back to tube manufacturing facility 406 to be loaded with another coiled tube. Gantries 408 may move on looped path 416 from tube manufacturing facility 406 to well sites 414 and back to the tube manufacturing facility.

[0610] Drilling gantry 410 may be moved to the next well site. Global positioning satellite information, lasers and/or other information may be used to position the drilling gantry at desired locations. Additional wellbores may be formed until all of the wellbores for the in situ heat treatment process are formed.

[0611] In some embodiments, positioning and/or tracking system may be utilized to track gantries 408, drilling gantries 410, coiled tubing reels and other equipment and materials used to develop the in situ heat treatment location. Tracking systems may include bar code tracking systems to ensure equipment and materials arrive where and when needed.

[0612] Directionally drilled wellbores may be formed using steerable motors. Deviations in wellbore trajectory may be made using slide drilling systems or using rotary steerable systems. During use of slide drilling systems, the mud motor rotates the bit downhole with little or no rotation of the drilling string from the surface during trajectory changes. The bottom hole assembly is fitted with a bent sub and/or a bent housing mud motor for directional drilling. The bent sub and the drill bit are oriented in the desired direction. With little or no rotation of the drilling string, the drill bit is rotated with the mud motor to set the trajectory. When the desired trajectory is obtained, the entire drilling string is rotated and drills straight rather than at an angle. Drill bit direction changes may be made by utilizing torque/rotary adjusting to control the drill bit in the desired direction.

[0613] By controlling the amount of wellbore drilled in the sliding and rotating modes, the wellbore trajectory may be controlled. Torque and drag during sliding and rotating modes may limit the capabilities of slide mode drilling. Steerable motors may produce tortuosity in the slide mode. Tortuosity may make further sliding more difficult. Many methods have been developed, or are being developed, to improve slide drilling systems. Examples of improvements to slide drilling systems include agitators, low weight bits, slippery muds, and torque/toolface control systems.

[0614] Limitations in slide drilling led to the development of rotary steerable systems. Rotary steerable systems allow directional drilling with continuous rotation from the surface, thus making the need to slide the drill string unnecessary. Continuous rotation transfers weight to the drill bit more efficiently, thus increasing the rate of penetration. Current rotary steerable systems may be mechanically and/or electrically complicated with a high cost of delivery due to service companies requiring a high rate of return and due to relatively high failure rates for the systems.

[0615] In some embodiments, a dual motor rotary steerable system is used. The dual motor rotary steerable system allows a bent sub and/or bent housing mud motor to change the trajectory of the drilling while the drilling string remains in rotary mode. The dual motor rotary steerable system uses a second motor in the bottom hole assembly to rotate a portion of the bottom hole assembly in a direction opposite to the direction of rotation of the drilling string. The addition of the second motor may allow continuous forward rotation of a drilling string while simultaneously controlling the drill bit and, thus, the directional response of the bottom hole assembly. In some embodiments, the rotation speed of the drilling string is used in achieving drill bit control.

[0616] FIG. 10 depicts a schematic representation of an embodiment of drilling string 418 with dual motors in bottom hole assembly 420. Drilling string 418 is coupled to bottom hole assembly 420. Bottom hole assembly 420 includes motor 422A and motor 422B. Motor 422A may be a bent sub and/or bent housing steerable mud motor. Motor 422A may drive drill bit 424. Motor 422B may operate in a rotation direction that is opposite to the rotation of drilling string 418 and/or motor 422A. Motor 422B may operate at a relatively low rotary speed and have high torque capacity as compared to motor 422A. Bottom hole assembly 420 may include sensing array 426 between motors 422A, motor 422B.

[0617] As noted above, motor 422B may rotate in a direction opposite to the rotation of drilling string 418. In this manner, portions of bottom hole assembly 420 beyond motor 422B may have less rotation in the direction of rotation of drilling string 418. The revolutions per minute (rpm) versus differential pressure relationship for bottom hole assembly 420 may be assessed prior to running drilling string 418 and the bottom hole assembly 420 in the formation to determine the differential pressure at neutral drilling speed (when the drilling string speed is equal and opposite to the speed of motor 422B). Measured differential pressure may be used by a control system during drilling to control the speed of the drilling string relative to the neutral drilling speed.

[0618] In some embodiments, motor 422B is operated at a substantially fixed speed. For example, motor 422B may be operated at a speed of 30 rpm. Other speeds may be used as desired.

[0619] In some embodiments, a mud motor is installed in a bottom hole assembly in an inverted orientation (for example, upside-down from the normal orientation). The inverted mud motor may be operated in a reverse direction of rotation relative to other mud motors, a drill bit, and/or a drilling string. For example, motor 422B, shown in FIG. 10, may be installed in an inverted orientation to produce a relative counter-clockwise rotation in portions of bottom hole assembly 420 distal to motor 422B (see counterclockwise arrow). Installing a mud motor in an inverted orientation may allow for the use of off-the-shelf motors to produce counter-rotation and/or non-rotation of selected elements of the bottom hole assembly. In one embodiment, a threading kit is used to adapt a threaded mounting for mud motor to ensure that a secure connection between an inverted mud motor and its mounting is maintained during drilling (e.g., by reversing the threads).

[0620] In some embodiments, the rotation speed of drilling string 418 is used to control the trajectory of the wellbore being formed. For example, drilling string 418 may initially be rotating at 40 rpm, and motor 422B rotates at 30 rpm. The counter-rotation of motor 422B and drilling string 418 results in a forward rotation speed (for example, an absolute forward rotation speed) of 10 rpm in the lower portion of bottom hole assembly 420 (the portion of the bottom hole assembly below motor 422B). When a directional course correction is to be made, the speed of drilling string 418 is changed to the neutral drilling speed. Because drilling string 418 is rotating, there is no need to lift drill bit 424 off the bottom of the borehole. Operating at neutral drilling speed may effectively cancel the torque of the drilling string so that drill bit 424 is subjected to torque induced by motor 422A and the formation.

[0621] The continuous rotation of drilling string 418 keeps windup of the drilling string consistent and stabilizes drill bit 424. Directional changes of drill bit 424 may be made by changing the speed of drilling string 418. Using a dual motor rotary steerable system allows the changing of the direction of the drilling string to occur while the drilling string rotates at or near the normal operating rotation speed of drilling string 418. FIG. 11 depicts time at drilling string rotation during direction change versus rotation speed (rpm) of the drilling string for a conventional steerable motor bottom hole assembly during a drill bit direction change. FIG. 12 depicts time at rotation speed during directional change versus change in drilling string rotating speed for the dual motor drilling string during the drill bit direction change. Drill bit control may be substantially the same as for conventional slide mode drilling where torque/rotary adjustment is used to control the drill bit in the desired direction, but to the effect that 0 rpm on the x-axis of FIG. 11 becomes N (the neutral drilling string speed) in FIG. 12.

[0622] The connection of bottom hole assembly 420 to drilling string 418 of the dual motor rotary steerable system depicted in FIG. 10 may be subjected to the net effect of all the torque components required to rotate the entire bottom hole assembly (including torque generated at drill bit 424 during wellbore formation). Threaded connections along drilling string 418 may include profile-matched sleeves such as those known in the art for utilities drilling systems.

[0623] In some embodiments, a control system used to control wellbore formation includes a system that sets a desired rotation speed of drilling string 418 when direction changes in trajectory of the wellbore are to be implemented. The system may include fine tuning of the desired drilling string rotation speed.

[0624] In certain embodiments, drilling string 418 is integrated with position measurement and down hole tools (for example, sensing array 426) to autonomously control the hole path along a designed geometry. An autonomous control system for controlling the path of drilling string 418 may utilize two or more domains of functionality. In one embodiment, a control system utilizes at least three domains of functionality including, but not limited to, measurement, trajectory, and control. Measurement may be made using sensor systems and/or other equipment hardware that assess angles, distances, magnetic fields, and/or other data. Trajectory may include flight path calculation and algorithms that utilize physical measurements to calculate angular and spatial offsets of the drilling string. The control system may implement actions to keep the drilling string in the proper path. The control system may include tools that utilize software/control interfaces built into an operating system of the drilling equipment, drilling string and/or bottom hole assembly.

[0625] In certain embodiments, the control system utilizes position and angle measurements to define spatial and angular offsets from the desired drilling geometry. The defined offsets may be used to determine a steering solution to move the trajectory of the drilling string (thus, the trajectory of the borehole) back into convergence with the desired drilling geometry. The steering solution may be based on an optimum alignment solution in which a desired rate of curvature of the borehole path is set, and required angle change segments and angle change directions for the path are assessed (for example, by computation).

[0626] In some embodiments, the control system uses a fixed angle change rate associated with the drilling string, assesses the lengths of the sections of the drilling string, and assesses the desired directions of the drilling to autonomously execute and control movement of the drilling string. Thus, the control system assesses position measurements and controls of the drilling string to control the direction of the drilling string.

[0627] In some embodiments, differential pressure or torque across motor 422A and/or motor 422B is used to control the rate of penetration. A relationship between rate of penetration, weight-on-bit, and torque may be assessed for drilling string 418. Measurements of torque and the rate of penetration/weight-on-bit/torque relationship may be used to control the feed rate of drilling string 418 into the formation.

[0628] Accuracy and efficiency in forming wellbores in subsurface formations may be affected by the density and quality of directional data during drilling. The quality of directional data may be diminished by vibrations and angular accelerations during rotary drilling, especially during rotary drilling segments of wellbore formation using slide mode drilling.

[0629] In certain embodiments, the quality of the data assessed during rotary drilling is increased by installing directional sensors in a non-rotating housing. FIG. 13 depicts an embodiment of drilling string 418 with non-rotating sensor 432. Non-rotating sensor 432 is located behind motor 422. Motor 422 may be a steerable motor. Motor 422 is located behind drill bit 424. In certain embodiments, sensor 432 is located between non-magnetic components in drilling string 418.

[0630] In some embodiments, non-rotating sensor 432 is located in a sleeve over motor 422. In some embodiments, non-rotating sensor 432 is run on a bottom hole assembly for improved data assessment. In an embodiment, a non-rotating sensor is coupled to and/or driven by a motor that produces relative counter-rotation of the sensor relative to other components of the bottom hole assembly. For example, a sensor may be coupled to motor having a rotation speed equal and opposite to that of bottom hole assembly housing to which it is attached so that the absolute rotation speed of the sensor is or is substantially zero. In certain embodiments, the motor for a sensor is a mud motor installed in an inverted orientation such as described above relative to FIG. 10.

[0631] In certain embodiments, non-rotating sensor 432 includes one or more transceivers for communicating data either into drilling string 418 within the bottom hole assembly or to similar transceivers in nearby boreholes. The transceivers may be used for telemetry of data and/or as a means of position assessment or verification. In certain embodiments, use of non-rotating sensor 432 is used for continuous position measurement. Continuous position measurement may be useful in control systems used for drilling position systems and/or umbilical position control.

[0632] FIG. 14 depicts an embodiment for assessing a position of a first wellbore relative to a second wellbore using multiple magnets. First wellbore 428A is formed in a subsurface formation. Wellbore 428A may be formed by directionally drilling in the formation along a desired path. For example, wellbore 428A may be horizontally or vertically drilled, or drilled at an inclined angle, in the subsurface formation.

[0633] Second wellbore 428B may be formed in the subsurface formation with drill bit 424 on drilling string 418. In certain embodiments, drilling string 418 includes one or more magnets 430. Wellbore 428B may be formed in a selected relationship to wellbore 428A. In certain embodiments, wellbore 428B is formed substantially parallel to wellbore 428A. In other embodiments, wellbore 428B is formed at other angles relative to wellbore 428A. In some embodiments, wellbore 428B is formed perpendicular to wellbore 428A.

[0634] In certain embodiments, wellbore 428A includes sensing array 426. Sensing array 426 may include two or more sensors 432. Sensors 432 may sense magnetic fields produced by magnets 430 in wellbore 428B. The sensed magnetic fields may be used to assess a position of wellbore 428A relative to wellbore 428B. In some embodiments, sensors 432 measure two or more magnetic fields provided by magnets 430.

[0635] Two or more sensors 432 in wellbore 428A may allow for continuous assessment of the relative position of wellbore 428A versus wellbore 428B. Using two or more sensors 432 in wellbore 428A may also allow the sensors to be used as gradiometers. In some embodiments, sensors 432 are positioned in advance (ahead of) magnets 430. Positioning sensors 432 in advance of magnets 430 allows the magnets to traverse past the sensors so that the magnet's position (the position of wellbore 428B) is measurable continuously or “live” during drilling of wellbore 428B. Sensing array 426 may be moved intermittently (at selected intervals) to move sensors 432 ahead of magnets 430. Positioning sensors 432 in advance of magnets 430 also allows the sensors to measure, store, and zero the Earth's field before sensing the magnetic fields of the magnets. The Earth's field may be zeroed by, for example, using a null function before arrival of the magnets, calculating background components from a known sensor attitude, or using paired sensors that function as gradiometers.

[0636] The relative position of wellbore 428B versus wellbore 428A may be used to adjust the drilling of wellbore 428B using drilling string 418. For example, the direction of drilling for wellbore 428B may be adjusted so that wellbore 428B remains a set distance away from wellbore 428A and the wellbores remain substantially parallel. In certain embodiments, the drilling of wellbore 428B is continuously adjusted based on continuous position assessments made by sensors 432. Data from drilling string 418 (for example, orientation, attitude, and/or gravitational data) may be combined or synchronized with data from sensors 432 to continuously assess the relative positions of the wellbores and adjust the drilling of wellbore 428B accordingly. Continuously assessing the relative positions of the wellbores may allow for coiled tubing drilling of wellbore 428B.

[0637] In some embodiments, drilling string 418 may include two or more sensing arrays. The sensing arrays may include two or more sensors. Using two or more sensing arrays in drilling string 418 may allow for direct measurement of magnetic interference of magnets 430 on the measurement of the Earth's magnetic field. Directly measuring any magnetic interference of magnets 430 on the measurement of the Earth's magnetic field may reduce errors in readings (for example, error to pointing azimuth). The direct measurement of the field gradient from the magnets from within drill string 418 also provides confirmation of reference field strength of the field to be measured from within wellbore 428A.

[0638] FIG. 15 depicts an embodiment for assessing a position of a first wellbore relative to a second wellbore using a continuous pulsed signal. Signal wire 434 may be placed in wellbore 428A. Sensor 432 may be located in drilling string 418 in wellbore 428B. In certain embodiments, wire 434 provides a current path and/or reference voltage signal (for example, a pulsed DC reference signal) into wellbore 428A. In one embodiment, the reference voltage signal is a 10 Hz pulsed DC signal. In one embodiment, the reference voltage signal is a 5 Hz pulsed DC signal. In some embodiments, the reference voltage signal is between 0.5 Hz pulsed DC signal and 0.75 Hz pulsed DC signal. Providing the current path and reference voltage signal may generate a known and, in some embodiments, fixed current in wellbore 428A. In some embodiments, the voltage signal is automatically varied on the surface to generate a uniform fixed current in the wellbore. Automatically varying the voltage signal on the surface may minimize bandwidth needs by reducing or eliminating the need to send current downhole and/or sensor raw data uphole.

[0639] In some embodiments, wire 434 carries current into and out of wellbore 428A (the forward and return conductors are both on the wire). In some embodiments, wire 434 carries current into wellbore 428A and the current is returned on a casing in the wellbore (for example, the casing of a heater or production conduit in the wellbore). In some embodiments, wire 434 carries current into wellbore 428A and the current is returned on another conductor located in the formation. For example, current flows from wire 434 in wellbore 428A through the formation to an electrode (current return) in the formation. In certain embodiments, current flows out an end of wellbore 428A. The electrode may be, for example, an electrode in another wellbore in the formation or a bare electrode extending from another wellbore in the formation. The electrode may be the casing in another wellbore in the formation. In some embodiments, wellbore 428A is substantially horizontal in the formation and current flows from wire 434 in the wellbore to a bare electrode extending from a substantially vertical wellbore in the formation.

[0640] The electromagnetic field provided by the voltage signal may be sensed by sensor 432. The sensed signal may be used to assess a position of wellbore 428B relative to wellbore 428A.

[0641] In some embodiments, wire 434 is a ranging wire located in wellbore 428A. In some embodiments, the voltage signal is provided by an electrical conductor that will be used as part of a heater in wellbore 428A. In some embodiments, the voltage signal is provided by an electrical conductor that is part of a heater or production equipment located in wellbore 428A. Wire 434, or other electrical conductors used to provide the voltage signal, may be grounded so that there is no current return along the wire or in the wellbore. Return current may cancel the electromagnetic field produced by the wire.

[0642] Where return current exists, the current may be measured and modeled to generate a “net current” from which a resultant electromagnetic field may be resolved. For example, in some areas, a 600 A signal current may only yield a 3-6 A net current. In some embodiments where it is not feasible to eliminate sufficient return current along the wellbore containing the conductor, two conductors may be installed in separate wellbores. In this method, signal wires from each of the existing wellbores are connected to opposite voltage terminals of the signal generator. The return current path is in this way guided through the earth from the contactor region of one conductor to the other. In certain embodiments, calculations are used to assess (determine) the amount of voltage needed to conduct current through the formation.

[0643] In certain embodiments, the reference voltage signal is turned on and off (pulsed) so that multiple measurements are taken by sensor 432 over a selected time period. The multiple measurements may be averaged to reduce or eliminate resolution error in sensing the reference voltage signal. In some embodiments, providing the reference voltage signal, sensing the signal, and adjusting the drilling based on the sensed signals are performed continuously without providing any data to the surface or any surface operator input to the downhole equipment. For example, an automated system located downhole may be used to perform all the downhole sensing and adjustment operations. In some embodiments, an iterative process is used to perform calculations used in the automated downhole sensing and adjustment operations. In certain embodiments, distance and direction are calculated continuously downhole, filtered and averaged. A best estimate final distance and direction may be output to the surface and combined with known along hole depth and source location to determine three-axis position data.

[0644] The signal field generated by the net current passing through the conductors may be resolved from the general background field existing when the signal field is “off”. A method for resolving the signal field from the general background field on a continuous basis may include: 1.) calculating background components based on the known attitude of the sensors and the known value background field strength and dip; 2.) a synchronized “null” function to be applied immediately before the reference field is switched “on”; 3.) Synchronized sampling of forward and reversed DC polarities (the subtraction of these sampled values may effectively remove the background field yielding the reference total current field); and/or 4.) Sampling values of background magnetic field at one or more fixed sampling frequencies and storing them for subtraction from the reference signal “on” data.

[0645] In some embodiments, slight changes in the sensor roll position and/or movement of the sensor between sampling steps (for example, between samples of signal off and signal on data) is compensated or counteracted by rotating the sensor data coordinate system to a reference attitude (for example, a “zero”) after each sample is taken or after a set of data is taken. For example, the sensor data coordinate system may be rotated to a tensor coordinate system. Parameters such as position, inclination, roll, and/or azimuth of the sensor may be calculated using sensor data rotated to the tensor coordinate system. In some embodiments, adjustments in calculations and/or data gathering are made to adjust for sensing and ranging at low wellbore inclination angles (for example, angles near vertical).

[0646] FIG. 16 depicts an embodiment for assessing a position of a first wellbore relative to a second wellbore using a radio ranging signal. Sensor 432 may be placed in wellbore 428A. Source 436 may be located in drilling string 418 in wellbore 428B. In some embodiments, source 436 is located in wellbore 428A and sensor 432 is located in wellbore 428B. In certain embodiments, source 436 is an electromagnetic wave producing source. For example, source 436 may be an electromagnetic sonde. Sensor 432 may be an antenna (for example, an electromagnetic or radio antenna). In some embodiments sensor 432 is located in part of a heater in wellbore 428A.

[0647] The signal provided by source 436 may be sensed by sensor 432. The sensed signal may be used to assess a position of wellbore 428B relative to wellbore 428A. In certain embodiments, the signal is continuously sensed using sensor 432. “Continuous” or “continuously” in the context of sensing signals (such as magnetic, electromagnetic, voltage, or other electrical or magnetic signals) includes sensing continuous signals and sensing pulsed signals repeatedly over a selected period time. The continuously sensed signal may be used to continuously and/or automatically adjust the drilling of wellbore 428B by drillbit 424. The continuous sensing of the electromagnetic signal may be dual directional so as to create a data link between transceivers. The antenna/sensor 432 may be directly connected to a surface interface allowing a data link between surface and subsurface to be established.

[0648] In some embodiments, source 436 and/or sensor 432 are sources and sensors used in a walkover radio locater system. Walkover radio locater systems are, for example, used in telecommunications to locate underground lines and to communicate the location to drilling tools used for utilities installation. Radio locater systems may be available, for example, from Digital Control Incorporated (Kent, Wash., U.S.A.). In some embodiments, the walkover radio located system components may be modified to be located in wellbore 428A and wellbore 428B so that the relative positions of the wellbores are assessable using the walkover radio located system components.

[0649] In certain embodiments, multiple sources and multiple sensors may be used to assess and adjust the drilling of one or more wellbores. FIG. 17 depicts an embodiment for assessing a position of a plurality of first wellbores relative to a plurality of second wellbores using radio ranging signals. Sources 436 may be located in a plurality of wellbores 428A. Sensors 432 may be located in one or more wellbores 428B. In some embodiments, sources 436 are located in wellbores 428B and sensors 432 are located in wellbores 428A.

[0650] In one embodiment, wellbores 428A are drilled substantially vertically in the formation and wellbores 428B are drilled substantially horizontally in the formation. Thus, wellbores 428B are substantially perpendicular to wellbores 428A. Sensors 432 in wellbores 428B may detect signals from one or more of sources 436. Detecting signals from more than one source may allow for more accurate measurement of the relative positions of the wellbores in the formation. In some embodiments, electromagnetic attenuation and phase shift detected from multiple sources is used to define the position of a sensor (and the wellbore). The paths of the electromagnetic radio waves may be predicted to allow detection and use of the electromagnetic attenuation and the phase shift to define the sensor position.

[0651] In certain embodiments, continuous pulsed signals and/or radio ranging signals are used to form a plurality of wellbores in a formation. FIG. 18 depicts a top view representation of an embodiment for forming a plurality of wellbores in a formation. Treatment area 816 may include clusters of heaters 438 on opposite sides of the treatment area. Control wellbore 428A may be located at or near the center line of treatment area 816. In certain embodiments, control wellbore 428A is located in a barrier area between heater corridors 1700A, 1700B. Control wellbore 428A may be a horizontal, substantially horizontal, or slightly inclined wellbore. Control wellbore 428A may have a length between about 250 m and about 3000 m, between about 500 m and about 2500 m, or between about 1000 m and about 2000 m.

[0652] In certain embodiments, the position (lateral and/or vertical position) of control wellbore 428A in treatment area 816 is assessed relative to vertical wellbores 428B, 428C, of which the position is known. The relative position to vertical wellbores 428B, 428C of control wellbore 428A may be assessed using, for example, continuous pulsed signals and/or radio ranging signals as described herein. In certain embodiments, vertical wellbores 428B, 428C are located within about 10 m, within about 5 m, or within about 3 m of control wellbore 428A.

[0653] Heater wellbores 428D may be the first heater wellbores deployed in either corridor 1700A or corridor 1700B. Ranging sources (for example, wire 434, depicted in FIG. 15, or source 436, depicted in FIGS. 16 and 17) and/or sensors (for example, sensors 432, depicted in FIGS. 15-17) located in either heater wellbores 428D and/or control wellbore 428A may be used to assess the positions (lateral and/or vertical) of the heater wellbores relative to the control wellbore. In some embodiments, the ranging systems are deployed inside a conduit provided into control wellbore 428A. In some embodiments, control wellbore 428A acts as a current return for electrical current flowing from heater wellbores 428D. Control wellbore 428A may include a steel casing or other metal element that allows current to flow into the wellbore. The current may be returned to the surface through control wellbore 428A to complete the electrical circuit used for ranging (as shown by the dotted lines in FIG. 18).

[0654] In certain embodiments, the position of heater wellbores 428D are further assessed using ranging from vertical wellbores 428E. Assessing the position of heater wellbores 428D relative to vertical wellbores 428E may be used to verify position data from ranging from control wellbore 428A. Vertical wellbores 428B, 428C, 428E may have depths that are at least the depth of heater wellbores 428D and/or control wellbore 428A. In certain embodiments, vertical wellbores 428E are located within about 10 m, within about 5 m, or within about 3 m of heater wellbores 428D.

[0655] After heater wellbores 428D are formed in treatment area 816, additional heater wellbores may be formed in corridor 1700A and/or corridor 1700B. The additional heater wellbores may be formed using heater wellbores 428D and/or control wellbore 428A as guides. For example, ranging systems may be located in heater wellbores 428D and/or control wellbore 428A to assess and/or adjust the relative position of the additional heater wellbores while the additional heater wellbores are being formed.

[0656] In some embodiments, central monitoring system 1702 is coupled to control wellbore 428A. In certain embodiments, central monitoring system 1702 includes a geomagnetic monitoring system. Central monitoring system 1702 may be located at a known location relative to control wellbore 428A and heater wellbores 428D. The known location may include known alignment azimuths from control wellbore 428A. For example, the known location may include north-south alignment azimuths, east-west alignment azimuths, and any heater wellbore alignment azimuth that is intended for corridor 1700A and/or corridor 1700B (for example, azimuths off the 90° angle depicted in FIG. 18). The geomagnetic monitoring system, along with the known location, may be used to calibrate individual tools used during formation of wellbores and ranging operations and/or to assess the properties of components in bottom hole assemblies or other downhole assemblies.

[0657] FIGS. 19 and 20 depict an embodiment for assessing a position of a first wellbore relative to a second wellbore using a heater assembly as a current conductor. In some embodiments, a heater may be used as a long conductor for a reference current (pulsed DC or AC) to be injected for assessing a position of a first wellbore relative to a second wellbore. If a current is injected onto an insulated internal heater element, the current may pass to the end of heater element 438 where it makes contact with heater casing 440. This is the same current path when the heater is in heating mode. Once the current passes across to bottom hole assembly 420B, at least some of the current is generally absorbed by the earth on the current's return trip back to the surface, resulting in a net current (difference in Amps in (A_i) versus Amps out (A_o).

[0658] Resulting electromagnetic field 442 is measured by sensor 432 (for example, a transceiving antenna) in bottom hole assembly 420A of first wellbore 428A being drilled in proximity to the location of heater 438. A predetermined “known” net current in the formation may be relied upon to provide a reference magnetic field.

[0659] The injection of the reference current may be rapidly pulsed and synchronized with the receiving antenna and/or sensor data. Access to a high data rate signal from the magnetometers can be used to filter the effects of sensor movement during drilling. The measurement of the reference magnetic field may provide a distance and direction to the heater. Averaging many of these results will provide the position of the actively drilled hole. The known position of the heater and known depth of the active sensors may be used to assess position coordinates of easting, northing, and elevation.

[0660] The quality of data generated with such a method may depend on the accuracy of the net current prediction along the length of the heater. Using formation resistivity data, a model may be used to predict the losses to earth along the length of the heater canister and/or wellbore casing or wellbore liner.

[0661] The current may be measured on both the element and the bottom hole assembly at the surface. The difference in values is the overall current loss to the formation. It is anticipated that the net field strength will vary along the length of the heater. The field is expected to be greater at the surface when the positive voltage applies to the bottom hole assembly.

[0662] If there are minimal losses to earth in the formation, the net field may not be strong enough to provide a useful detection range. In some embodiments, a net current in the range of about 2 A to about 50 A, about 5 A to about 40 A, or about 10 A to about 30 A, may be employed.

[0663] In some embodiments, two or more heaters are used as a long conductor for a reference current (pulsed DC or AC) to be injected for assessing a position of a first wellbore relative to a second wellbore. Utilizing two or more separate heater elements may result in relatively better control of return current path and therefore better control of reference current strength.

[0664] A two or more heater method may not rely on the accuracy of a “model of current loss to formation”, as current is contained in the heater element along the full length of the heaters. Current may be rapidly pulsed and synchronized with the transceiving antenna and/or sensor data to resolve distance and direction to the heater. FIGS. 21 and 22 depict an embodiment for assessing a position of first wellbore 428A relative to second wellbore 428B using two heater assemblies 438A and 438B as current conductors. Resulting electromagnetic field 442 is measured by sensor 432 (for example, a transceiving antenna) in bottom hole assembly 420A of first wellbore 428A being drilled in proximity to the location of heaters 438A in second wellbores 428B.

[0665] In some embodiments, parallel well tracking (PWT) may be used for assessing a position of a first wellbore relative to a second wellbore. Parallel well tracking may utilize magnets of a known strength and a known length positioned in the pre-drilled second wellbore. Magnetic sensors positioned in the active first wellbore may be used to measure the field from the magnets in the second wellbore. Measuring the generated magnetic field in the second wellbore with sensors in the first wellbore may assess distance and direction of the active first wellbore. In some embodiments, magnets positioned in the second wellbore may be carefully positioned and multiple static measurements taken to resolve any general “background” magnetic field. Background magnetic fields may be resolved through use of a null function before positioning the magnets in the second wellbore, calculating background components from known sensor attitudes, and/or a gradiometer setup.

[0666] In some embodiments, reference magnets may be positioned in the drilling bottom hole assembly of the first wellbore. Sensors may be positioned in the passive second wellbore. The prepositioned sensors may be nulled prior to the arrival of the magnets in the detectable range to eliminate Earth's background field. Nulling the sensors may significantly reduce the time required to assess the position and direction of the first wellbore during drilling as the bottom hole assembly continues drilling with no stoppages. The commercial availability of low cost sensors such as Terrella6™ (available from Clymer Technologies (Mystic, Conn., U.S.A.) (utilizing magnetoresistives rather than fluxgates) may be incorporated into the wall of a deployment coil at useful separations.

[0667] In some embodiments, multiple types of sources may be used in combination with two or more sensors to assess and adjust the drilling of one or more wellbores. A method of assessing a position of a first wellbore relative to a second wellbore may include a combination of angle sensors, telemetry, and/or ranging systems. Such a method may be referred to as umbilical position control.

[0668] Angle sensors may assess an attitude (i.e., the azimuth, inclination, and roll) of a bottom hole assembly. Assessing the attitude of a bottom hole assembly may include measuring, for example, azimuth, inclination, and/or roll. Telemetry may transmit data (for example, measurements) between the surface and, for example, sensors positioned in a wellbore. Ranging may assess the position of a bottom hole assembly in a first wellbore relative to a second wellbore. In some embodiments, the second wellbore may include an existing, previously drilled wellbore.

[0669] FIG. 23 depicts an embodiment of an umbilical positioning control system employing a magnetic gradiometer system and wellbore to wellbore wireless telemetry system. The magnetic gradiometer system may be used to resolve bottom hole assembly interference. Second transceiver 444B may be deployed from the surface down second wellbore 428B, which effectively functions as a telemetry system for first wellbore 428A. A transceiver may communicate with the surface via wire or fiber optics (for example, wire 446) coupled to the transceiver.

[0670] In first wellbore 428A, sensor 432A may be coupled to first transceiving antenna 444A. First transceiving antenna 444A may communicate with second transceiving antenna 444B in second wellbore 428B. The first transceiving antenna may be positioned on bottom hole assembly 420. Sensors coupled to the first transceiving antenna may include, for example, magnetometers and/or accelerometers. In certain embodiments, sensors coupled to the first transceiving antenna may include dual magnetometer/accelerometer sets.

[0671] To accomplish data transfer, first transceiving antenna 444A transmits (“short hops”) measured data through the ground to second transceiving antenna 444B located in the second wellbore. The data may then be transmitted to the surface via embedded wires 446 in the deployment tubular. In some embodiments, data transmission to/from the surface is provided through one or more data lines (wires) that previously exist in the deployment tubular wellbore.

[0672] Two redundant ranging systems may be utilized for umbilical control systems. A first ranging system may include a version of parallel well tracking (PWT). FIG. 24 depicts an embodiment of an umbilical positioning control system employing a magnetic gradiometer system in an existing wellbore. A PWT may include a pair of sensors 432B (for example, magnetometer/accelerometer sets) embedded in the wall of second wellbore deployment coil (the umbilical) or within a nonmagnetic section of jointed tubular string. These sensors act as a magnetic gradiometer to detect the magnetic field from reference magnet 430 installed in bottom hole assembly 420 of first wellbore 428A. In a horizontal section of the second wellbore, a relative position of the umbilical to the first wellbore reference magnet(s) may be determined by the gradient. Data may be sent to the surface through fiber optic cables or wires 446 positioned in second wellbore 428B.

[0673] FIGS. 25 and 26 depict an embodiment of umbilical positioning control system employing a combination of systems being used in a first stage of deployment and a second stage of deployment, respectively. A third set of sensors 432C (for example, magnetometers) may be located on the leading end of wire 446 in second wellbore 428B. Sensors 432B, 432C may detect magnetic fields produced by reference magnets 430 in bottom hole assembly 420 of first wellbore 428A. The role of sensors 432C may include mapping the Earth's magnetic field ahead of the arrival of the gradient sensors and confirming that the angle of the deployment tubular matches that of the originally defined hole geometry. Since the attitude of the magnetic field sensors are known based on the original survey of the hole and the checks of sensors 432B, 432C, the values for the Earth's field can be calculated based on current sensor orientation (inclinometers measure the roll and inclination and the model defines azimuth, Mag total, and Mag dip). Using this method, an estimation of the field vector due to reference magnets 430 can be calculated allowing distance and direction to be resolved.

[0674] A second ranging system may be based on using the signal strength and phase of the “through the earth” wireless link (for example, radio) established between first transceiving antenna 444A in first wellbore 428A and second transceiving antenna 444B in second wellbore 428B. Sensor 432A may be coupled to first transceiving antenna 444A. Given the close spacing of wellbores 428A, 428B and the variability in electrical properties of the formation, the attenuation rates for the electromagnetic signal may be predictable. Predictable attenuation rates for the electromagnetic signal allow the signal strength to be used as a measure of separation between first and second transceiver pairs 444A, 444B. The vector direction of the magnetic field induced by the electromagnetic transmissions from the first wellbore may provide the direction. A transceiver may communicate with the surface via wire or fiber optics (for example, wire 446) coupled to the transceiver.

[0675] With a known resistivity of the formation and operating frequency, the distance between the source and point of measurement may be calculated. FIG. 27 depicts two examples of the relationship between power received and distance based upon two different formations with different resistivities 448 and 450. If 10 W is transmitted at a 12 Hz frequency in 20 ohm-m formation 448, the power received amounts to approximately 9.10 W at 30 m distance. The resistivity was chosen at random and may vary depending on where you are in the ground. If a higher resistivity was chosen at the given frequency, such as 100 ohm-m formation 450, a lower attenuation is observed, and a low characterization occurs whereupon it receives 9.58 W at 30 m distance. Thus, high resistivity, although transmitting power desirably, shows a negative affect in electromagnetic ranging possibilities. Since the main influence in attenuation is the distance itself, calculations may be made solving for the distance between a source and a point of measurement.

[0676] The frequency of the electromagnetic source operates on is another factor that affects attenuation. Typically, the higher the frequency, the higher the attenuation and vice versa. A strategy for choosing between various frequencies may depend on the formation chosen. For example, while the attenuation at a resistivity of 100 ohm-m may be good for data communications, it may not be sufficient for distance calculations. Thus, a higher frequency may be chosen to increase attenuation. Alternatively, a lower frequency may be chosen for the opposite purpose. In some embodiments, a combination of different frequencies is used in sequence to optimize for both low and high frequency functions.

[0677] Wireless data communications in ground may allow an opportunity for electromagnetic ranging and the variable frequency it operates on must be observed to balance out benefits for both functionalities. Benefits of wireless data communication may include, but are not be limited to: 1) automatic depth sync through the use of ranging and telemetry; 2) fast communications with a dedicated coil for a transceiving antenna running in the second wellbore that is hardwired (for example, with optic fiber); 3) functioning as an alternative method for fast communication when hardwire in the first wellbore is not available; 4) functioning in under balanced and over balanced drilling; 5) providing a similar method for transmitting control commands to a bottom hole assembly; 6) reusing sensors to reduce costs and waste; 7) decreasing noise measurement functions split between the first wellbore and the second wellbore; and/or 8) using simultaneous multiple position measurement techniques to provide real time best estimates of position and attitude.

[0678] In some embodiments, it may be advisable to employ sensors able to compensate for magnetic fields produced internally by carbon steel casing built in the vertical section of a reference hole (for example, high range magnetometers). In some embodiments, modification may be made to account for problems with wireless antenna communications between wellbores penetrating through wellbore casings.

[0679] Pieces of formation or rock may protrude or fall into the wellbore due to various failures including rock breakage or plastic deformation during and/or after wellbore formation. Protrusions may interfere with drilling string movement and/or the flow of drilling fluids. Protrusions may prevent running tubulars into the wellbore after the drilling string has been removed from the wellbore. Significant amounts of material entering or protruding into the wellbore may cause wellbore integrity failure and/or lead to the drilling string becoming stuck in the wellbore. Some causes of wellbore integrity failure may be in situ stresses and high pore pressures. Mud weight may be increased to hold back the formation and inhibit wellbore integrity failure during wellbore formation. When increasing the mud weight is not practical, the wellbore may be reamed.

[0680] Reaming the wellbore may be accomplished by moving the drilling string up and down one joint while rotating and circulating. Picking the drilling string up can be difficult because of material protruding into the borehole above the bit or BHA (bottom hole assembly). Picking up the drilling string may be facilitated by placing upward facing cutting structures on the drill bit. Without upward facing cutting structures on the drill bit, the rock protruding into the borehole above the drill bit must be broken by grinding or crushing rather than by cutting. Grinding or crushing may induce additional wellbore failure.

[0681] Moving the drilling string up and down may induce surging or pressure pulses that contribute to wellbore failure. Pressure surging or fluctuations may be aggravated or made worse by blockage of normal drilling fluid flow by protrusions into the wellbore. Thus, attempts to clear the borehole of debris may cause even more debris to enter the wellbore.

[0682] When the wellbore fails further up the drilling string than one joint from the drill bit, the drilling string must be raised more than one joint. Lifting more than one joint in length may require that joints be removed from the drilling string during lifting and placed back on the drilling string when lowered. Removing and adding joints requires additional time and labor, and increases the risk of surging as circulation is stopped and started for each joint connection.

[0683] In some embodiments, cutting structures may be positioned at various points along the drilling string. Cutting structures may be positioned on the drilling string at selected locations, for example, where the diameter of the drilling string or BHA changes. FIG. 28A and FIG. 28B depict cutting structures 452 located at or near diameter changes in drilling string 418 near to drill bit 424 and/or BHA 420. As depicted in FIG. 28C, cutting structures 452 may be positioned at selected locations along the length of BHA 420 and/or drilling string 418 that has a substantially uniform diameter. Cutting structures 452 may remove formation that extends into the wellbore as the drilling string is rotated. Cuttings formed by the cutting structures 452 may be removed from the wellbore by the normal circulation used during the formation of the wellbore.

[0684] FIG. 29 depicts an embodiment of drill bit 424 including cutting structures 452. Drill bit 424 includes downward facing cutting structures 452b for forming the wellbore. Cutting structures 452a are upwardly facing cutting structures for reaming out the wellbore to remove protrusions from the wellbore.

[0685] In some embodiments, some cutting structures may be upwardly facing, some cutting structures may be downwardly facing, and/or some cutting structures may be oriented substantially perpendicular to the drilling string. FIG. 30 depicts an embodiment of a portion of drilling string 418 including upward facing cutting structures 452a, downward facing cutting structures 452b, and cutting structures 452c that are substantially perpendicular to the drilling string. Cutting structures 452a may remove protrusions extending into wellbore 428 that would inhibit upward movement of drilling string 418. Cutting structures 452a may facilitate reaming of wellbore 428 and/or removal of drilling string 418 from the wellbore for drill bit change, BHA maintenance and/or when total depth has been reached. Cutting structures 452b may remove protrusions extending into wellbore 428 that would inhibit downward movement of drilling string 418. Cutting structures 452c may ensure that enlarged diameter portions of drilling string 418 do not become stuck in wellbore 428.

[0686] Positioning downward facing cutting structures 452b at various locations along a length of the drilling string may allow for reaming of the wellbore while the drill bit forms additional borehole at the bottom of the wellbore. The ability to ream while drilling may avoid pressure surges in the wellbore caused by lifting the drilling string. Reaming while drilling allows the wellbore to be reamed without interrupting normal drilling operation. Reaming while drilling allows the wellbore to be formed in less time because a separate reaming operation is avoided. Upward facing cutting structures 452a allow for easy removal of the drilling string from the wellbore.

[0687] In some embodiments, the drilling string includes a plurality of cutting structures positioned along the length of the drilling string, but not necessarily along the entire length of the drilling string. The cutting structures may be positioned at regular or irregular intervals along the length of the drilling string. Positioning cutting structures along the length of the drilling string allows the entire wellbore to be reamed without the need to remove the entire drilling string from the wellbore.

[0688] Cutting structures may be coupled or attached to the drilling string using techniques known in the art (for example, by welding). In some embodiments, cutting structures are formed as part of a hinged ring or multi-piece ring that may be bolted, welded, or otherwise attached to the drilling string. In some embodiments, the distance that the cutting structures extend beyond the drilling string may be adjustable. For example, the cutting element of the cutting structure may include threading and a locking ring that allows for positioning and setting of the cutting element.

[0689] In some wellbores, a wash over or over-coring operation may be needed to free or recover an object in the wellbore that is stuck in the wellbore due to caving, closing, or squeezing of the formation around the object. The object may be a canister, tool, drilling string, or other item. A wash-over pipe with downward facing cutting structures at the bottom of the pipe may be used. The wash over pipe may also include upward facing cutting structures and downward facing cutting structures at locations near the end of the wash-over pipe. The additional upward facing cutting structures and downward facing cutting structures may facilitate freeing and/or recovery of the object stuck in the wellbore. The formation holding the object may be cut away rather than broken by relying on hydraulics and force to break the portion of the formation holding the stuck object.

[0690] A problem in some formations is that the formed borehole begins to close soon after the drilling string is removed from the borehole. Boreholes which close up soon after being formed make it difficult to insert objects such as tubulars, canisters, tools, or other equipment into the wellbore. In some embodiments, reaming while drilling applied to the core drilling string allows for emplacement of the objects in the center of the core drill pipe. The core drill pipe includes one or more upward facing cutting structures in addition to cutting structures located at the end of the core drill pipe. The core drill pipe may be used to form the wellbore for the object to be inserted in the formation. The object may be positioned in the core of the core drill pipe. Then, the core drill pipe may be removed from the formation. Any parts of the formation that may inhibit removal of the core drill pipe are cut by the upward facing cutting structures as the core drill pipe is removed from the formation.

[0691] Replacement canisters may be positioned in the formation using over core drill pipe. First, the existing canister to be replaced is over cored. The existing canister is then pulled from within the core drill pipe without removing the core drill pipe from the borehole. The replacement canister is then run inside of the core drill pipe. Then, the core drill pipe is removed from the borehole. Upward facing cutting structures positioned along the length of the core drill pipe cut portions of the formation that may inhibit removal of the core drill pipe.

[0692] During some in situ heat treatment processes, wellbores may need to be formed in heated formations. Wellbores may also need to be formed in hot portions of geothermally heated or other high temperature formations. Certain formations may be heated by heat sources (for example, heaters) to temperatures above ambient temperatures of the formations. In some embodiments, formations are heated to temperatures significantly above ambient temperatures of the formations. For example, a formation may be heated to a temperature at least about 50° C. above ambient temperature, at least about 100° C. above ambient temperature, at least about 200° C. above ambient temperature, or at least about 500° C. above ambient temperature. Wellbores drilled into hot formation may be additional or replacement heater wells, additional or replacement production wells, and/or monitor wells.

[0693] Cooling while drilling may enhance wellbore stability, safety, and longevity of drilling tools. When the drilling fluid is liquid, significant wellbore cooling can occur due to the circulation of the drilling fluid. Downhole cooling does not have to be applied all the way to the bottom of the wellbore to have beneficial effects. Applying cooling to only part of the drilling string and/or downhole equipment may be a trade off between benefit and the effort involved to apply the cooling to the drilling string and downhole equipment. The target of the cooling may be the formation, the drill bit, and/or the bottom hole assembly. In some embodiments, cooling of the formation is inhibited to promote wellbore stability. Cooling of the formation may be inhibited by using insulation to inhibit heat transfer from the formation to the drilling string, bottom hole assembly, and/or the drill bit. In some embodiments, insulation is used to inhibit heat transfer and/or phase changes of drilling fluid and/or cooling fluid in portions of the drilling string, bottom hole assembly, and/or the drill bit.

[0694] In some in situ heat treatment process embodiments, a barrier formed around all or a portion of the in situ heat treatment process is formed by freeze wells that form a low temperature zone around the freeze wells. A portion of the cooling capacity of the freeze well equipment may be utilized to cool the equipment needed to drill into the hot formation. A closed loop circulation system may be used to cool drilling bits and/or other downhole equipment. Drilling bits may be advanced slowly in hot sections to ensure that the formed wellbore cools sufficiently to preclude drilling problems and/or to enhance borehole stability.

[0695] When using conventional circulation, drilling fluid flows down the inside of the drilling string and back up the outside of the drilling string. Other circulation systems, such as reverse circulation, may also be used. In some embodiments, the drill pipe may be positioned in a pipe-in-pipe configuration, or a pipe-in-pipe-in-pipe configuration (for example, when a closed loop circulation system is used to cool downhole equipment).

[0696] The drilling string used to form the wellbore may function as a counter-flow heat exchanger. The deeper the well, the more the drilling fluid heats up on the way down to the drill bit as the drilling string passes through heated portions of the formation. When normal circulation does not deliver low enough temperatures drilling fluid to the drill bit to provide adequate cooling, two options may be employed to enhance cooling: mud coolers on the surface can be used to reduce the inlet temperature of the drilling fluid being pumped downhole; and, if cooling is still inadequate, an at least partially insulated drilling string can be used to reduce the counter-flow heat exchanger effect.

[0697] For various reasons including, but not limited to, lost circulation, wells are frequently drilled with gas (for example, air, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, methane, ethane, and other light hydrocarbon gases) or gas/liquid mixtures. Gas/liquid mixtures are used as the drilling fluid primarily to maintain a low equivalent circulating density (low downhole pressure gradient). Gas has low potential for cooling the wellbore because mass flow rates of gas drilling are much lower than when liquid drilling fluid is used. Also, gas has a low heat capacity compared to liquid. As a result of heat flow from the outside to the inside of the drilling string, the gas arrives at the drill bit at close to formation temperature. Controlling the inlet temperature of the gas (analogous to using mud coolers when drilling with liquid) or using insulated drilling string may marginally reduce the counter-flow heat exchanger effect when gas drilling. Some gases are more effective than others at transferring heat, but the use of gasses with better heat transfer properties may not significantly improve wellbore cooling while gas drilling.

[0698] Gas drilling may deliver the drilling fluid to the drill bit at close to the formation temperature. The gas may have little capacity to absorb heat. A feature of gas drilling is the low density column in the annulus. The benefits of gas drilling can be accomplished if the drilling fluid or a cooling fluid is liquid while flowing down the drilling string and gas while flowing back up the annulus. The heat of vaporization may be used to cool the drill bit and the formation rather than using the sensible heat of the drilling fluid to cool.

[0699] An advantage of this approach may be that even though the liquid arrives at the bit at close to formation temperature, the liquid can absorb heat by vaporizing. The heat of vaporization is typically larger than the heat that can be absorbed by a temperature rise. As a comparison, a 7⅞″ wellbore is drilled with a 3½″ drilling string circulating low density mud at about 203 gpm with about a 100 ft/min typical annular velocity. Drilling through a 450° F. zone at 1000 feet will result in a mud exit temperature about 8° F. hotter than the inlet temperature. This results in the removal of about 14,000 Btu/min. The removal of this heat lowers the bit temperature from about 450° F. to about 285° F. If liquid water is injected down the drilling string and allowed to boil at the bit and steam is produced up the annulus, the mass flow required to remove ½″ cuttings is about 34 lb_m/min assuming the back pressure is about 100 psia. At 34 lb_m/min, the heat removed from the wellbore would be about 34 lb_m/min×(1187−180) Btu/lb_m, or about 34,000 Btu/min. This heat removal amount is about 2.4 times the liquid cooling case. Thus, at reasonable annular steam flow rates, a significant amount of heat may be removed by vaporization.

[0700] The high velocities required for gas drilling may be achieved by the expansion that occurs during vaporization rather than by employing compressors on the surface. Eliminating or minimizing the need for compressors may simplify the drilling process, eliminate or lower compression costs, and eliminate or reduce a source of heat applied to the drilling fluid on the way to the drill bit.

[0701] In some embodiments, it is helpful to inhibit vaporization within the drilling string. If the drilling fluid flowing downwards vaporizes before reaching the drill bit, the heat of vaporization tends to extract heat from the drilling fluid flowing up the annulus. The heat transferred from the annulus (outside the drilling string) to inside the drilling string is heat that is not rejected from the well when drilling fluid reaches the surface. Vaporization that occurs inside of the drilling string before the drilling fluid reaches the bottom of the hole is less beneficial to drill bit and/or wellbore cooling. FIG. 31 depicts drilling fluid flow in drilling string 418 in wellbore 428 with no control of vaporization of the fluid. Liquid drilling fluid flows down drilling string 418 as indicated by arrow 1704. Liquid changes to vapor at interface 1706. Vapor flows down drilling string 418 below interface 1706 as indicated by arrow 1708. In certain embodiments, interface 1706 is a region instead of an abrupt change from liquid to vapor. Vapor and cuttings may flow up the annular region between drilling string 418 and formation 524 in the directions indicated by arrows 1710. Heat transfers from formation 524 to the vapor moving up drilling string 418 and to the drilling string. Heat from drilling string 418 transfers to liquid and vapor flowing down the drilling string.

[0702] If the pressure in the drilling string is maintained above the boiling pressure for a given temperature by use of a back pressure device, then the transfer of heat from outside the drilling string to fluid on the inside of the drilling string can be limited so that the fluid on the inside of the drilling string does not change phases. Fluid downstream of the back pressure device may be allowed to change phase. The fluid downstream the back pressure device may be partially or totally vaporized. Vaporization may result in the drilling fluid absorbing the heat of vaporization from the drill bit and formation. For example, if the back pressure device is set to allow flow only when the back pressure is above a selected pressure (for example, 250 psi for water or another pressure depending on the fluid), the fluid within the drilling string may not vaporize unless the temperature is above a selected temperature (for example, 400° F. for water or another temperature depending on the fluid). If the temperature of the formation is above the selected temperature (for example, the temperature is about 500° F.), steps may be taken to inhibit vaporization of the fluid on the way down to the drill bit. In an embodiment, the back pressure device is set to maintain a back pressure that inhibits vaporization of the drilling fluid at the temperature of the formation (for example, 580 psi to inhibit vaporization up to a temperature of 500° F. for water). In another embodiment, the drilling pipe is insulated and/or the drilling fluid is cooled so that the back pressure device is able to maintain any drilling fluid that reaches the drill bit as a liquid.

[0703] Examples of two back pressure devices that may be used to maintain elevated pressure within the drilling string are a choke and a pressure activated valve. Other types of back pressure devices may also be used. Chokes have a restriction in the flow area that creates back pressure by resisting flow. Resisting the flow results in increased upstream pressure to force the fluid through the restriction. Pressure activated valves may not open until a minimum upstream pressure is obtained. The pressure difference across a pressure activated valve may determine if the pressure activated valve is open to allow flow or the valve is closed.

[0704] In some embodiments, both a choke and a pressure activated valve may be used. A choke can be the bit nozzles allowing the liquid to be jetted toward the drill bit and the bottom of the hole. The bit nozzles may enhance drill bit cleaning and help inhibit fouling of the drill bit and pressure activated valve. Fouling may occur if boiling in the drill bit or pressure activated valve causes solids to precipitate. The pressure activated valve may inhibit premature vaporization at low flow rates such as flow rates below which the chokes are effective.

[0705] In some embodiments, additives are added to the cooling fluid or the drilling fluid. The additives may modify the properties of the fluids in the liquid phase and/or the gas phase. Additives may include, but are not limited to, surfactants to foam the fluid, additives to chemically alter the interaction of the fluid with the formations (for example, to stabilize the formation), additives to control corrosion, and additives for other benefits.

[0706] In some embodiments, a non-condensable gas is added to the cooling fluid or the drilling fluid pumped down the drilling string. The non-condensable gas may be, but is not limited to, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, air, and mixtures thereof. Adding the non-condensable gas results in pumping a two phase mixture down the drilling string. One reason for adding the non-condensable gas may be to enhance the flow of the fluid out of the formation. The presence of the non-condensable gas may inhibit condensation of the vaporized cooling or drilling fluid and/or help to carry cuttings out of the formation. In some embodiments, one or more heaters are present at one or more locations in the wellbore to provide heat that inhibits condensation and reflux of cooling or drilling fluid leaving the formation.

[0707] In certain embodiments, managed pressure drilling and/or managed volumetric drilling is used during the formation of wellbores. The back pressure on the wellbore may be held to a prescribed value to control the downhole pressure. Similarly, the volume of fluid entering and exiting the wellbore may be balanced such that there is no or minimally controlled net influx or out-flux of drilling fluid into the formation.

[0708] FIG. 32 depicts a representation of a system for forming wellbore 428 in heated formation 524. Liquid drilling fluid flows down the drilling string to bottom hole assembly 420 in the direction indicated by arrow 1704. Bottom hole assembly 420 may include back pressure device 1712. Back pressure device 1712 may include pressure activated valves and/or chokes. In some embodiments, back pressure device 1712 is adjustable. Back pressure device 1712 may be electrically coupled to bottom hole assembly 420. The control system for bottom hole assembly 420 may control the inlet flow of cooling or drilling fluid and may adjust the amount of flow through back pressure device 1712 to maintain the pressure of cooling or drilling fluid located above the back pressure device above a desired pressure. Thus, back pressure device 1712 may be operated to control vaporization of the cooling fluid. In certain embodiments, back pressure device 1712 includes a control volume. In some embodiments, the control volume is a conduit that carries the cooling fluid to bottom hole assembly 420.

[0709] The desired pressure may be a pressure sufficient to maintain cooling or drilling fluid as a liquid phase to cool drill bit 424 when the liquid phase of the cooling or drilling fluid is vaporized. At least a portion of the liquid phase of the cooling or drilling fluid may vaporize and absorb heat from drill bit 424. In certain embodiments, vaporization of the cooling fluid is controlled to control a temperature at or near bottom hole assembly 420. In some embodiments, bottom hole assembly 420 includes insulation to inhibit heat transfer from the formation to the bottom hole assembly. In some embodiments, drill bit 424 includes a conduit for flow of the cooling fluid. Vapor phase cooling or drilling fluid and cuttings may flow upwards to the surface in the direction indicated by arrow 1710.

[0710] In some embodiments, cooling fluid in a closed loop is circulated into and out of the wellbore to provide cooling to the formation, drilling string, and/or downhole equipment. In some embodiments, phase change of the cooling fluid is not utilized during cooling. In some embodiments, the cooling fluid is subjected to a phase change to cool the formation, drilling string, and/or downhole equipment.

[0711] In an embodiment, cooling fluid in a closed loop system is passed through a back pressure device and allowed to vaporize to provide cooling to a selected region. FIG. 33 depicts a representation of a system that uses phase change of a cooling fluid to provide downhole cooling. Drilling fluid may flow down the center drilling string to drill bit 424 in the direction indicated by arrow 1704. Return drilling fluid and cuttings may flow to the surface in the direction indicated by arrows 1710. Cooling fluid may flow down the annular region between center drilling string and the middle drilling string in the direction indicated by arrows 1718. The cooling fluid may pass through back pressure device 1712 to a vaporization chamber. The vaporization chamber may be located above the bottom hole assembly. Back pressure device 1712 may maintain a significant portion of cooling fluid in a liquid phase above the back pressure device. Cooling fluid is allowed to vaporize below back pressure device 1712 in the vaporization chamber. In certain embodiments, at least a majority of the cooling fluid is vaporized. Return vaporized cooling fluid may flow back to a cooling system that reliquefies the cooling fluid for subsequent usage in the drilling string and/or another drilling string. The vaporized cooling fluid may flow to the surface in the annular region between the middle drilling string and the outer drilling string in the direction indicated by arrows 1720. Liquid cooling fluid may maintain the drilling fluid flowing through the center drilling string at a temperature below the boiling temperature of the cooling fluid.

[0712] FIG. 34 depicts a representation of a system for forming wellbore 428 in heated formation 524 using reverse circulation. Drilling fluid flows down the annular region between formation 524 and outer drilling string 418 in the direction indicated by arrows 1714. Drilling fluid and cuttings pass through drill bit 424 and up center drilling string 418′ in the direction indicated by arrow 1716. Cooling fluid may flow down the annular region between outer drilling string 418 and center drilling string 418′ in the direction indicated by arrows 1718. The cooling fluid may be water or another type of cooling fluid that is able to change from a liquid phase to a vapor phase and absorb heat. The cooling fluid may flow to back pressure device 1712. Back pressure device 1712 may maintain the pressure of the cooling fluid located above the back pressure device above a pressure sufficient to maintain the cooling fluid as a liquid phase to cool drill bit 424 when the liquid phase of the drilling fluid is vaporized. Cooling fluid may pass through back pressure device 1712 into vaporization chamber 1722. Vaporization of cooling fluid may absorb heat from drill bit 424 and/or from formation 524. Vaporized cooling fluid may pass through one or more lift valves into center drilling string 418′ to help transport drilling fluid and cuttings to the surface.

[0713] In some embodiments, an auto-positioning control system in combination with a rack and pinion drilling system may be used for forming wellbores in a formation. Use of an auto-positioning control and/or measurement system in combination with a rack and pinion drilling system may allow wellbores to be drilled more accurately than drilling using manual positioning and calibration. For example, the auto-positioning system may be continuously and/or semi-continuously calibrated during drilling. FIG. 35 depicts a schematic of a portion of a system including a rack and pinion drive system. Rack and pinion drive system 1724 includes, but is not limited to, rack 1728, carriage 1764, chuck drive system 1730, and circulating sleeve 1748. Chuck drive system 1730 may hold tubular 1734. Push/pull capacity of a rack and pinion type system may allow enough force (for example, about 5 tons) to push tubulars into wellbores so that rotation of the tubulars is not necessary. A rack and pinion system may apply downward force on the drill bit. The force applied to the drill bit may be independent of the weight of the drilling string and/or collars. In certain embodiments, collar size and weight is reduced because the weight of the collars is not needed to enable drilling operations. Drilling wellbores with long horizontal portions may be performed using rack and pinion drilling systems because of the ability of the drilling systems to apply force to the drilling bit.

[0714] Rack and pinion drive system 1724 may be coupled to auto-positioning control system 1766. Auto-positioning control system 1766 may include, but is not limited to, rotary steerable systems, dual motor rotary steerable systems, and/or hole measurement systems. In some embodiments, heaters are included in tubular 1734. In some embodiments, auto-positioning measurement tools are positioned in the heaters. In some embodiments, a measurement system includes magnetic ranging and/or a non-rotating sensor.

[0715] In some embodiments, a hole measuring system includes canted accelerometers. Use of canted accelerometers may allow for surveying of a shallow portion of the formation. For example, shallow portions of the formation may have steel casing strings from drilling operations and/or other wells. The steel casings may affect the use of magnetic survey tools in determining the direction of deflection incurred during drilling. Canted accelerometers may be positioned in a bottom hole assembly with the surface as reference of string rotational position. Positioning the canted accelerometers in a bottom hole assembly may allow accurate measurement of inclination and direction of a hole regardless of the influence of nearby magnetic interference sources (for example, casing strings). In some embodiments, the relative rotational position of the tubular is monitored by measuring and tracking incremental rotation of the shaft. By monitoring the relative rotation of tubulars added to existing tubulars, more accurate positioning of tubulars may be achieved. Such monitoring may allow tubulars to be added in a continuous manner. In some embodiments, a method of drilling using a rack and pinion system includes continuous downhole measurement. A measurement system may be operated using a predetermined and constant current signal. Distance and direction are calculated continuously downhole. The results of the calculations are filtered and averaged. A best estimate final distance and direction is reported to the surface. When received on surface, the known along hole depth and source location may be combined with the calculated distance and direction to calculate X, Y & Z position data.

[0716] During drilling with jointed pipes, the time taken to shut down circulation, add the next pipe, re-establish circulation, and hole making may require a substantial amount of time, particularly when using two-phase circulation. Handling tubulars (for example, pipes) has historically been a key safety risk area where manual handling techniques have been used. Coiled tubing drilling has had some success in eliminating the need for making connections and manual tubular handling, however, the inability to rotate and the limitations on practical coil diameters may limit the extent to which it can be used.

[0717] In some embodiments, a drilling sequence is used in which tubulars are added to a string without interrupting the drilling process. Such a sequence may allow continuous rotary drilling with large diameter tubulars. A continuous rotary drilling system may include a drilling platform, which includes, but is not limited to, one or more platforms, a top drive system, and a bottom drive system. The platform may include a rack to allow multiple independent traversing of components. The top drive system may include an extended drive sub (for example, an extended drive system manufactured by American Augers, West Salem, Ohio, U.S.A.). The bottom drive system may include a chuck drive system and a hydraulic system. The bottom drive system may operate in a similar manner to a rack and pinion drilling system. The chuck drive system may be mounted on a separate carriage. The hydraulic system may include, but is not limited to, one or more motors and a circulating sleeve. The circulating sleeve may allow circulation between tubulars and the annulus. The circulating sleeve may be used to open or shut off production from various intervals in the well. In some embodiments, a system includes a tubular handling system. A tubular handling system may be automated, manually operated, or a combination thereof.

[0718] FIGS. 36A-36D depict a schematic of an illustrative continuous drilling sequence. The system used to carry out the continuous drilling sequence includes bottom drive system 1738, tubular handling system 1740, and top drive system 1742. Top drive system 1742 includes circulating sleeve 1744 and drive sub 1758. Top drive system 1740 may be, for example, a rotary drive system or a rack and pinion drive system. Bottom drive system 1738 includes circulating sleeve 1748 and chuck 1762. For example, bottom drive system 1738 may be a rack and pinion type system such as depicted in FIG. 35. In some embodiments, the chuck may be on a separate carriage system. During the sequence, new tubulars (for example, new tubular 1736) may be coupled successively, one after another, to an existing tubular (for example, existing tubular 1734). Bottom drive system 1738 and top drive system 1742 may alternate control of the drilling operation.

[0719] As the sequence commences, existing tubular 1734 is coupled to chuck 1762, and bottom drive system 1738 controls drilling. Fluid may flow through port 1750 into circulating sleeve 1748 of bottom drive system 1738. Top drive system 1742 is at reference line Y and bottom drive system 1738 is at reference line Z. It will be understood that reference lines Y and Z are shown for illustrative purposes only, and the heights of the drive systems at various stages in the sequence may be different than those depicted in FIGS. 36A-36D. As shown in FIG. 36A, new tubular 1736 may be aligned with bottom drive system 1738 using tubular handling system 1740. Once in position, top drive system 1742 may be connected to a top end (for example, a box end) of new tubular 1736.

[0720] As shown in FIG. 36B, as chuck 1762 of bottom drive system 1738 continues to control drilling, top drive system 1742 lowers and positions or drops a bottom end of new tubular 1736 in circulating sleeve 1748 (see arrows). Once new tubular 1736 is in the chamber of circulating sleeve 1748, circulation changes to top drive system 1742 and a connection is made between new tubular 1736 and existing tubular 1734. After the connection between existing tubular 1734 and new tubular 1736 is made, bottom drive system 1738 may relinquish control of the drilling process to top drive system 1742. Fluid flows through port 1746 into circulating sleeve 1744 of top drive system 1742.

[0721] As shown in FIG. 36C, with top drive system 1742 controlling the drilling process, bottom drive system 1738 may be actuated to travel upward (see arrow) toward top drive system 1742 along the length of new tubular 1736. When bottom drive system 1738 reaches the top of new tubular 1736, the new tubular may be engaged with chuck 1762 of bottom drive system 1738. Top drive system 1742 may relinquish control of the drilling process to bottom drive system 1738. Bottom drive system 1738 may resume control of the drilling operation while top drive system 1742 disconnects from the new tubular 1736. Chuck 1762 may transfer force to new tubular 1736 to continue drilling. Top drive system 1742 may be raised relative to bottom drive system 1738 (see arrow) (for example, until top drive system 1742 reaches reference line Y). As shown in FIG. 36D, bottom drive system 1738 may be lowered to push new tubular 1736 and existing tubular 1734 downward into the formation (see arrows). Bottom drive system 1738 may continue to be lowered (for example, until bottom drive system 1738 has returned to reference line Z). The sequence described above may be repeated any number of times so as to maintain continuous drilling operations.

[0722] FIG. 37 depicts a schematic of an embodiment of circulating sleeve 1748. Fluid may enter circulating sleeve 1748 through port 1750 and flow around existing tubular 1734. Fluid may remove heat away from chuck 1762 and/or tubulars. Circulating sleeve 1748 includes opening 1752. Opening 1752 allows new tubular 1736 to enter circulating sleeve 1748 so that the new tubular may be coupled to existing tubular 1734. In some embodiments, a valve is provided at opening 1752. For example, the valve may be a UBD circulation valve. Opening 1752 may include one or more tooljoints 1754. Tooljoints 1754 may guide entry of new tubular 1736 in an inner section of circulating sleeve. As new tubular 1736 enters opening 1752 of circulating sleeve 1748, fluid flow through the circulating sleeve may be under pressure. For example, fluid through the circulating sleeve may be at pressures of up to about 13.8 MPa (up to about 2000 psi).

[0723] In some embodiments, circulating sleeve 1748 may include, and/or operate in conjunction with, one or more valves. FIG. 38 depicts a schematic of system including circulating sleeve 1748, side valve 1756, and top valve 1760. Side valve 1756 may be a check valve incorporated into a side entry flow and check valve port. Top entry valve 1760 may be a check valve. Use of check valves may facilitate change of circulation entry points and creation of a seal.

[0724] As circulating system sleeve 1748 comes into proximity with drive sub 1758 (as described in FIG. 36D), fluid from top drive system 1742 may be flowing from circulating sleeve 1744 of top drive system 1742 through top valve 1760. Circulating sleeve 1748 may be pressurized and side valve 1756 may open to provide flow. Top valve 1760 may shut and/or partially close as side valve 1756 opens to provide flow to circulating sleeve 1744. Circulation may be slowed or discontinued through top drive system 1742. As circulation is stopped through top drive system 1742, top valve 1760 may close completely and all fluid may be furnished through side valve 1756 from port 1750.

[0725] In some embodiments, one piece of equipment may be used to drill multiple wellbores in a single day. The wellbores may be formed at penetration rates that are many times faster than the penetration rates using conventional drilling with drilling bits. The high penetration rate allows separate equipment to accomplish drilling and casing operations in a more efficient manner than using a one-rig approach. The high penetration rate requires accurate, near real time directional drilling control in three dimensions.

[0726] In some embodiments, high penetration rates may be attained using composite coiled tubing in combination with particle jet drilling. Particle jet drilling forms an opening in a formation by impacting the formation with high velocity fluid containing particles to remove material from the formation. The particles may function as abrasives. In addition to composite coiled tubing and particle jet drilling, a downhole electric orienter, bubble entrained mud, downhole inertial navigation, and a computer control system may be needed. Other types of drilling fluid and drilling fluid systems may be used instead of using bubble entrained mud. Such drilling fluid systems may include, but are not limited to, straight liquid circulation systems, multiphase circulation systems using liquid and gas, and/or foam circulation systems.

[0727] Composite coiled tubing has a fatigue life that is significantly greater than the fatigue life of steel coiled tubing. Composite coiled tubing is available from Airborne Composites BV (The Hague, The Netherlands). Composite coiled tubing can be used to form many boreholes in a formation. The composite coiled tubing may include integral power lines for providing electricity to downhole tools. The composite coiled tubing may include integral data lines for providing real time information regarding downhole conditions to the computer control system and for sending real time control information from the computer control system to the downhole equipment. The primary computer control system may be downhole or may be at surface.

[0728] The coiled tubing may include an abrasion resistant outer sheath. The outer sheath may inhibit damage to the coiled tubing due to sliding experienced by the coiled tubing during deployment and retrieval. In some embodiments, the coiled tubing may be rotated during use in lieu of or in addition to having an abrasion resistant outer sheath to minimize uneven wear of the composite coiled tubing.

[0729] Particle jet drilling may advantageously allow for stepped changes in the drilling rate. Drill bits are no longer needed and downhole motors are eliminated. Particle jet drilling may decouple cutting formation to form the borehole from the bottom hole assembly (BHA). Decoupling cutting formation to form the borehole from the BHA reduces the impact that variable formation properties (for example, formation dip, vugs, fractures and transition zones) have on wellbore trajectory. The decoupling lowers the required torque and thrust that would normally be required if conventional drilling bits were used to form a borehole in the formation. By decoupling cutting formation to form the borehole from the BHA, directional drilling may be reduced to orienting one or more particle jet nozzles in appropriate directions. The orientation of the BHA becomes easier with the reduced torque on the assembly from the hole making process. Additionally, particle jet drilling may be used to under ream one or more portions of a wellbore to form a larger diameter opening.

[0730] Particles may be introduced into a pressurized injection stream during particle jet drilling. The ability to achieve and circulate high particle laden fluid under pressure may facilitate the successful use of particle jet drilling. Traditional oilfield drilling and/or servicing pumps are not designed to handle the abrasive nature of the particles used for particle jet drilling for extended periods of time. Wear on the pump components may be high resulting in impractical maintenance and repairs. One type of pump that may be used for particle jet drilling is a heavy duty piston membrane pump. Heavy duty piston membrane pumps may be available from ABEL GmbH & Co. KG (Buchen, Germany). Piston membrane pumps have been used for long term, continuous pumping of slurries containing high total solids in the mining and power industries. Piston membrane pumps are similar to triplex pumps used for drilling operations in the oil and gas industry except heavy duty preformed membranes separate the slurry from the hydraulic side of the pump. In this fashion, the solids laden fluid is brought up to pressure in the injection line in one step and circulated downhole without damaging the internal mechanisms of the pump.

[0731] Another type of pump that may be used for particle jet drilling is an annular pressure exchange pump. Annular pressure exchange pumps may be available from Macmahon Mining Services Pty Ltd (Lonsdale, Australia). Annular pressure exchange pumps have been used for long term, continuous pumping of slurries containing high total solids in the mining industry. Annular pressure exchange pumps use hydraulic oil to compress a hose inside a high-strength pressure chamber in a peristaltic like way to displace the contents of the hose. Annular pressure exchange pumps may obtain continuous flow by having twin chambers. One chamber fills while the other chamber is purged.

[0732] The BHA may include a downhole electric orienter. The downhole electric orienter may allow for directional drilling by directing one or more jets or particle jet drilling nozzles in an appropriate fashion to facilitate forward hole making progress in the desired direction. The downhole electric orienter may be coupled to a computer control system through one or more integral data lines of the composite coiled tubing. Power for the downhole electric orienter may be supplied through an integral power line of the composite coiled tubing or through a battery system in the BHA.

[0733] Bubble entrained mud may be used as the drilling fluid. Bubble entrained mud may allow for particle jet drilling without raising the equivalent circulating density to unacceptable levels. A form of managed pressure drilling may be affected by varying the density of bubble entrainment. In some embodiments, particles in the drilling fluid may be separated from the drilling fluid using magnetic recovery when the particles include iron or alloys that may be influenced by magnetic fields. Bubble entrained mud may be used because using air or other gas as the drilling fluid may result in excessive wear of components from high velocity particles in the return stream. The density of the bubble entrained mud going downhole as a function of real time gains and losses of fluid may be automated using the computer control system.

[0734] In some embodiments, multiphase systems are used. For example, if gas injection rates are low enough that wear rates are acceptable, a gas-liquid circulating system may be used. Bottom hole circulating pressures may be adjusted by the computer control system. The computer control system may adjust the gas and/or liquid injection rates.

[0735] In some embodiments, pipe-in-pipe drilling is used. Pipe-in-pipe drilling may include circulating fluid through the space between the outer pipe and the inner pipe instead of between the wellbore and the drill string. Pipe-in-pipe drilling may be used if contact of the drilling fluid with one or more fresh water aquifers is not acceptable. Pipe-in-pipe drilling may be used if the density of the drilling fluid cannot be adjusted low enough to effectively reduce potential lost circulation issues.

[0736] Downhole inertial navigation may be part of the BHA. The use of downhole inertial navigation allows for determination of the position (including depth, azimuth and inclination) without magnetic sensors. Magnetic interference from casings and/or emissions from the high density of wells in the formation may interfere with a system that determines the position of the BHA based on magnet sensors.

[0737] The computer control system may receive information from the BHA. The computer control system may process the information to determine the position of the BHA. The computer control system may control drilling fluid rate, drilling fluid density, drilling fluid pressure, particle density, other variables, and/or the downhole electric orienter to control the rate of penetration and/or the direction of borehole formation.

[0738] FIG. 39 depicts a representation of an embodiment of bottom hole assembly 420 used to form an opening in the formation. Composite coiled tubing 1768 may be secured to connector 1770 of BHA 420. Connector 1770 may be coupled to combination circulation and disconnect sub 1772. Sub 1772 may include ports 1774. Sub 1772 may be coupled to tractor system 1776. Tractor system 1776 may include a plurality of grippers 1778 and ram 1780. Tractor system 1776 may be coupled to sensor sub 1782 that includes inertial navigation sensors, pressure sensors, temperature sensors and/or other sensors. Sensor sub 1782 may be coupled to orienter 1784. Orienter 1784 may be coupled to jet head 1786. Jet head 1786 may include centralizers 1788. Other BHA embodiments may include other components and/or the same components in a different order.

[0739] In some embodiments, the jet head is rotated during use. The BHA may include a motor for rotating the jet head. FIG. 40 depicts an embodiment of jet head 1786 with multiple nozzles 1790. The motor in the BHA may rotate jet head 1786 in the direction indicated by the arrow. Nozzles 1790 may direct particle jet streams 1792 against the formation. FIG. 41 depicts an embodiment of jet head 1786 with single nozzles 1790. Nozzle 1790 may direct particle jet stream 1792 against the formation.

[0740] In some embodiments, the jet head is not rotated during use. FIG. 42 depicts an embodiment of non-rotational jet head 1786. Jet head 1786 may include one or more nozzles 1790 that direct particle jet streams against the formation.

[0741] Direction change of the wellbore formed by the BHA may be controlled in a number of ways. FIG. 43 depicts a representation wherein the BHA includes an electrical orienter 1784. Electrical orienter 1784 adjusts angle θ between a back portion of the BHA and jet head 1786 that allows the BHA to form the opening in the direction indicated by arrow 1794. FIG. 44 depicts a representation wherein jet head 1786 includes directional jets 1796 around the circumference of the jet head. Directing fluid through one or more of the directional jets 1796 applies a force in the direction indicated by arrow 1798 to jet head 1786 that moves the jet head so that one or more jets of the jet head form the wellbore in the direction indicated by arrow 1794.

[0742] In some embodiments, the tractor system of the BHA may be used to change the direction of wellbore formation. FIG. 45 depicts tractor system 1776 in use to change the direction of wellbore formation to the direction indicated by arrow 1794. One or more grippers of the rear gripper assembly may be extended to contact the formation and establish a desired angle of jet head. Ram 1780 may be extended to move jet head forward. When ram 1780 is fully extended, grippers of the front gripper assembly may be extended to contact the formation, and grippers of the read gripper assembly may be retracted to allow the ram to be compressed. Force may be applied to the coiled tubing to compress ram 1780. When the ram is compressed, grippers of the front gripper assembly may be retracted, and grippers of the rear gripper assembly may be extended to contact the formation and set the jet head in the desired direction. Additional wellbore may be formed by directing particle jets through the jet head while extending ram 1780.

[0743] In some embodiments, robots are used to perform a task in a wellbore formed or being formed using composite coiled tubing. The task may be, but is not limited to, providing traction to move the coiled tubing, surveying, removing cuttings, logging, and/or freeing pipe. For example, a robot may be used when drilling a horizontal opening if enough weight cannot be applied to the BHA to advance the coiled tubing and BHA in the formed borehole. The robot may be sent down the borehole. The robot may clamp to the composite coiled tubing or BHA. Portions of the robot may extend to engage the formation. Traction between the robot and the formation may be used to advance the robot forward so that the composite coiled tubing and the BHA advance forward. The displacement data from the forward advancement of the BHA using the robot may be supplied directly to the inertial navigation system to improve accuracy of the opening being formed.

[0744] The robots may be battery powered. To use the robot, drilling could be stopped, and the robot could be connected to the outside of the composite coiled tubing. The robot would run along the outside of the composite coiled tubing to the bottom of the hole. If needed, the robot could electrically couple to the BHA. The robot could couple to a contact plate on the BHA. The BHA may include a step-down transformer that brings the high voltage, low current electricity supplied to the BHA to a lower voltage and higher current (for example, one third the voltage and three times the amperage supplied to the BHA). The lower voltage, higher current electricity supplied from the step-down transformer may be used to recharge the batteries of the robot. In some embodiments, the robot may function while coupled to the BHA. The batteries may supply sufficient energy for the robot to travel to the drill bit and back to the surface.

[0745] A robot may be run integral to the BHA on the end of the composite coiled tubing. Portions of the robot may extend to engage the formation. Traction between the robot and the formation may be used to advance the robot forward so that the composite coiled tubing and the BHA advance forward. The integral robot could be battery powered, could be powered by the composite coiled tubing power lines or could be hydraulically powered by flow through the BHA.

[0746] FIG. 46 depicts a perspective representation of opened robot 1800. Robot 1800 may be used for propelling the BHA forward in the wellbore. Robot 1800 may include electronics, a battery, and a drive mechanism such as wheels, chains, treads, or other mechanism for advancing the robot forward. The battery and the electronics may be power the drive mechanism. Robot 1800 may be placed around composite coiled tubing and closed. Robot 1800 may travel down the composite coiled tubing but cannot pass over the BHA. FIG. 47 depicts a representation of robot attached to composite coiled tubing 1768 and abutting BHA 420. When robot 1800 reaches BHA 420, the robot may electrically couple to the BHA. BHA 420 may supply power to the robot to power the drive mechanism and/or recharge the battery of the robot. BHA 420 may send control signals to the electronics of robot 1800 that control the operation of the robot when the robot is coupled to the BHA. The control signals provided by BHA 420 may instruct robot 1800 to move forward to move the BHA forward.

[0747] Some wellbores formed in the formation may be used to facilitate formation of a perimeter barrier around a treatment area. Heat sources in the treatment area may heat hydrocarbons in the formation within the treatment area. The perimeter barrier may be, but is not limited to, a low temperature or frozen barrier formed by freeze wells, a wax barrier formed in the formation, dewatering wells, a grout wall formed in the formation, a sulfur cement barrier, a barrier formed by a gel produced in the formation, a barrier formed by precipitation of salts in the formation, a barrier formed by a polymerization reaction in the formation, and/or sheets driven into the formation. Heat sources, production wells, injection wells, dewatering wells, and/or monitoring wells may be installed in the treatment area defined by the barrier prior to, simultaneously with, or after installation of the barrier.

[0748] A low temperature zone around at least a portion of a treatment area may be formed by freeze wells. In an embodiment, refrigerant is circulated through freeze wells to form low temperature zones around each freeze well. The freeze wells are placed in the formation so that the low temperature zones overlap and form a low temperature zone around the treatment area. The low temperature zone established by freeze wells is maintained below the freezing temperature of aqueous fluid in the formation. Aqueous fluid entering the low temperature zone freezes and forms the frozen barrier. In other embodiments, the freeze barrier is formed by batch operated freeze wells. A cold fluid, such as liquid nitrogen, is introduced into the freeze wells to form low temperature zones around the freeze wells. The fluid is replenished as needed.

[0749] In some embodiments, two or more rows of freeze wells are located about all or a portion of the perimeter of the treatment area to form a thick interconnected low temperature zone. Thick low temperature zones may be formed adjacent to areas in the formation where there is a high flow rate of aqueous fluid in the formation. The thick barrier may ensure that breakthrough of the frozen barrier established by the freeze wells does not occur.

[0750] In some embodiments, a double barrier system is used to isolate a treatment area. The double barrier system may be formed with a first barrier and a second barrier. The first barrier may be formed around at least a portion of the treatment area to inhibit fluid from entering or exiting the treatment area. The second barrier may be formed around at least a portion of the first barrier to isolate an inter-barrier zone between the first barrier and the second barrier. The inter-barrier zone may have a thickness from about 1 m to about 300 m. In some embodiments, the thickness of the inter-barrier zone is from about 10 m to about 100 m, or from about 20 m to about 50 m.

[0751] The double barrier system may allow greater project depths than a single barrier system. Greater depths are possible with the double barrier system because the stepped differential pressures across the first barrier and the second barrier is less than the differential pressure across a single barrier. The smaller differential pressures across the first barrier and the second barrier make a breach of the double barrier system less likely to occur at depth for the double barrier system as compared to the single barrier system. In some embodiments, additional barriers may be positioned to connect the inner barrier to the outer barrier. The additional barriers may further strengthen the double barrier system and define compartments that limit the amount of fluid that can pass from the inter-barrier zone to the treatment area should a breach occur in the first barrier.

[0752] The first barrier and the second barrier may be the same type of barrier or different types of barriers. In some embodiments, the first barrier and the second barrier are formed by freeze wells. In some embodiments, the first barrier is formed by freeze wells, and the second barrier is a grout wall. The grout wall may be formed of cement, sulfur, sulfur cement, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, a portion of the first barrier and/or a portion of the second barrier is a natural barrier, such as an impermeable rock formation.

[0753] In some embodiments, one or both barriers may be formed from wellbores positioned in the formation. The position of the wellbores used to form the second barrier may be adjusted relative to the wellbores used to form the first barrier to limit a separation distance between a breach or portion of the barrier that is difficult to form and the nearest wellbore. For example, if freeze wells are used to form both barriers of a double barrier system, the position of the freeze wells may be adjusted to facilitate formation of the barriers and limit the distance between a potential breach and the closest wells to the breach. Adjusting the position of the wells of the second barrier relative to the wells of the first barrier may also be used when one or more of the barriers are barriers other than freeze barriers (for example, dewatering wells, cement barriers, grout barriers, and/or wax barriers).

[0754] In some embodiments, wellbores for forming the first barrier are formed in a row in the formation. During formation of the wellbores, logging techniques and/or analysis of cores may be used to determine the principal fracture direction and/or the direction of water flow in one or more layers of the formation. In some embodiments, two or more layers of the formation may have different principal fracture directions and/or the directions of water flow that need to be addressed. In such formations, three or more barriers may need to be formed in the formation to allow for formation of the barriers that inhibit inflow of formation fluid into the treatment area or outflow of formation fluid from the treatment area. Barriers may be formed to isolate particular layers in the formation.

[0755] The principal fracture direction and/or the direction of water flow may be used to determine the placement of wells used to form the second barrier relative to the wells used to form the first barrier. The placement of the wells may facilitate formation of the first barrier and the second barrier.

[0756] FIG. 48 depicts a schematic representation of barrier wells 200 used to form a first barrier and barrier wells 200′ used to form a second barrier when the principal fracture direction and/or the direction of water flow is at angle A relative to the first barrier. The principal fracture direction and/or direction of water flow is indicated by arrow 1802. The case where angle A is 0 is the case where the principal fracture direction and/or the direction of water flow is substantially normal to the barriers. Spacing between two adjacent barrier wells 200 of the first barrier or between barrier wells 200′ of the second barrier are indicated by distance s. The spacing s may be 2 m, 3 m, 10 m or greater. Distance d indicates the separation distance between the first barrier and the second barrier. Distance d may be less than s, equal to s, or greater than s. Barrier wells 200′ of the second barrier may have offset distance od relative to barrier wells 200 of the first barrier. Offset distance od may be calculated by the equation:
od=s/2−d*tan(A)  (EQN. 1)

[0757] Using the od according to EQN. 1 maintains a maximum separation distance of s/4 between a barrier well and a regular fracture extending between the barriers. Having a maximum separation distance of s/4 by adjusting the offset distance based on the principal fracture direction and/or the direction of water flow may enhance formation of the first barrier and/or second barrier. Having a maximum separation distance of s/4 by adjusting the offset distance of wells of the second barrier relative to the wells of the first barrier based on the principal fracture direction and/or the direction of water flow may reduce the time needed to reform the first barrier and/or the second barrier should a breach of the first barrier and/or the second barrier occur.

[0758] In some embodiments, od may be set at a value between the value generated by EQN. 1 and the worst case value. The worst case value of od may be if barrier wells 200 of the first freeze barrier and barrier wells 200′ of the second barrier are located along the principal fracture direction and/or direction of water flow (i.e., along arrow 1802). In such a case, the maximum separation distance would be s/2. Having a maximum separation distance of s/2 may slow the time needed to form the first barrier and/or the second barrier, or may inhibit formation of the barriers.

[0759] In some embodiments, the barrier wells for the treatment area are freeze wells. Vertically positioned freeze wells and/or horizontally positioned freeze wells may be positioned around sides of the treatment area. If the upper layer (the overburden) or the lower layer (the underburden) of the formation is likely to allow fluid flow into the treatment area or out of the treatment area, horizontally positioned freeze wells may be used to form an upper and/or a lower barrier for the treatment area. In some embodiments, an upper barrier and/or a lower barrier may not be necessary if the upper layer and/or the lower layer are at least substantially impermeable. If the upper freeze barrier is formed, portions of heat sources, production wells, injection wells, and/or dewatering wells that pass through the low temperature zone created by the freeze wells forming the upper freeze barrier wells may be insulated and/or heat traced so that the low temperature zone does not adversely affect the functioning of the heat sources, production wells, injection wells and/or dewatering wells passing through the low temperature zone.

[0760] FIG. 49 depicts an embodiment of freeze well 466. Freeze well 466 may include canister 468, inlet conduit 470, spacers 472, and wellcap 474. Spacers 472 may position inlet conduit 470 in canister 468 so that an annular space is formed between the canister and the conduit. Spacers 472 may promote turbulent flow of refrigerant in the annular space between inlet conduit 470 and canister 468, but the spacers may also cause a significant fluid pressure drop. Turbulent fluid flow in the annular space may be promoted by roughening the inner surface of canister 468, by roughening the outer surface of inlet conduit 470, and/or by having a small cross-sectional area annular space that allows for high refrigerant velocity in the annular space. In some embodiments, spacers are not used. Wellhead 476 may suspend canister 468 in wellbore 428.

[0761] Formation refrigerant may flow through cold side conduit 478 from a refrigeration unit to inlet conduit 470 of freeze well 466. The formation refrigerant may flow through an annular space between inlet conduit 470 and canister 468 to warm side conduit 480. Heat may transfer from the formation to canister 468 and from the canister to the formation refrigerant in the annular space. Inlet conduit 470 may be insulated to inhibit heat transfer to the formation refrigerant during passage of the formation refrigerant into freeze well 466. In an embodiment, inlet conduit 470 is a high density polyethylene tube. At cold temperatures, some polymers may exhibit a large amount of thermal contraction. For example, a 260 m initial length of polyethylene conduit subjected to a temperature of about −25° C. may contract by 6 m or more. If a high density polyethylene conduit, or other polymer conduit, is used, the large thermal contraction of the material must be taken into account in determining the final depth of the freeze well. For example, the freeze well may be drilled deeper than needed, and the conduit may be allowed to shrink back during use. In some embodiments, inlet conduit 470 is an insulated metal tube. In some embodiments, the insulation may be a polymer coating, such as, but not limited to, polyvinylchloride, high density polyethylene, and/or polystyrene.

[0762] Freeze well 466 may be introduced into the formation using a coiled tubing rig. In an embodiment, canister 468 and inlet conduit 470 are wound on a single reel. The coiled tubing rig introduces the canister and inlet conduit 470 into the formation. In an embodiment, canister 468 is wound on a first reel and inlet conduit 470 is wound on a second reel. The coiled tubing rig introduces canister 468 into the formation. Then, the coiled tubing rig is used to introduce inlet conduit 470 into the canister. In other embodiments, freeze well is assembled in sections at the wellbore site and introduced into the formation.

[0763] An insulated section of freeze well 466 may be placed adjacent to overburden 482. An uninsulated section of freeze well 466 may be placed adjacent to layer or layers 484 where a low temperature zone is to be formed. In some embodiments, uninsulated sections of the freeze wells may be positioned adjacent only to aquifers or other permeable portions of the formation that would allow fluid to flow into or out of the treatment area. Portions of the formation where uninsulated sections of the freeze wells are to be placed may be determined using analysis of cores and/or logging techniques.

[0764] FIG. 50 depicts an embodiment of the lower portion of freeze well 466. Freeze well may include canister 468, and inlet conduit 470. Latch pin 486 may be welded to canister 468. Latch pin 486 may include tapered upper end 488 and groove 490. Tapered upper end 488 may facilitate placement of a latch of inlet conduit 470 on latch pin 486. A spring ring of the latch may be positioned in groove 490 to couple inlet conduit 470 to canister 468.

[0765] Inlet conduit 470 may include plastic portion 492, transition piece 494, outer sleeve 496, and inner sleeve 498. Plastic portion 492 may be a plastic conduit that carries refrigerant into freeze well 466. In some embodiments, plastic portion 492 is high density polyethylene pipe.

[0766] Transition piece 494 may be a transition between plastic portion 492 and outer sleeve 496. A plastic end of transition piece 494 may be fusion welded to the end of plastic portion 492. A metal portion of transition piece may be butt welded to outer sleeve 496. In some embodiments, the metal portion and outer sleeve 496 are formed of 304 stainless steel. Other material may be used in other embodiments. Transition pieces 494 may be available from Central Plastics Company (Shawnee, Okla., U.S.A.).

[0767] In some embodiments, outer sleeve 496 may include stop 500. Stop 500 may engage a stop of inner sleeve 498 to limit a bottom position of the outer sleeve relative to the inner sleeve. In some embodiments, outer sleeve 496 may include opening 502. Opening 502 may align with a corresponding opening in inner sleeve 498. A shear pin may be positioned in the openings during insertion of inlet conduit 470 in canister 468 to inhibit movement of outer sleeve 496 relative to inner sleeve 498. Shear pin is strong enough to support the weight of inner sleeve 498, but weak enough to shear due to force applied to the shear pin when outer sleeve 496 moves upwards in the wellbore due to thermal contraction or during installation of the inlet conduit after inlet conduit is coupled to canister 468.

[0768] Inner sleeve 498 may be positioned in outer sleeve 496. Inner sleeve has a length sufficient to inhibit separation of the inner sleeve from outer sleeve 496 when inlet conduit has fully contracted due to exposure of the inlet conduit to low temperature refrigerant. Inner sleeve 498 may include a plurality of slip rings 504 held in place by positioners 506, a plurality of openings 508, stop 510, and latch 512. Slip rings 504 may position inner sleeve 498 relative to outer sleeve 496 and allow the outer sleeve to move relative to the inner sleeve. In some embodiments, slip rings 504 are TEFLON® rings, such as polytetrafluoroethylene rings. Slip rings 504 may be made of different material in other embodiments. Positioners 506 may be steel rings welded to inner sleeve. Positioners 506 may be thinner than slip rings 504. Positioners 506 may inhibit movement of slip rings 504 relative to inner sleeve 498.

[0769] Openings 508 may be formed in a portion of inner sleeve 498 near the bottom of the inner sleeve. Openings 508 may allow refrigerant to pass from inlet conduit 470 to canister 468. A majority of refrigerant flowing through inlet conduit 470 may pass through openings 508 to canister 468. Some refrigerant flowing through inlet conduit 470 may pass to canister 468 through the space between inner sleeve 498 and outer sleeve 496.

[0770] Stop 510 may be located above openings 508. Stop 510 interacts with stop 500 of outer sleeve 496 to limit the downward movement of the outer sleeve relative to inner sleeve 498.

[0771] Latch 512 may be welded to the bottom of inner sleeve 498. Latch 512 may include flared opening 514 that engages tapered end 488 of latch pin 486. Latch 512 may include spring ring 516 that snaps into groove 490 of latch pin 486 to couple inlet conduit 470 to canister 468.

[0772] To install freeze well 466, a wellbore is formed in the formation and canister 468 is placed in the wellbore. The bottom of canister 468 has latch pin 486. Transition piece is fusion welded to an end of coiled plastic portion 492 of inlet conduit 470. Latch 512 is placed in canister 468 and inlet conduit is spooled into the canister. Spacers may be coupled to plastic portion 492 at selected positions. Latch may be lowered until flared opening 514 engages tapered end 488 of latch pin 486 and spring ring 516 snaps into the groove of the latch pin. After spring ring 516 engages latch pin 486, inlet conduit 470 may be moved upwards to shear the pin joining outer sleeve 496 to inner sleeve 498. Inlet conduit 470 may be coupled to the refrigerant supply piping and canister may be coupled to the refrigerant return piping.

[0773] If needed, inlet conduit 470 may be removed from canister 468. Inlet conduit may be pulled upwards to separate outer sleeve 496 from inner sleeve 498. Plastic portion 492, transition piece 494, and outer sleeve 496 may be pulled out of canister 468. A removal instrument may be lowered into canister 468. The removal instrument may secure to inner sleeve 498. The removal instrument may be pulled upwards to pull spring ring 516 of latch 512 out of groove 490 of latch pin 486. The removal tool may be withdrawn out of canister 468 to remove inner sleeve 498 from the canister.

[0774] Grout, wax, polymer or other material may be used in combination with freeze wells to provide a barrier for the in situ heat treatment process. The material may fill cavities (vugs) in the formation and reduces the permeability of the formation. The material may have higher thermal conductivity than gas and/or formation fluid that fills cavities in the formation. Placing material in the cavities may allow for faster low temperature zone formation. The material may form a perpetual barrier in the formation that may strengthen the formation. The use of material to form the barrier in unconsolidated or substantially unconsolidated formation material may allow for larger well spacing than is possible without the use of the material. The combination of the material and the low temperature zone formed by freeze wells may constitute a double barrier for environmental regulation purposes. In some embodiments, the material is introduced into the formation as a liquid, and the liquid sets in the formation to form a solid. The material may be, but is not limited to, fine cement, micro fine cement, sulfur, sulfur cement, viscous thermoplastics, and/or waxes. The material may include surfactants, stabilizers or other chemicals that modify the properties of the material. For example, the presence of surfactant in the material may promote entry of the material into small openings in the formation.

[0775] Material may be introduced into the formation through freeze well wellbores. The material may be allowed to set. The integrity of the wall formed by the material may be checked. The integrity of the material wall may be checked by logging techniques and/or by hydrostatic testing. If the permeability of a section formed by the material is too high, additional material may be introduced into the formation through freeze well wellbores. After the permeability of the section is sufficiently reduced, freeze wells may be installed in the freeze well wellbores.

[0776] Material may be injected into the formation at a pressure that is high, but below the fracture pressure of the formation. In some embodiments, injection of material is performed in 16 m increments in the freeze wellbore. Larger or smaller increments may be used if desired. In some embodiments, material is only applied to certain portions of the formation. For example, material may be applied to the formation through the freeze wellbore only adjacent to aquifer zones and/or to relatively high permeability zones (for example, zones with a permeability greater than about 0.1 darcy). Applying material to aquifers may inhibit migration of water from one aquifer to a different aquifer. For material placed in the formation through freeze well wellbores, the material may inhibit water migration between aquifers during formation of the low temperature zone. The material may also inhibit water migration between aquifers when an established low temperature zone is allowed to thaw.

[0777] In some embodiments, the material used to form a barrier may be fine cement and micro fine cement. Cement may provide structural support in the formation. Fine cement may be ASTM type 3 Portland cement. Fine cement may be less expensive than micro fine cement. In an embodiment, a freeze wellbore is formed in the formation. Selected portions of the freeze wellbore are grouted using fine cement. Then, micro fine cement is injected into the formation through the freeze wellbore. The fine cement may reduce the permeability down to about 10 millidarcy. The micro fine cement may further reduce the permeability to about 0.1 millidarcy. After the grout is introduced into the formation, a freeze wellbore canister may be inserted into the formation. The process may be repeated for each freeze well that will be used to form the barrier.

[0778] In some embodiments, fine cement is introduced into every other freeze wellbore. Micro fine cement is introduced into the remaining wellbores. For example, grout may be used in a formation with freeze wellbores set at about 5 m spacing. A first wellbore is drilled and fine cement is introduced into the formation through the wellbore. A freeze well canister is positioned in the first wellbore. A second wellbore is drilled 10 m away from the first wellbore. Fine cement is introduced into the formation through the second wellbore. A freeze well canister is positioned in the second wellbore. A third wellbore is drilled between the first wellbore and the second wellbore. In some embodiments, grout from the first and/or second wellbores may be detected in the cuttings of the third wellbore. Micro fine cement is introduced into the formation through the third wellbore. A freeze wellbore canister is positioned in the third wellbore. The same procedure is used to form the remaining freeze wells that will form the barrier around the treatment area.

[0779] In some embodiments, material including wax is used to form a barrier in a formation. Wax barriers may be formed in wet, dry, or oil wetted formations. Wax barriers may be formed above, at the bottom of, and/or below the water table. Material including liquid wax introduced into the formation may permeate into adjacent rock and fractures in the formation. The material may permeate into rock to fill microscopic as well as macroscopic pores and vugs in the rock. The wax solidifies to form a barrier that inhibits fluid flow into or out of a treatment area. A wax barrier may provide a minimal amount of structural support in the formation. Molten wax may reduce the strength of poorly consolidated soil by reducing inter-grain friction so that the poorly consolidated soil sloughs or liquefies. Poorly consolidated layers may be consolidated by use of cement or other binding agents before introduction of molten wax.

[0780] In some embodiments, the formation where a wax barrier is to be established is dewatered before and/or during formation of the wax barrier. In some embodiments, the portion of the formation where the wax barrier is to form is dewatered or diluted to remove or reduce saline water that could adversely affect the properties of the material introduced into the formation to form the wax barrier.

[0781] In some embodiments, water is introduced into the formation during formation of the wax barrier. Water may be introduced into the formation when the barrier is to be formed below the water table or in a dry portion of the formation. The water may be used to heat the formation to a desired temperature before introducing the material that forms the wax barrier. The water may be introduced at an elevated temperature and/or the water may be heated in the formation from one or more heaters.

[0782] The wax of the barrier may be a branched paraffin to inhibit biological degradation of the wax. The wax may include stabilizers, surfactants or other chemicals that modify the physical and/or chemical properties of the wax. The physical properties may be tailored to meet specific needs. The wax may melt at a relative low temperature (for example, the wax may have a typical melting point of about 52° C.). The temperature at which the wax congeals may be at least 5° C., 10° C., 20° C., or 30° C. above the ambient temperature of the formation prior to any heating of the formation. When molten, the wax may have a relatively low viscosity (for example, 4 to 10 cp at about 99° C.). The flash point of the wax may be relatively high (for example, the flash point may be over 204° C.). The wax may have a density less than the density of water and may have a heat capacity that is less than half the heat capacity of water. The solid wax may have a low thermal conductivity (for example, about 0.18 W/m ° C.) So that the solid wax is a thermal insulator. Waxes suitable for forming a barrier are available as WAXFIX™ from Carter Technologies Company (Sugar Land, Tex., U.S.A.). WAXFIX™ is very resistant to microbial attack. WAXFIX™ may have a half life of greater than 5000 years.

[0783] In some embodiments, a wax barrier or wax barriers may be used as the barriers for the in situ heat treatment process. In some embodiments, a wax barrier may be used in conjunction with freeze wells that form a low temperature barrier around the treatment area. In some embodiments, the wax barrier is formed and freeze wells are installed in the wellbores used for introducing wax into the formation. In some embodiments, the wax barrier is formed in wellbores offset from the freeze well wellbores. The wax barrier may be on the outside or the inside of the freeze wells. In some embodiments, a wax barrier may be formed on both the inside and outside of the freeze wells. The wax barrier may inhibit water flow in the formation that would inhibit the formation of the low temperature zone by the freeze wells. In some embodiments, a wax barrier is formed in the inter-barrier zone between two freeze barriers of a double barrier system.

[0784] Material used to form the wax barrier may be introduced into the formation through wellbores. The wellbores may include vertical wellbores, slanted wellbores, and/or horizontal wellbores (for example, wellbores with sections that are horizontally or near horizontally oriented). The use of vertical wellbores, slanted wellbores, and/or horizontal wellbores for forming the wax barrier allows the formation of a barrier that seals both horizontal and vertical fractures.

[0785] Wellbores may be formed in the formation around the treatment area at a close spacing. In some embodiments, the spacing is from about 1.5 m to about 4 m. Larger or smaller spacings may be used. Low temperature heaters may be inserted in the wellbores. The heaters may operate at temperatures from about 260° C. to about 320° C. so that the temperature at the formation face is below the pyrolysis temperature of hydrocarbons in the formation. The heaters may be activated to heat the formation until the overlap between two adjacent heaters raises the temperature of the zone between the two heaters above the melting temperature of the wax. Heating the formation to obtain superposition of heat with a temperature above the melting temperature of the wax may take one month, two months, or longer. After heating, the heaters may be turned off. In some embodiments, the heaters are downhole antennas that operate at about 10 MHz to heat the formation.

[0786] After heating, the material used to form the wax barrier may be introduced into the wellbores to form the barrier. The material may flow into the formation and fill any fractures and porosity that has been heated. The wax in the material congeals when the wax flows to cold regions beyond the heated circumference. This wax barrier formation method may form a more complete barrier than some other methods of wax barrier formation, but the time for heating may be longer than for some of the other methods. Also, if a low temperature barrier is to be formed with the freeze wells placed in the wellbores used for injection of the material used to form the barrier, the freeze wells will have to remove the heat supplied to the formation to allow for introduction of the material used to form the barrier. The low temperature barrier may take longer to form.

[0787] In some embodiments, the wax barrier may be formed using a conduit placed in the wellbore. FIG. 51 depicts an embodiment of a system for forming a wax barrier in a formation. Wellbore 428 may extend into one or more layers 484 below overburden 482. Wellbore 428 may be an open wellbore below overburden 482. One or more of the layers 484 may include fracture systems 518. One or more of the layers may be vuggy so that the layer or a portion of the layer has a high porosity. Conduit 520 may be positioned in wellbore 428. In some embodiments, low temperature heater 522 may be strapped or attached to conduit 520. In some embodiments, conduit 520 may be a heater element. Heater 522 may be operated so that the heater does not cause pyrolysis of hydrocarbons adjacent to the heater. At least a portion of wellbore 428 may be filled with fluid. The fluid may be formation fluid or water. Heater 522 may be activated to heat the fluid. A portion of the heated fluid may move outwards from heater 522 into the formation. The heated fluid may be injected into the fractures and permeable vuggy zones. The heated fluid may be injected into the fractures and permeable vuggy zones by introducing heated barrier material into wellbore 428 in the annular space between conduit 520 and the wellbore. The introduced material flows to the areas heated by the fluid and congeals when the fluid reaches cold regions not heated by the fluid. The material fills fracture systems 518 and permeable vuggy pathways heated by the fluid, but the material may not permeate through a significant portion of the rock matrix as when the hot material is introduced into a heated formation as described above. The material flows into fracture systems 518 a sufficient distance to join with material injected from an adjacent well so that a barrier to fluid flow through the fracture systems forms when the wax congeals. A portion of material may congeal along the wall of a fracture or a vug without completely blocking the fracture or filling the vug. The congealed material may act as an insulator and allow additional liquid wax to flow beyond the congealed portion to penetrate deeply into the formation and form blockages to fluid flow when the material cools below the melting temperature of the wax in the material.

[0788] Material in the annular space of wellbore 428 between conduit 520 and the formation may be removed through conduit by displacing the material with water or other fluid. Conduit 520 may be removed and a freeze well may be installed in the wellbore. This method may use less material than the method described above. The heating of the fluid may be accomplished in less than a week or within a day. The small amount of heat input may allow for quicker formation of a low temperature barrier if freeze wells are to be positioned in the wellbores used to introduce material into the formation.

[0789] In some embodiments, a heater may be suspended in the well without a conduit that allows for removal of excess material from the wellbore. The material may be introduced into the well. After material introduction, the heater may be removed from the well. In some embodiments, a conduit may be positioned in the wellbore, but a heater may not be coupled to the conduit. Hot material may be circulated through the conduit so that the wax enters fractures systems and/or vugs adjacent to the wellbore.

[0790] In some embodiments, material may be used during the formation of a wellbore to improve inter-zonal isolation and protect a low-pressure zone from inflow from a high-pressure zone. During wellbore formation where a high pressure zone and a low pressure zone are penetrated by a common wellbore, it is possible for fluid from the high pressure zone to flow into the low pressure zone and cause an underground blowout. To avoid this, the wellbore may be formed through the first zone. Then, an intermediate casing may be set and cemented through the first zone. Setting casing may be time consuming and expensive. Instead of setting a casing, material may be introduced to form a wax barrier that seals the first zone. The material may also inhibit or prevent mixing of high salinity brines from lower, high pressure zones with fresher brines in upper, lower pressure zones.

[0791] FIG. 52A depicts wellbore 428 drilled to a first depth in formation 524. After the surface casing for wellbore 428 is set and cemented in place, the wellbore is drilled to the first depth which passes through a permeable zone, such as an aquifer. The permeable zone may be fracture system 518′. In some embodiments, a heater is placed in wellbore 428 to heat the vertical interval of fracture system 518′. In some embodiments, hot fluid is circulated in wellbore 428 to heat the vertical interval of fracture system 518′. After heating, molten material is pumped down wellbore 428. The molten material flows a selected distance into fracture system 518′ before the material cools sufficiently to solidify and form a seal. The molten material is introduced into formation 524 at a pressure below the fracture pressure of the formation. In some embodiments, pressure is maintained on the wellhead until the material has solidified. In some embodiments, the material is allowed to cool until the material in wellbore 428 is almost to the congealing temperature of the material. The material in wellbore 428 may then be displaced out of the wellbore. Wax in the material makes the portion of formation 524 near wellbore 428 into a substantially impermeable zone. Wellbore 428 may be drilled to depth through one or more permeable zones that are at higher pressures than the pressure in the first permeable zone, such as fracture system 518″. Congealed wax in fracture system 518′ may inhibit blowout into the lower pressure zone. FIG. 52B depicts wellbore 428 drilled to depth with congealed wax 526 in formation 524.

[0792] In some embodiments, a material including wax may be used to contain and inhibit migration in a subsurface formation that has liquid hydrocarbon contaminants (for example, compounds such as benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene and xylene) condensed in fractures in the formation. The location of the contaminants may be surrounded with heated injection wells. The material may be introduced into the wells to form an outer wax barrier. The material injected into the fractures from the injection wells may mix with the contaminants. The contaminants may be solubilized into the material. When the material congeals, the contaminants may be permanently contained in the solid wax phase of the material.

[0793] In some embodiments, a portion or all of the wax barrier may be removed after completion of the in situ heat treatment process. Removing all or a portion of the wax barrier may allow fluid to flow into and out of the treatment area of the in situ heat treatment process. Removing all or a portion of the wax barrier may return flow conditions in the formation to substantially the same conditions as existed before the in situ heat treatment process. To remove a portion or all of the wax barrier, heaters may be used to heat the formation adjacent to the wax barrier. In some embodiments, the heaters raise the temperature above the decomposition temperature of the material forming the wax barrier. In some embodiments, the heaters raise the temperature above the melting temperature of the material forming the wax barrier. Fluid (for example water) may be introduced into the formation to drive the molten material to one or more production wells positioned in the formation. The production wells may remove the material from the formation.

[0794] In some embodiments, a composition that includes a cross-linkable polymer may be used with or in addition to a material that includes wax to form the barrier. Such composition may be provided to the formation as is described above for the material that includes wax. The composition may be configured to react and solidify after a selected time in the formation, thereby allowing the composition to be provided as a liquid to the formation. The cross-linkable polymer may include, for example, acrylates, methacrylates, urethanes, and/or epoxies. A cross-linking initiator may be included in the composition. The composition may also include a cross-linking inhibitor. The cross-linking inhibitor may be configured to degrade while in the formation, thereby allowing the composition to solidify.

[0795] In situ heat treatment processes and solution mining processes may heat the treatment area, remove mass from the treatment area, and greatly increase the permeability of the treatment area. In certain embodiments, the treatment area after being treated may have a permeability of at least 0.1 darcy. In some embodiments, the treatment area after being treated has a permeability of at least 1 darcy, of at least 10 darcy, or of at least 100 darcy. The increased permeability allows the fluid to spread in the formation into fractures, microfractures, and/or pore spaces in the formation. Outside of the treatment area, the permeability may remain at the initial permeability of the formation. The increased permeability allows fluid introduced to flow easily within the formation.

[0796] In certain embodiments, a barrier may be formed in the formation after a solution mining process and/or an in situ heat treatment process by introducing a fluid into the formation. The barrier may inhibit formation fluid from entering the treatment area after the solution mining and/or in situ heat treatment processes have ended. The barrier formed by introducing fluid into the formation may allow for isolation of the treatment area.

[0797] The fluid introduced into the formation to form a barrier may include wax, bitumen, heavy oil, sulfur, polymer, gel, saturated saline solution, and/or one or more reactants that react to form a precipitate, solid or high viscosity fluid in the formation. In some embodiments, bitumen, heavy oil, reactants and/or sulfur used to form the barrier are obtained from treatment facilities associated with the in situ heat treatment process. For example, sulfur may be obtained from a Claus process used to treat produced gases to remove hydrogen sulfide and other sulfur compounds.

[0798] The fluid may be introduced into the formation as a liquid, vapor, or mixed phase fluid. The fluid may be introduced into a portion of the formation that is at an elevated temperature. In some embodiments, the fluid is introduced into the formation through wells located near a perimeter of the treatment area. The fluid may be directed away from the treatment area. The elevated temperature of the formation maintains or allows the fluid to have a low viscosity so that the fluid moves away from the wells. A portion of the fluid may spread outwards in the formation towards a cooler portion of the formation. The relatively high permeability of the formation allows fluid introduced from one wellbore to spread and mix with fluid introduced from other wellbores. In the cooler portion of the formation, the viscosity of the fluid increases, a portion of the fluid precipitates, and/or the fluid solidifies or thickens so that the fluid forms the barrier to flow of formation fluid into or out of the treatment area.

[0799] In some embodiments, a low temperature barrier formed by freeze wells surrounds all or a portion of the treatment area. As the fluid introduced into the formation approaches the low temperature barrier, the temperature of the formation becomes colder. The colder temperature increases the viscosity of the fluid, enhances precipitation, and/or solidifies the fluid to form the barrier to the flow of formation fluid into or out of the formation. The fluid may remain in the formation as a highly viscous fluid or a solid after the low temperature barrier has dissipated.

[0800] In certain embodiments, saturated saline solution is introduced into the formation. Components in the saturated saline solution may precipitate out of solution when the solution reaches a colder temperature. The solidified particles may form the barrier to the flow of formation fluid into or out of the formation. The solidified components may be substantially insoluble in formation fluid.

[0801] In certain embodiments, brine is introduced into the formation as a reactant. A second reactant, such as carbon dioxide, may be introduced into the formation to react with the brine. The reaction may generate a mineral complex that grows in the formation. The mineral complex may be substantially insoluble to formation fluid. In an embodiment, the brine solution includes a sodium and aluminum solution. The second reactant introduced in the formation is carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide reacts with the brine solution to produce dawsonite. The minerals may solidify and form the barrier to the flow of formation fluid into or out of the formation.

[0802] In some embodiments, the barrier may be formed around a treatment area using sulfur. Advantageously, elemental sulfur is insoluble in water. Liquid and/or solid sulfur in the formation may form a barrier to formation fluid flow into or out of the treatment area.

[0803] A sulfur barrier may be established in the formation during or before initiation of heating to heat the treatment area of the in situ heat treatment process. In some embodiments, sulfur may be introduced into wellbores in the formation that are located between the treatment area and a first barrier (for example, a low temperature barrier established by freeze wells). The formation adjacent to the wellbores that the sulfur is introduced into may be dewatered. In some embodiments, the formation adjacent to the wellbores that the sulfur is introduced into is heated to facilitate removal of water and to prepare the wellbores and adjacent formation for the introduction of sulfur. The formation adjacent to the wellbores may be heated to a temperature below the pyrolysis temperature of hydrocarbons in the formation. The formation may be heated so that the temperature of a portion of the formation between two adjacent heaters is influenced by both heaters. In some embodiments, the heat may increase the permeability of the formation so that a first wellbore is in fluid communication with an adjacent wellbore.

[0804] After the formation adjacent to the wellbores is heated, molten sulfur at a temperature below the pyrolysis temperature of hydrocarbons in the formation is introduced into the formation. Over a certain temperature range, the viscosity of molten sulfur increases with increasing temperature. The molten sulfur introduced into the formation may be near the melting temperature of sulfur (about 115° C.) So that the sulfur has a relatively low viscosity (about 4-10 cp). Heaters in the wellbores may be temperature limited heaters with Curie temperatures near the melting temperature of sulfur so that the temperature of the molten sulfur stays relatively constant and below temperatures resulting in the formation of viscous molten sulfur. In some embodiments, the region adjacent to the wellbores may be heated to a temperature above the melting point of sulfur, but below the pyrolysis temperature of hydrocarbons in the formation. The heaters may be turned off and the temperature in the wellbores may be monitored (for example, using a fiber optic temperature monitoring system). When the temperature in the wellbore cools to a temperature near the melting temperature of sulfur, molten sulfur may be introduced into the formation.

[0805] The sulfur introduced into the formation is allowed to flow and diffuse into the formation from the wellbores. As the sulfur enters portions of the formation below the melting temperature, the sulfur solidifies and forms a barrier to fluid flow in the formation. Sulfur may be introduced until the formation is not able to accept additional sulfur. Heating may be stopped, and the formation may be allowed to naturally cool so that the sulfur in the formation solidifies. After introduction of the sulfur, the integrity of the formed barrier may be tested using pulse tests and/or tracer tests.

[0806] A barrier may be formed around the treatment area after the in situ heat treatment process. The sulfur may form a substantially permanent barrier in the formation. In some embodiments, a low temperature barrier formed by freeze wells surrounds the treatment area. Sulfur may be introduced on one or both sides of the low temperature barrier to form a barrier in the formation. The sulfur may be introduced into the formation as vapor or a liquid. As the sulfur approaches the low temperature barrier, the sulfur may condense and/or solidify in the formation to form the barrier.

[0807] In some embodiments, the sulfur may be introduced in the heated portion of the portion. The sulfur may be introduced into the formation through wells located near the perimeter of the treatment area. The temperature of the formation may be hotter than the vaporization temperature of sulfur (about 445° C.). The sulfur may be introduced as a liquid, vapor or mixed phase fluid. If a part of the introduced sulfur is in the liquid phase, the heat of the formation may vaporize the sulfur. The sulfur may flow outwards from the introduction wells towards cooler portions of the formation. The sulfur may condense and/or solidify in the formation to form the barrier.

[0808] In some embodiments, the Claus reaction may be used to form sulfur in the formation after the in situ heat treatment process. The Claus reaction is a gas phase equilibrium reaction. The Claus reaction is:
4H₂S+2SO₂3S₂+4H₂O  (EQN. 2)

[0809] Hydrogen sulfide may be obtained by separating the hydrogen sulfide from the produced fluid of an ongoing in situ heat treatment process. A portion of the hydrogen sulfide may be burned to form the needed sulfur dioxide. Hydrogen sulfide may be introduced into the formation through a number of wells in the formation. Sulfur dioxide may be introduced into the formation through other wells. The wells used for injecting sulfur dioxide or hydrogen sulfide may have been production wells, heater wells, monitor wells or other type of well during the in situ heat treatment process. The wells used for injecting sulfur dioxide or hydrogen sulfide may be near the perimeter of the treatment area. The number of wells may be enough so that the formation in the vicinity of the injection wells does not cool to a point where the sulfur dioxide and the hydrogen sulfide can form sulfur and condense, rather than remain in the vapor phase. The wells used to introduce the sulfur dioxide into the formation may also be near the perimeter of the treatment area. In some embodiments, the hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide may be introduced into the formation through the same wells (for example, through two conduits positioned in the same wellbore). The hydrogen sulfide and the sulfur dioxide may react in the formation to form sulfur and water. The sulfur may flow outwards in the formation and condense and/or solidify to form the barrier in the formation.

[0810] The sulfur barrier may form in the formation beyond the area where hydrocarbons in formation fluid generated by the heat treatment process condense in the formation. Regions near the perimeter of the treated area may be at lower temperatures than the treated area. Sulfur may condense and/or solidify from the vapor phase in these lower temperature regions. Additional hydrogen sulfide, and/or sulfur dioxide may diffuse to these lower temperature regions. Additional sulfur may form by the Claus reaction to maintain an equilibrium concentration of sulfur in the vapor phase. Eventually, a sulfur barrier may form around the treated zone. The vapor phase in the treated region may remain as an equilibrium mixture of sulfur, hydrogen sulfide, sulfur dioxide, water vapor and other vapor products present or evolving from the formation.

[0811] The conversion to sulfur is favored at lower temperatures, so the conversion of hydrogen sulfide and sulfur dioxide to sulfur may take place a distance away from the wells that introduce the reactants into the formation. The Claus reaction may result in the formation of sulfur where the temperature of the formation is cooler (for example where the temperature of the formation is at temperatures from about 180° C. to about 240° C.).

[0812] A temperature monitoring system may be installed in wellbores of freeze wells and/or in monitor wells adjacent to the freeze wells to monitor the temperature profile of the freeze wells and/or the low temperature zone established by the freeze wells. The monitoring system may be used to monitor progress of low temperature zone formation. The monitoring system may be used to determine the location of high temperature areas, potential breakthrough locations, or breakthrough locations after the low temperature zone has formed. Periodic monitoring of the temperature profile of the freeze wells and/or low temperature zone established by the freeze wells may allow additional cooling to be provided to potential trouble areas before breakthrough occurs. Additional cooling may be provided at or adjacent to breakthroughs and high temperature areas to ensure the integrity of the low temperature zone around the treatment area. Additional cooling may be provided by increasing refrigerant flow through selected freeze wells, installing an additional freeze well or freeze wells, and/or by providing a cryogenic fluid, such as liquid nitrogen, to the high temperature areas. Providing additional cooling to potential problem areas before breakthrough occurs may be more time efficient and cost efficient than sealing a breach, reheating a portion of the treatment area that has been cooled by influx of fluid, and/or remediating an area outside of the breached frozen barrier.

[0813] In some embodiments, a traveling thermocouple may be used to monitor the temperature profile of selected freeze wells or monitor wells. In some embodiments, the temperature monitoring system includes thermocouples placed at discrete locations in the wellbores of the freeze wells, in the freeze wells, and/or in the monitoring wells. In some embodiments, the temperature monitoring system comprises a fiber optic temperature monitoring system.

[0814] Fiber optic temperature monitoring systems are available from Sensornet (London, United Kingdom), Sensa (Houston, Tex., U.S.A.), Luna Energy (Blacksburg, Va., U.S.A.), Lios Technology GMBH (Cologne, Germany), Oxford Electronics Ltd. (Hampshire, United Kingdom), and Sabeus Sensor Systems (Calabasas, Calif., U.S.A.). The fiber optic temperature monitoring system includes a data system and one or more fiber optic cables. The data system includes one or more lasers for sending light to the fiber optic cable; and one or more computers, software and peripherals for receiving, analyzing, and outputting data. The data system may be coupled to one or more fiber optic cables.

[0815] A single fiber optic cable may be several kilometers long. The fiber optic cable may be installed in many freeze wells and/or monitor wells. In some embodiments, two fiber optic cables may be installed in each freeze well and/or monitor well. The two fiber optic cables may be coupled. Using two fiber optic cables per well allows for compensation due to optical losses that occur in the wells and allows for better accuracy of measured temperature profiles.

[0816] The fiber optic temperature monitoring system may be used to detect the location of a breach or a potential breach in a frozen barrier. The search for potential breaches may be performed at scheduled intervals, for example, every two or three months. To determine the location of the breach or potential breach, flow of formation refrigerant to the freeze wells of interest is stopped. In some embodiments, the flow of formation refrigerant to all of the freeze wells is stopped. The rise in the temperature profiles, as well as the rate of change of the temperature profiles, provided by the fiber optic temperature monitoring system for each freeze well can be used to determine the location of any breaches or hot spots in the low temperature zone maintained by the freeze wells. The temperature profile monitored by the fiber optic temperature monitoring system for the two freeze wells closest to the hot spot or fluid flow will show the quickest and greatest rise in temperature. A temperature change of a few degrees Centigrade in the temperature profiles of the freeze wells closest to a troubled area may be sufficient to isolate the location of the trouble area. The shut down time of flow of circulation fluid in the freeze wells of interest needed to detect breaches, potential breaches, and hot spots may be on the order of a few hours or days, depending on the well spacing and the amount of fluid flow affecting the low temperature zone.

[0817] Fiber optic temperature monitoring systems may also be used to monitor temperatures in heated portions of the formation during in situ heat treatment processes. Temperature monitoring systems positioned in production wells, heater wells, injection wells, and/or monitor wells may be used to measure temperature profiles in treatment areas subjected to in situ heat treatment processes. The fiber of a fiber optic cable used in the heated portion of the formation may be clad with a reflective material to facilitate retention of a signal or signals transmitted down the fiber. In some embodiments, the fiber is clad with gold, copper, nickel, aluminum and/or alloys thereof. The cladding may be formed of a material that is able to withstand chemical and temperature conditions in the heated portion of the formation. For example, gold cladding may allow an optical sensor to be used up to temperatures of 700° C. In some embodiments, the fiber is clad with aluminum. The fiber may be dipped in or run through a bath of liquid aluminum. The clad fiber may then be allowed to cool to secure the aluminum to the fiber. The gold or aluminum cladding may reduce hydrogen darkening of the optical fiber.

[0818] A potential source of heat loss from the heated formation is due to reflux in wells. Refluxing occurs when vapors condense in a well and flow into a portion of the well adjacent to the heated portion of the formation. Vapors may condense in the well adjacent to the overburden of the formation to form condensed fluid. Condensed fluid flowing into the well adjacent to the heated formation absorbs heat from the formation. Heat absorbed by condensed fluids cools the formation and necessitates additional energy input into the formation to maintain the formation at a desired temperature. Some fluids that condense in the overburden and flow into the portion of the well adjacent to the heated formation may react to produce undesired compounds and/or coke. Inhibiting fluids from refluxing may significantly improve the thermal efficiency of the in situ heat treatment system and/or the quality of the product produced from the in situ heat treatment system.

[0819] For some well embodiments, the portion of the well adjacent to the overburden section of the formation is cemented to the formation. In some well embodiments, the well includes packing material placed near the transition from the heated section of the formation to the overburden. The packing material inhibits formation fluid from passing from the heated section of the formation into the section of the wellbore adjacent to the overburden. Cables, conduits, devices, and/or instruments may pass through the packing material, but the packing material inhibits formation fluid from passing up the wellbore adjacent to the overburden section of the formation.

[0820] In some embodiments, one or more baffle systems may be placed in the wellbores to inhibit reflux. The baffle systems may be obstructions to fluid flow into the heated portion of the formation. In some embodiments, refluxing fluid may revaporize on the baffle system before coming into contact with the heated portion of the formation.

[0821] In some embodiments, a gas may be introduced into the formation through wellbores to inhibit reflux in the wellbores. In some embodiments, gas may be introduced into wellbores that include baffle systems to inhibit reflux of fluid in the wellbores. The gas may be carbon dioxide, methane, nitrogen or other desired gas. In some embodiments, the introduction of gas may be used in conjunction with one or more baffle systems in the wellbores. The introduced gas may enhance heat exchange at the baffle systems to help maintain top portions of the baffle systems colder than the lower portions of the baffle systems.

[0822] The flow of production fluid up the well to the surface is desired for some types of wells, especially for production wells. Flow of production fluid up the well is also desirable for some heater wells that are used to control pressure in the formation. The overburden, or a conduit in the well used to transport formation fluid from the heated portion of the formation to the surface, may be heated to inhibit condensation on or in the conduit. Providing heat in the overburden, however, may be costly and/or may lead to increased cracking or coking of formation fluid as the formation fluid is being produced from the formation.

[0823] To avoid the need to heat the overburden or to heat the conduit passing through the overburden, one or more diverters may be placed in the wellbore to inhibit fluid from refluxing into the wellbore adjacent to the heated portion of the formation. In some embodiments, the diverter retains fluid above the heated portion of the formation. Fluids retained in the diverter may be removed from the diverter using a pump, gas lifting, and/or other fluid removal technique. In certain embodiments, two or more diverters that retain fluid above the heated portion of the formation may be located in the production well. Two or more diverters provide a simple way of separating initial fractions of condensed fluid produced from the in situ heat treatment system. A pump may be placed in each of the diverters to remove condensed fluid from the diverters.

[0824] In some embodiments, the diverter directs fluid to a sump below the heated portion of the formation. An inlet for a lift system may be located in the sump. In some embodiments, the intake of the lift system is located in casing in the sump. In some embodiments, the intake of the lift system is located in an open wellbore. The sump is below the heated portion of the formation. The intake of the pump may be located 1 m, 5 m, 10 m, 20 m or more below the deepest heater used to heat the heated portion of the formation. The sump may be at a cooler temperature than the heated portion of the formation. The sump may be more than 10° C., more than 50° C., more than 75° C., or more than 100° C. below the temperature of the heated portion of the formation. A portion of the fluid entering the sump may be liquid. A portion of the fluid entering the sump may condense within the sump. The lift system moves the fluid in the sump to the surface.

[0825] Production well lift systems may be used to efficiently transport formation fluid from the bottom of the production wells to the surface. Production well lift systems may provide and maintain the maximum required well drawdown (minimum reservoir producing pressure) and producing rates. The production well lift systems may operate efficiently over a wide range of high temperature/multiphase fluids (gas/vapor/steam/water/hydrocarbon liquids) and production rates expected during the life of a typical project. Production well lift systems may include dual concentric rod pump lift systems, chamber lift systems and other types of lift systems.

[0826] Temperature limited heaters may be in configurations and/or may include materials that provide automatic temperature limiting properties for the heater at certain temperatures. In certain embodiments, ferromagnetic materials are used in temperature limited heaters. Ferromagnetic material may self-limit temperature at or near the Curie temperature of the material and/or the phase transformation temperature range to provide a reduced amount of heat when a time-varying current is applied to the material. In certain embodiments, the ferromagnetic material self-limits temperature of the temperature limited heater at a selected temperature that is approximately the Curie temperature and/or in the phase transformation temperature range. In certain embodiments, the selected temperature is within about 35° C., within about 25° C., within about 20° C., or within about 10° C. of the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. In certain embodiments, ferromagnetic materials are coupled with other materials (for example, highly conductive materials, high strength materials, corrosion resistant materials, or combinations thereof) to provide various electrical and/or mechanical properties. Some parts of the temperature limited heater may have a lower resistance (caused by different geometries and/or by using different ferromagnetic and/or non-ferromagnetic materials) than other parts of the temperature limited heater. Having parts of the temperature limited heater with various materials and/or dimensions allows for tailoring the desired heat output from each part of the heater.

[0827] Temperature limited heaters may be more reliable than other heaters. Temperature limited heaters may be less apt to break down or fail due to hot spots in the formation. In some embodiments, temperature limited heaters allow for substantially uniform heating of the formation. In some embodiments, temperature limited heaters are able to heat the formation more efficiently by operating at a higher average heat output along the entire length of the heater. The temperature limited heater operates at the higher average heat output along the entire length of the heater because power to the heater does not have to be reduced to the entire heater, as is the case with typical constant wattage heaters, if a temperature along any point of the heater exceeds, or is about to exceed, a maximum operating temperature of the heater. Heat output from portions of a temperature limited heater approaching a Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the heater automatically reduces without controlled adjustment of the time-varying current applied to the heater. The heat output automatically reduces due to changes in electrical properties (for example, electrical resistance) of portions of the temperature limited heater. Thus, more power is supplied by the temperature limited heater during a greater portion of a heating process.

[0828] In certain embodiments, the system including temperature limited heaters initially provides a first heat output and then provides a reduced (second heat output) heat output, near, at, or above the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of an electrically resistive portion of the heater when the temperature limited heater is energized by a time-varying current. The first heat output is the heat output at temperatures below which the temperature limited heater begins to self-limit. In some embodiments, the first heat output is the heat output at a temperature about 50° C., about 75° C., about 100° C., or about 125° C. below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic material in the temperature limited heater.

[0829] The temperature limited heater may be energized by time-varying current (alternating current or modulated direct current) supplied at the wellhead. The wellhead may include a power source and other components (for example, modulation components, transformers, and/or capacitors) used in supplying power to the temperature limited heater. The temperature limited heater may be one of many heaters used to heat a portion of the formation.

[0830] In certain embodiments, the temperature limited heater includes a conductor that operates as a skin effect or proximity effect heater when time-varying current is applied to the conductor. The skin effect limits the depth of current penetration into the interior of the conductor. For ferromagnetic materials, the skin effect is dominated by the magnetic permeability of the conductor. The relative magnetic permeability of ferromagnetic materials is typically between 10 and 1000 (for example, the relative magnetic permeability of ferromagnetic materials is typically at least 10 and may be at least 50, 100, 500, 1000 or greater). As the temperature of the ferromagnetic material is raised above the Curie temperature, or the phase transformation temperature range, and/or as the applied electrical current is increased, the magnetic permeability of the ferromagnetic material decreases substantially and the skin depth expands rapidly (for example, the skin depth expands as the inverse square root of the magnetic permeability). The reduction in magnetic permeability results in a decrease in the AC or modulated DC resistance of the conductor near, at, or above the Curie temperature, the phase transformation temperature range, and/or as the applied electrical current is increased. When the temperature limited heater is powered by a substantially constant current source, portions of the heater that approach, reach, or are above the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range may have reduced heat dissipation. Sections of the temperature limited heater that are not at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range may be dominated by skin effect heating that allows the heater to have high heat dissipation due to a higher resistive load.

[0831] Curie temperature heaters have been used in soldering equipment, heaters for medical applications, and heating elements for ovens (for example, pizza ovens). Some of these uses are disclosed in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,579,575 to Lamome et al.; 5,065,501 to Henschen et al.; and 5,512,732 to Yagnik et al., all of which are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein. U.S. Pat. No. 4,849,611 to Whitney et al., which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes a plurality of discrete, spaced-apart heating units including a reactive component, a resistive heating component, and a temperature responsive component.

[0832] An advantage of using the temperature limited heater to heat hydrocarbons in the formation is that the conductor is chosen to have a Curie temperature and/or a phase transformation temperature range in a desired range of temperature operation. Operation within the desired operating temperature range allows substantial heat injection into the formation while maintaining the temperature of the temperature limited heater, and other equipment, below design limit temperatures. Design limit temperatures are temperatures at which properties such as corrosion, creep, and/or deformation are adversely affected. The temperature limiting properties of the temperature limited heater inhibit overheating or burnout of the heater adjacent to low thermal conductivity “hot spots” in the formation. In some embodiments, the temperature limited heater is able to lower or control heat output and/or withstand heat at temperatures above 25° C., 37° C., 100° C., 250° C., 500° C., 700° C., 800° C., 900° C., or higher up to 1131° C., depending on the materials used in the heater.

[0833] The temperature limited heater allows for more heat injection into the formation than constant wattage heaters because the energy input into the temperature limited heater does not have to be limited to accommodate low thermal conductivity regions adjacent to the heater. For example, in Green River oil shale there is a difference of at least a factor of 3 in the thermal conductivity of the lowest richness oil shale layers and the highest richness oil shale layers. When heating such a formation, substantially more heat is transferred to the formation with the temperature limited heater than with the conventional heater that is limited by the temperature at low thermal conductivity layers. The heat output along the entire length of the conventional heater needs to accommodate the low thermal conductivity layers so that the heater does not overheat at the low thermal conductivity layers and burn out. The heat output adjacent to the low thermal conductivity layers that are at high temperature will reduce for the temperature limited heater, but the remaining portions of the temperature limited heater that are not at high temperature will still provide high heat output. Because heaters for heating hydrocarbon formations typically have long lengths (for example, at least 10 m, 100 m, 300 m, 500 m, 1 km or more up to about 10 km), the majority of the length of the temperature limited heater may be operating below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range while only a few portions are at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the temperature limited heater.

[0834] The use of temperature limited heaters allows for efficient transfer of heat to the formation. Efficient transfer of heat allows for reduction in time needed to heat the formation to a desired temperature. For example, in Green River oil shale, pyrolysis typically requires 9.5 years to 10 years of heating when using a 12 m heater well spacing with conventional constant wattage heaters. For the same heater spacing, temperature limited heaters may allow a larger average heat output while maintaining heater equipment temperatures below equipment design limit temperatures. Pyrolysis in the formation may occur at an earlier time with the larger average heat output provided by temperature limited heaters than the lower average heat output provided by constant wattage heaters. For example, in Green River oil shale, pyrolysis may occur in 5 years using temperature limited heaters with a 12 m heater well spacing. Temperature limited heaters counteract hot spots due to inaccurate well spacing or drilling where heater wells come too close together. In certain embodiments, temperature limited heaters allow for increased power output over time for heater wells that have been spaced too far apart, or limit power output for heater wells that are spaced too close together. Temperature limited heaters also supply more power in regions adjacent the overburden and underburden to compensate for temperature losses in these regions.

[0835] Temperature limited heaters may be advantageously used in many types of formations. For example, in tar sands formations or relatively permeable formations containing heavy hydrocarbons, temperature limited heaters may be used to provide a controllable low temperature output for reducing the viscosity of fluids, mobilizing fluids, and/or enhancing the radial flow of fluids at or near the wellbore or in the formation. Temperature limited heaters may be used to inhibit excess coke formation due to overheating of the near wellbore region of the formation.

[0836] In some embodiments, the use of temperature limited heaters eliminates or reduces the need for expensive temperature control circuitry. For example, the use of temperature limited heaters eliminates or reduces the need to perform temperature logging and/or the need to use fixed thermocouples on the heaters to monitor potential overheating at hot spots.

[0837] In certain embodiments, phase transformation (for example, crystalline phase transformation or a change in the crystal structure) of materials used in a temperature limited heater change the selected temperature at which the heater self-limits. Ferromagnetic material used in the temperature limited heater may have a phase transformation (for example, a transformation from ferrite to austenite) that decreases the magnetic permeability of the ferromagnetic material. This reduction in magnetic permeability is similar to reduction in magnetic permeability due to the magnetic transition of the ferromagnetic material at the Curie temperature. The Curie temperature is the magnetic transition temperature of the ferrite phase of the ferromagnetic material. The reduction in magnetic permeability results in a decrease in the AC or modulated DC resistance of the temperature limited heater near, at, or above the temperature of the phase transformation and/or the Curie temperature of the ferromagnetic material.

[0838] The phase transformation of the ferromagnetic material may occur over a temperature range. The temperature range of the phase transformation depends on the ferromagnetic material and may vary, for example, over a range of about 5° C. to a range of about 200° C. Because the phase transformation takes place over a temperature range, the reduction in the magnetic permeability due to the phase transformation takes place over the temperature range. The reduction in magnetic permeability may also occur hysteretically over the temperature range of the phase transformation. In some embodiments, the phase transformation back to the lower temperature phase of the ferromagnetic material is slower than the phase transformation to the higher temperature phase (for example, the transition from austenite back to ferrite is slower than the transition from ferrite to austenite). The slower phase transformation back to the lower temperature phase may cause hysteretic operation of the heater at or near the phase transformation temperature range that allows the heater to slowly increase to higher resistance after the resistance of the heater reduces due to high temperature.

[0839] In some embodiments, the phase transformation temperature range overlaps with the reduction in the magnetic permeability when the temperature approaches the Curie temperature of the ferromagnetic material. The overlap may produce a faster drop in electrical resistance versus temperature than if the reduction in magnetic permeability is solely due to the temperature approaching the Curie temperature. The overlap may also produce hysteretic behavior of the temperature limited heater near the Curie temperature and/or in the phase transformation temperature range.

[0840] In certain embodiments, the hysteretic operation due to the phase transformation is a smoother transition than the reduction in magnetic permeability due to magnetic transition at the Curie temperature. The smoother transition may be easier to control (for example, electrical control using a process control device that interacts with the power supply) than the sharper transition at the Curie temperature. In some embodiments, the Curie temperature is located inside the phase transformation range for selected metallurgies used in temperature limited heaters. This phenomenon provides temperature limited heaters with the smooth transition properties of the phase transformation in addition to a sharp and definite transition due to the reduction in magnetic properties at the Curie temperature. Such temperature limited heaters may be easy to control (due to the phase transformation) while providing finite temperature limits (due to the sharp Curie temperature transition). Using the phase transformation temperature range instead of and/or in addition to the Curie temperature in temperature limited heaters increases the number and range of metallurgies that may be used for temperature limited heaters.

[0841] In certain embodiments, alloy additions are made to the ferromagnetic material to adjust the temperature range of the phase transformation. For example, adding carbon to the ferromagnetic material may increase the phase transformation temperature range and lower the onset temperature of the phase transformation. Adding titanium to the ferromagnetic material may increase the onset temperature of the phase transformation and decrease the phase transformation temperature range. Alloy compositions may be adjusted to provide desired Curie temperature and phase transformation properties for the ferromagnetic material. The alloy composition of the ferromagnetic material may be chosen based on desired properties for the ferromagnetic material (such as, but not limited to, magnetic permeability transition temperature or temperature range, resistance versus temperature profile, or power output). Addition of titanium may allow higher Curie temperatures to be obtained when adding cobalt to 410 stainless steel by raising the ferrite to austenite phase transformation temperature range to a temperature range that is above, or well above, the Curie temperature of the ferromagnetic material.

[0842] In some embodiments, temperature limited heaters are more economical to manufacture or make than standard heaters. Typical ferromagnetic materials include iron, carbon steel, or ferritic stainless steel. Such materials are inexpensive as compared to nickel-based heating alloys (such as nichrome, Kanthal™ (Bulten-Kanthal AB, Sweden), and/or LOHM™ (Driver-Harris Company, Harrison, N.J., U.S.A.)) typically used in insulated conductor (mineral insulated cable) heaters. In one embodiment of the temperature limited heater, the temperature limited heater is manufactured in continuous lengths as an insulated conductor heater to lower costs and improve reliability.

[0843] In some embodiments, the temperature limited heater is placed in the heater well using a coiled tubing rig. A heater that can be coiled on a spool may be manufactured by using metal such as ferritic stainless steel (for example, 409 stainless steel) that is welded using electrical resistance welding (ERW). U.S. Pat. No. 7,032,809 to Hopkins, which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes forming seam-welded pipe. To form a heater section, a metal strip from a roll is passed through a former where it is shaped into a tubular and then longitudinally welded using ERW.

[0844] In some embodiments, a composite tubular may be formed from the seam-welded tubular. The seam-welded tubular is passed through a second former where a conductive strip (for example, a copper strip) is applied, drawn down tightly on the tubular through a die, and longitudinally welded using ERW. A sheath may be formed by longitudinally welding a support material (for example, steel such as 347H or 347HH) over the conductive strip material. The support material may be a strip rolled over the conductive strip material. An overburden section of the heater may be formed in a similar manner.

[0845] In certain embodiments, the overburden section uses a non-ferromagnetic material such as 304 stainless steel or 316 stainless steel instead of a ferromagnetic material. The heater section and overburden section may be coupled using standard techniques such as butt welding using an orbital welder. In some embodiments, the overburden section material (the non-ferromagnetic material) may be pre-welded to the ferromagnetic material before rolling. The pre-welding may eliminate the need for a separate coupling step (for example, butt welding). In an embodiment, a flexible cable (for example, a furnace cable such as a MGT 1000 furnace cable) may be pulled through the center after forming the tubular heater. An end bushing on the flexible cable may be welded to the tubular heater to provide an electrical current return path. The tubular heater, including the flexible cable, may be coiled onto a spool before installation into a heater well. In an embodiment, the temperature limited heater is installed using the coiled tubing rig. The coiled tubing rig may place the temperature limited heater in a deformation resistant container in the formation. The deformation resistant container may be placed in the heater well using conventional methods.

[0846] Temperature limited heaters may be used for heating hydrocarbon formations including, but not limited to, oil shale formations, coal formations, tar sands formations, and formations with heavy viscous oils. Temperature limited heaters may also be used in the field of environmental remediation to vaporize or destroy soil contaminants. Embodiments of temperature limited heaters may be used to heat fluids in a wellbore or sub-sea pipeline to inhibit deposition of paraffin or various hydrates. In some embodiments, a temperature limited heater is used for solution mining a subsurface formation (for example, an oil shale or a coal formation). In certain embodiments, a fluid (for example, molten salt) is placed in a wellbore and heated with a temperature limited heater to inhibit deformation and/or collapse of the wellbore. In some embodiments, the temperature limited heater is attached to a sucker rod in the wellbore or is part of the sucker rod itself. In some embodiments, temperature limited heaters are used to heat a near wellbore region to reduce near wellbore oil viscosity during production of high viscosity crude oils and during transport of high viscosity oils to the surface. In some embodiments, a temperature limited heater enables gas lifting of a viscous oil by lowering the viscosity of the oil without coking the oil. Temperature limited heaters may be used in sulfur transfer lines to maintain temperatures between about 110° C. and about 130° C.

[0847] The ferromagnetic alloy or ferromagnetic alloys used in the temperature limited heater determine the Curie temperature of the heater. Curie temperature data for various metals is listed in “American Institute of Physics Handbook,” Second Edition, McGraw-Hill, pages 5-170 through 5-176. Ferromagnetic conductors may include one or more of the ferromagnetic elements (iron, cobalt, and nickel) and/or alloys of these elements. In some embodiments, ferromagnetic conductors include iron-chromium (Fe—Cr) alloys that contain tungsten (W) (for example, HCM12A and SAVE12 (Sumitomo Metals Co., Japan) and/or iron alloys that contain chromium (for example, Fe—Cr alloys, Fe—Cr—W alloys, Fe—Cr—V (vanadium) alloys, and Fe—Cr—Nb (Niobium) alloys). Of the three main ferromagnetic elements, iron has a Curie temperature of approximately 770° C.; cobalt (Co) has a Curie temperature of approximately 1131° C.; and nickel has a Curie temperature of approximately 358° C. An iron-cobalt alloy has a Curie temperature higher than the Curie temperature of iron. For example, iron-cobalt alloy with 2% by weight cobalt has a Curie temperature of approximately 800° C.; iron-cobalt alloy with 12% by weight cobalt has a Curie temperature of approximately 900° C.; and iron-cobalt alloy with 20% by weight cobalt has a Curie temperature of approximately 950° C. Iron-nickel alloy has a Curie temperature lower than the Curie temperature of iron. For example, iron-nickel alloy with 20% by weight nickel has a Curie temperature of approximately 720° C., and iron-nickel alloy with 60% by weight nickel has a Curie temperature of approximately 560° C.

[0848] Some non-ferromagnetic elements used as alloys raise the Curie temperature of iron. For example, an iron-vanadium alloy with 5.9% by weight vanadium has a Curie temperature of approximately 815° C. Other non-ferromagnetic elements (for example, carbon, aluminum, copper, silicon, and/or chromium) may be alloyed with iron or other ferromagnetic materials to lower the Curie temperature. Non-ferromagnetic materials that raise the Curie temperature may be combined with non-ferromagnetic materials that lower the Curie temperature and alloyed with iron or other ferromagnetic materials to produce a material with a desired Curie temperature and other desired physical and/or chemical properties. In some embodiments, the Curie temperature material is a ferrite such as NiFe₂O₄. In other embodiments, the Curie temperature material is a binary compound such as FeNi₃ or Fe₃Al.

[0849] In some embodiments, the improved alloy includes carbon, cobalt, iron, manganese, silicon, or mixtures thereof. In certain embodiments, the improved alloy includes, by weight: about 0.1% to about 10% cobalt; about 0.1% carbon, about 0.5% manganese, about 0.5% silicon, with the balance being iron. In certain embodiments, the improved alloy includes, by weight: about 0.1% to about 10% cobalt; about 0.1% carbon, about 0.5% manganese, about 0.5% silicon, with the balance being iron.

[0850] In some embodiments, the improved alloy includes chromium, carbon, cobalt, iron, manganese, silicon, titanium, vanadium, or mixtures thereof. In certain embodiments, the improved alloy includes, by weight: about 5% to about 20% cobalt, about 0.1% carbon, about 0.5% manganese, about 0.5% silicon, about 0.1% to about 2% vanadium with the balance being iron. In some embodiments, the improved alloy includes, by weight: about 12% chromium, about 0.1% carbon, about 0.5% silicon, about 0.1% to about 0.5% manganese, above 0% to about 15% cobalt, above 0% to about 2% vanadium, above 0% to about 1% titanium, with the balance being iron. In some embodiments, the improved alloy includes, by weight: about 12% chromium, about 0.1% carbon, about 0.5% silicon, about 0.1% to about 0.5% manganese, above 0% to about 2% vanadium, above 0% to about 1% titanium, with the balance being iron. In some embodiments, the improved alloy includes, by weight: about 12% chromium, about 0.1% carbon, about 0.5% silicon, about 0.1% to about 0.5% manganese, above 0% to about 2% vanadium, with the balance being iron. In certain embodiments, the improved alloy includes, by weight: about 12% chromium, about 0.1% carbon, about 0.5% silicon, about 0.1% to about 0.5% manganese, above 0% to about 15% cobalt, above 0% to about 1% titanium, with the balance being iron. In certain embodiments, the improved alloy includes, by weight: about 12% chromium, about 0.1% carbon, about 0.5% silicon, about 0.1% to about 0.5% manganese, above 0% to about 15% cobalt, with the balance being iron. The addition of vanadium may allow for use of higher amounts of cobalt in the improved alloy.

[0851] Certain embodiments of temperature limited heaters may include more than one ferromagnetic material. Such embodiments are within the scope of embodiments described herein if any conditions described herein apply to at least one of the ferromagnetic materials in the temperature limited heater.

[0852] Ferromagnetic properties generally decay as the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range is approached. The “Handbook of Electrical Heating for Industry” by C. James Erickson (IEEE Press, 1995) shows a typical curve for 1% carbon steel (steel with 1% carbon by weight). The loss of magnetic permeability starts at temperatures above 650° C. and tends to be complete when temperatures exceed 730° C. Thus, the self-limiting temperature may be somewhat below the actual Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor. The skin depth for current flow in 1% carbon steel is 0.132 cm at room temperature and increases to 0.445 cm at 720° C. From 720° C. to 730° C., the skin depth sharply increases to over 2.5 cm. Thus, a temperature limited heater embodiment using 1% carbon steel begins to self-limit between 650° C. and 730° C.

[0853] Skin depth generally defines an effective penetration depth of time-varying current into the conductive material. In general, current density decreases exponentially with distance from an outer surface to the center along the radius of the conductor. The depth at which the current density is approximately 1/e of the surface current density is called the skin depth. For a solid cylindrical rod with a diameter much greater than the penetration depth, or for hollow cylinders with a wall thickness exceeding the penetration depth, the skin depth, δ, is:
δ=1981.5*(ρ/(μ*f))^1/2;  (EQN. 3)
in which:

• • [0854] δ=skin depth in inches;
  • [0855] ρ=resistivity at operating temperature (ohm-cm);
  • [0856] μ=relative magnetic permeability; and
  • [0857] f=frequency (Hz).
    EQN. 3 is obtained from “Handbook of Electrical Heating for Industry” by C. James Erickson (IEEE Press, 1995). For most metals, resistivity (ρ) increases with temperature. The relative magnetic permeability generally varies with temperature and with current. Additional equations may be used to assess the variance of magnetic permeability and/or skin depth on both temperature and/or current. The dependence of μ on current arises from the dependence of μ on the electromagnetic field.

[0858] Materials used in the temperature limited heater may be selected to provide a desired turndown ratio. Turndown ratios of at least 1.1:1, 2:1, 3:1, 4:1, 5:1, 10:1, 30:1, or 50:1 may be selected for temperature limited heaters. Larger turndown ratios may also be used. A selected turndown ratio may depend on a number of factors including, but not limited to, the type of formation in which the temperature limited heater is located (for example, a higher turndown ratio may be used for an oil shale formation with large variations in thermal conductivity between rich and lean oil shale layers) and/or a temperature limit of materials used in the wellbore (for example, temperature limits of heater materials). In some embodiments, the turndown ratio is increased by coupling additional copper or another good electrical conductor to the ferromagnetic material (for example, adding copper to lower the resistance above the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range).

[0859] The temperature limited heater may provide a maximum heat output (power output) below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the heater. In certain embodiments, the maximum heat output is at least 400 W/m (Watts per meter), 600 W/m, 700 W/m, 800 W/m, or higher up to 2000 W/m. The temperature limited heater reduces the amount of heat output by a section of the heater when the temperature of the section of the heater approaches or is above the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. The reduced amount of heat may be substantially less than the heat output below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. In some embodiments, the reduced amount of heat is at most 400 W/m, 200 W/m, 100 W/m or may approach 0 W/m.

[0860] In certain embodiments, the temperature limited heater operates substantially independently of the thermal load on the heater in a certain operating temperature range. “Thermal load” is the rate that heat is transferred from a heating system to its surroundings. It is to be understood that the thermal load may vary with temperature of the surroundings and/or the thermal conductivity of the surroundings. In an embodiment, the temperature limited heater operates at or above the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the temperature limited heater such that the operating temperature of the heater increases at most by 3° C., 2° C., 1.5° C., 1° C., or 0.5° C. for a decrease in thermal load of 1 W/m proximate to a portion of the heater. In certain embodiments, the temperature limited heater operates in such a manner at a relatively constant current.

[0861] The AC or modulated DC resistance and/or the heat output of the temperature limited heater may decrease as the temperature approaches the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range and decrease sharply near or above the Curie temperature due to the Curie effect and/or phase transformation effect. In certain embodiments, the value of the electrical resistance or heat output above or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range is at most one-half of the value of electrical resistance or heat output at a certain point below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. In some embodiments, the heat output above or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range is at most 90%, 70%, 50%, 30%, 20%, 10%, or less (down to 1%) of the heat output at a certain point below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range (for example, 30° C. below the Curie temperature, 40° C. below the Curie temperature, 50° C. below the Curie temperature, or 100° C. below the Curie temperature). In certain embodiments, the electrical resistance above or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range decreases to 80%, 70%, 60%, 50%, or less (down to 1%) of the electrical resistance at a certain point below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range (for example, 30° C. below the Curie temperature, 40° C. below the Curie temperature, 50° C. below the Curie temperature, or 100° C. below the Curie temperature).

[0862] In some embodiments, AC frequency is adjusted to change the skin depth of the ferromagnetic material. For example, the skin depth of 1% carbon steel at room temperature is 0.132 cm at 60 Hz, 0.0762 cm at 180 Hz, and 0.046 cm at 440 Hz. Since heater diameter is typically larger than twice the skin depth, using a higher frequency (and thus a heater with a smaller diameter) reduces heater costs. For a fixed geometry, the higher frequency results in a higher turndown ratio. The turndown ratio at a higher frequency is calculated by multiplying the turndown ratio at a lower frequency by the square root of the higher frequency divided by the lower frequency. In some embodiments, a frequency between 100 Hz and 1000 Hz, between 140 Hz and 200 Hz, or between 400 Hz and 600 Hz is used (for example, 180 Hz, 540 Hz, or 720 Hz). In some embodiments, high frequencies may be used. The frequencies may be greater than 1000 Hz.

[0863] To maintain a substantially constant skin depth until the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the temperature limited heater is reached, the heater may be operated at a lower frequency when the heater is cold and operated at a higher frequency when the heater is hot. Line frequency heating is generally favorable, however, because there is less need for expensive components such as power supplies, transformers, or current modulators that alter frequency. Line frequency is the frequency of a general supply of current. Line frequency is typically 60 Hz, but may be 50 Hz or another frequency depending on the source for the supply of the current. Higher frequencies may be produced using commercially available equipment such as solid state variable frequency power supplies. Transformers that convert three-phase power to single-phase power with three times the frequency are commercially available. For example, high voltage three-phase power at 60 Hz may be transformed to single-phase power at 180 Hz and at a lower voltage. Such transformers are less expensive and more energy efficient than solid state variable frequency power supplies. In certain embodiments, transformers that convert three-phase power to single-phase power are used to increase the frequency of power supplied to the temperature limited heater.

[0864] In certain embodiments, modulated DC (for example, chopped DC, waveform modulated DC, or cycled DC) may be used for providing electrical power to the temperature limited heater. A DC modulator or DC chopper may be coupled to a DC power supply to provide an output of modulated direct current. In some embodiments, the DC power supply may include means for modulating DC. One example of a DC modulator is a DC-to-DC converter system. DC-to-DC converter systems are generally known in the art. DC is typically modulated or chopped into a desired waveform. Waveforms for DC modulation include, but are not limited to, square-wave, sinusoidal, deformed sinusoidal, deformed square-wave, triangular, and other regular or irregular waveforms.

[0865] The modulated DC waveform generally defines the frequency of the modulated DC. Thus, the modulated DC waveform may be selected to provide a desired modulated DC frequency. The shape and/or the rate of modulation (such as the rate of chopping) of the modulated DC waveform may be varied to vary the modulated DC frequency. DC may be modulated at frequencies that are higher than generally available AC frequencies. For example, modulated DC may be provided at frequencies of at least 1000 Hz. Increasing the frequency of supplied current to higher values advantageously increases the turndown ratio of the temperature limited heater.

[0866] In certain embodiments, the modulated DC waveform is adjusted or altered to vary the modulated DC frequency. The DC modulator may be able to adjust or alter the modulated DC waveform at any time during use of the temperature limited heater and at high currents or voltages. Thus, modulated DC provided to the temperature limited heater is not limited to a single frequency or even a small set of frequency values. Waveform selection using the DC modulator typically allows for a wide range of modulated DC frequencies and for discrete control of the modulated DC frequency. Thus, the modulated DC frequency is more easily set at a distinct value whereas AC frequency is generally limited to multiples of the line frequency. Discrete control of the modulated DC frequency allows for more selective control over the turndown ratio of the temperature limited heater. Being able to selectively control the turndown ratio of the temperature limited heater allows for a broader range of materials to be used in designing and constructing the temperature limited heater.

[0867] In some embodiments, the modulated DC frequency or the AC frequency is adjusted to compensate for changes in properties (for example, subsurface conditions such as temperature or pressure) of the temperature limited heater during use. The modulated DC frequency or the AC frequency provided to the temperature limited heater is varied based on assessed downhole conditions. For example, as the temperature of the temperature limited heater in the wellbore increases, it may be advantageous to increase the frequency of the current provided to the heater, thus increasing the turndown ratio of the heater. In an embodiment, the downhole temperature of the temperature limited heater in the wellbore is assessed.

[0868] In certain embodiments, the modulated DC frequency, or the AC frequency, is varied to adjust the turndown ratio of the temperature limited heater. The turndown ratio may be adjusted to compensate for hot spots occurring along a length of the temperature limited heater. For example, the turndown ratio is increased because the temperature limited heater is getting too hot in certain locations. In some embodiments, the modulated DC frequency, or the AC frequency, are varied to adjust a turndown ratio without assessing a subsurface condition.

[0869] At or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic material, a relatively small change in voltage may cause a relatively large change in current to the load. The relatively small change in voltage may produce problems in the power supplied to the temperature limited heater, especially at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. The problems include, but are not limited to, reducing the power factor, tripping a circuit breaker, and/or blowing a fuse. In some cases, voltage changes may be caused by a change in the load of the temperature limited heater. In certain embodiments, an electrical current supply (for example, a supply of modulated DC or AC) provides a relatively constant amount of current that does not substantially vary with changes in load of the temperature limited heater. In an embodiment, the electrical current supply provides an amount of electrical current that remains within 15%, within 10%, within 5%, or within 2% of a selected constant current value when a load of the temperature limited heater changes.

[0870] Temperature limited heaters may generate an inductive load. The inductive load is due to some applied electrical current being used by the ferromagnetic material to generate a magnetic field in addition to generating a resistive heat output. As downhole temperature changes in the temperature limited heater, the inductive load of the heater changes due to changes in the ferromagnetic properties of ferromagnetic materials in the heater with temperature. The inductive load of the temperature limited heater may cause a phase shift between the current and the voltage applied to the heater.

[0871] A reduction in actual power applied to the temperature limited heater may be caused by a time lag in the current waveform (for example, the current has a phase shift relative to the voltage due to an inductive load) and/or by distortions in the current waveform (for example, distortions in the current waveform caused by introduced harmonics due to a non-linear load). Thus, it may take more current to apply a selected amount of power due to phase shifting or waveform distortion. The ratio of actual power applied and the apparent power that would have been transmitted if the same current were in phase and undistorted is the power factor. The power factor is always less than or equal to 1. The power factor is 1 when there is no phase shift or distortion in the waveform.

[0872] Actual power applied to a heater due to a phase shift may be described by EQN. 4:
P=I×V×cos(θ);  (EQN. 4)
in which P is the actual power applied to a heater; I is the applied current; V is the applied voltage; and θ is the phase angle difference between voltage and current. Other phenomena such as waveform distortion may contribute to further lowering of the power factor. If there is no distortion in the waveform, then cos(θ) is equal to the power factor.

[0873] In certain embodiments, the temperature limited heater includes an inner conductor inside an outer conductor. The inner conductor and the outer conductor are radially disposed about a central axis. The inner and outer conductors may be separated by an insulation layer. In certain embodiments, the inner and outer conductors are coupled at the bottom of the temperature limited heater. Electrical current may flow into the temperature limited heater through the inner conductor and return through the outer conductor. One or both conductors may include ferromagnetic material.

[0874] The insulation layer may comprise an electrically insulating ceramic with high thermal conductivity, such as magnesium oxide, aluminum oxide, silicon dioxide, beryllium oxide, boron nitride, silicon nitride, or combinations thereof. The insulating layer may be a compacted powder (for example, compacted ceramic powder). Compaction may improve thermal conductivity and provide better insulation resistance. For lower temperature applications, polymer insulation made from, for example, fluoropolymers, polyimides, polyamides, and/or polyethylenes, may be used. In some embodiments, the polymer insulation is made of perfluoroalkoxy (PFA) or polyetheretherketone (PEEK™ (Victrex Ltd, England)). The insulating layer may be chosen to be substantially infrared transparent to aid heat transfer from the inner conductor to the outer conductor. In an embodiment, the insulating layer is transparent quartz sand. The insulation layer may be air or a non-reactive gas such as helium, nitrogen, or sulfur hexafluoride. If the insulation layer is air or a non-reactive gas, there may be insulating spacers designed to inhibit electrical contact between the inner conductor and the outer conductor. The insulating spacers may be made of, for example, high purity aluminum oxide or another thermally conducting, electrically insulating material such as silicon nitride. The insulating spacers may be a fibrous ceramic material such as Nextel™ 312 (3M Corporation, St. Paul, Minn., U.S.A.), mica tape, or glass fiber. Ceramic material may be made of alumina, alumina-silicate, alumina-borosilicate, silicon nitride, boron nitride, or other materials.

[0875] The insulation layer may be flexible and/or substantially deformation tolerant. For example, if the insulation layer is a solid or compacted material that substantially fills the space between the inner and outer conductors, the temperature limited heater may be flexible and/or substantially deformation tolerant. Forces on the outer conductor can be transmitted through the insulation layer to the solid inner conductor, which may resist crushing. Such a temperature limited heater may be bent, dog-legged, and spiraled without causing the outer conductor and the inner conductor to electrically short to each other. Deformation tolerance may be important if the wellbore is likely to undergo substantial deformation during heating of the formation.

[0876] In certain embodiments, an outermost layer of the temperature limited heater (for example, the outer conductor) is chosen for corrosion resistance, yield strength, and/or creep resistance. In one embodiment, austenitic (non-ferromagnetic) stainless steels such as 201, 304H, 347H, 347HH, 316H, 310H, 347HP, NF709 (Nippon Steel Corp., Japan) stainless steels, or combinations thereof may be used in the outer conductor. The outermost layer may also include a clad conductor. For example, a corrosion resistant alloy such as 800H or 347H stainless steel may be clad for corrosion protection over a ferromagnetic carbon steel tubular. If high temperature strength is not required, the outermost layer may be constructed from ferromagnetic metal with good corrosion resistance such as one of the ferritic stainless steels. In one embodiment, a ferritic alloy of 82.3% by weight iron with 17.7% by weight chromium (Curie temperature of 678° C.) provides desired corrosion resistance.

[0877] The Metals Handbook, vol. 8, page 291 (American Society of Materials (ASM)) includes a graph of Curie temperature of iron-chromium alloys versus the amount of chromium in the alloys. In some temperature limited heater embodiments, a separate support rod or tubular (made from 347H stainless steel) is coupled to the temperature limited heater made from an iron-chromium alloy to provide yield strength and/or creep resistance. In certain embodiments, the support material and/or the ferromagnetic material is selected to provide a 100,000 hour creep-rupture strength of at least 20.7 MPa at 650° C. In some embodiments, the 100,000 hour creep-rupture strength is at least 13.8 MPa at 650° C. or at least 6.9 MPa at 650° C. For example, 347H steel has a favorable creep-rupture strength at or above 650° C. In some embodiments, the 100,000 hour creep-rupture strength ranges from 6.9 MPa to 41.3 MPa or more for longer heaters and/or higher earth or fluid stresses.

[0878] In temperature limited heater embodiments with both an inner ferromagnetic conductor and an outer ferromagnetic conductor, the skin effect current path occurs on the outside of the inner conductor and on the inside of the outer conductor. Thus, the outside of the outer conductor may be clad with the corrosion resistant alloy, such as stainless steel, without affecting the skin effect current path on the inside of the outer conductor.

[0879] A ferromagnetic conductor with a thickness of at least the skin depth at the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range allows a substantial decrease in resistance of the ferromagnetic material as the skin depth increases sharply near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. In certain embodiments when the ferromagnetic conductor is not clad with a highly conducting material such as copper, the thickness of the conductor may be 1.5 times the skin depth near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range, 3 times the skin depth near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range, or even 10 or more times the skin depth near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. If the ferromagnetic conductor is clad with copper, thickness of the ferromagnetic conductor may be substantially the same as the skin depth near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. In some embodiments, the ferromagnetic conductor clad with copper has a thickness of at least three-fourths of the skin depth near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range.

[0880] In certain embodiments, the temperature limited heater includes a composite conductor with a ferromagnetic tubular and a non-ferromagnetic, high electrical conductivity core. The non-ferromagnetic, high electrical conductivity core reduces a required diameter of the conductor. For example, the conductor may be composite 1.19 cm diameter conductor with a core of 0.575 cm diameter copper clad with a 0.298 cm thickness of ferritic stainless steel or carbon steel surrounding the core. The core or non-ferromagnetic conductor may be copper or copper alloy. The core or non-ferromagnetic conductor may also be made of other metals that exhibit low electrical resistivity and relative magnetic permeabilities near 1 (for example, substantially non-ferromagnetic materials such as aluminum and aluminum alloys, phosphor bronze, beryllium copper, and/or brass). A composite conductor allows the electrical resistance of the temperature limited heater to decrease more steeply near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. As the skin depth increases near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range to include the copper core, the electrical resistance decreases very sharply.

[0881] The composite conductor may increase the conductivity of the temperature limited heater and/or allow the heater to operate at lower voltages. In an embodiment, the composite conductor exhibits a relatively flat resistance versus temperature profile at temperatures below a region near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor of the composite conductor. In some embodiments, the temperature limited heater exhibits a relatively flat resistance versus temperature profile between 100° C. and 750° C. or between 300° C. and 600° C. The relatively flat resistance versus temperature profile may also be exhibited in other temperature ranges by adjusting, for example, materials and/or the configuration of materials in the temperature limited heater. In certain embodiments, the relative thickness of each material in the composite conductor is selected to produce a desired resistivity versus temperature profile for the temperature limited heater.

[0882] In certain embodiments, the relative thickness of each material in a composite conductor is selected to produce a desired resistivity versus temperature profile for a temperature limited heater. In an embodiment, the composite conductor is an inner conductor surrounded by 0.127 cm thick magnesium oxide powder as an insulator. The outer conductor may be 304H stainless steel with a wall thickness of 0.127 cm. The outside diameter of the heater may be about 1.65 cm.

[0883] A composite conductor (for example, a composite inner conductor or a composite outer conductor) may be manufactured by methods including, but not limited to, coextrusion, roll forming, tight fit tubing (for example, cooling the inner member and heating the outer member, then inserting the inner member in the outer member, followed by a drawing operation and/or allowing the system to cool), explosive or electromagnetic cladding, arc overlay welding, longitudinal strip welding, plasma powder welding, billet coextrusion, electroplating, drawing, sputtering, plasma deposition, coextrusion casting, magnetic forming, molten cylinder casting (of inner core material inside the outer or vice versa), insertion followed by welding or high temperature braising, shielded active gas welding (SAG), and/or insertion of an inner pipe in an outer pipe followed by mechanical expansion of the inner pipe by hydroforming or use of a pig to expand and swage the inner pipe against the outer pipe. In some embodiments, a ferromagnetic conductor is braided over a non-ferromagnetic conductor. In certain embodiments, composite conductors are formed using methods similar to those used for cladding (for example, cladding copper to steel). A metallurgical bond between copper cladding and base ferromagnetic material may be advantageous. Composite conductors produced by a coextrusion process that forms a good metallurgical bond (for example, a good bond between copper and 446 stainless steel) may be provided by Anomet Products, Inc. (Shrewsbury, Mass., U.S.A.).

[0884] In certain embodiments, it may be desirable to form a composite conductor by various methods including longitudinal strip welding. In some embodiments, however, it may be difficult to use longitudinal strip welding techniques if the desired thickness of a layer of a first material has such a large thickness, in relation to the inner core/layer onto which such layer is to be bended, that it does not effectively and/or efficiently bend around an inner core or layer that is made of a second material. In such circumstances, it may be beneficial to use multiple thinner layers of the first material in the longitudinal strip welding process such that the multiple thinner layers can more readily be employed in a longitudinal strip welding process and coupled together to form a composite of the first material with the desired thickness. So, for example, a first layer of the first material may be bent around an inner core or layer of second material, and then a second layer of the first material may be bent around the first layer of the first material, with the thicknesses of the first and second layers being such that the first and second layers will readily bend around the inner core or layer in a longitudinal strip welding process. Thus, the two layers of the first material may together form the total desired thickness of the first material.

[0885] FIGS. 53-74 depict various embodiments of temperature limited heaters. One or more features of an embodiment of the temperature limited heater depicted in any of these figures may be combined with one or more features of other embodiments of temperature limited heaters depicted in these figures. In certain embodiments described herein, temperature limited heaters are dimensioned to operate at a frequency of 60 Hz AC. It is to be understood that dimensions of the temperature limited heater may be adjusted from those described herein to operate in a similar manner at other AC frequencies or with modulated DC current.

[0886] The temperature limited heaters may be used in conductor-in-conduit heaters. In some embodiments of conductor-in-conduit heaters, the majority of the resistive heat is generated in the conductor, and the heat radiatively, conductively and/or convectively transfers to the conduit. In some embodiments of conductor-in-conduit heaters, the majority of the resistive heat is generated in the conduit.

[0887] FIG. 53 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of the temperature limited heater with an outer conductor having a ferromagnetic section and a non-ferromagnetic section. FIGS. 54 and 55 depict transverse cross-sectional views of the embodiment shown in FIG. 53. In one embodiment, ferromagnetic section 528 is used to provide heat to hydrocarbon layers in the formation. Non-ferromagnetic section 530 is used in the overburden of the formation. Non-ferromagnetic section 530 provides little or no heat to the overburden, thus inhibiting heat losses in the overburden and improving heater efficiency. Ferromagnetic section 528 includes a ferromagnetic material such as 409 stainless steel or 410 stainless steel. Ferromagnetic section 528 has a thickness of 0.3 cm. Non-ferromagnetic section 530 is copper with a thickness of 0.3 cm. Inner conductor 532 is copper. Inner conductor 532 has a diameter of 0.9 cm. Electrical insulator 534 is silicon nitride, boron nitride, magnesium oxide powder, or another suitable insulator material. Electrical insulator 534 has a thickness of 0.1 cm to 0.3 cm.

[0888] FIG. 56 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a temperature limited heater with an outer conductor having a ferromagnetic section and a non-ferromagnetic section placed inside a sheath. FIGS. 57, 58, and 59 depict transverse cross-sectional views of the embodiment shown in FIG. 56. Ferromagnetic section 528 is 410 stainless steel with a thickness of 0.6 cm. Non-ferromagnetic section 530 is copper with a thickness of 0.6 cm. Inner conductor 532 is copper with a diameter of 0.9 cm. Outer conductor 536 includes ferromagnetic material. Outer conductor 536 provides some heat in the overburden section of the heater. Providing some heat in the overburden inhibits condensation or refluxing of fluids in the overburden. Outer conductor 536 is 409, 410, or 446 stainless steel with an outer diameter of 3.0 cm and a thickness of 0.6 cm. Electrical insulator 534 includes compacted magnesium oxide powder with a thickness of 0.3 cm. In some embodiments, electrical insulator 534 includes silicon nitride, boron nitride, or hexagonal type boron nitride. Conductive section 538 may couple inner conductor 532 with ferromagnetic section 528 and/or outer conductor 536.

[0889] FIG. 60A and FIG. 60B depict cross-sectional representations of an embodiment of a temperature limited heater with a ferromagnetic inner conductor. Inner conductor 532 is a 1″ Schedule XXS 446 stainless steel pipe. In some embodiments, inner conductor 532 includes 409 stainless steel, 410 stainless steel, Invar 36, alloy 42-6, alloy 52, or other ferromagnetic materials. Inner conductor 532 has a diameter of 2.5 cm. Electrical insulator 534 includes compacted silicon nitride, boron nitride, or magnesium oxide powders; or polymers, Nextel ceramic fiber, mica, or glass fibers. Outer conductor 536 is copper or any other non-ferromagnetic material, such as but not limited to copper alloys, aluminum and/or aluminum alloys. Outer conductor 536 is coupled to jacket 540. Jacket 540 is 304H, 316H, or 347H stainless steel. In this embodiment, a majority of the heat is produced in inner conductor 532.

[0890] FIG. 61A and FIG. 61B depict cross-sectional representations of an embodiment of a temperature limited heater with a ferromagnetic inner conductor and a non-ferromagnetic core. Inner conductor 532 may be made of 446 stainless steel, 409 stainless steel, 410 stainless steel, carbon steel, Armco ingot iron, iron-cobalt alloys, or other ferromagnetic materials. Core 542 may be tightly bonded inside inner conductor 532. Core 542 is copper or other non-ferromagnetic material. In certain embodiments, core 542 is inserted as a tight fit inside inner conductor 532 before a drawing operation. In some embodiments, core 542 and inner conductor 532 are coextrusion bonded. Outer conductor 536 is 347H stainless steel. A drawing or rolling operation to compact electrical insulator 534 (for example, compacted silicon nitride, boron nitride, or magnesium oxide powder) may ensure good electrical contact between inner conductor 532 and core 542. In this embodiment, heat is produced primarily in inner conductor 532 until the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range is approached. Resistance then decreases sharply as current penetrates core 542.

[0891] FIG. 62A and FIG. 62B depict cross-sectional representations of an embodiment of a temperature limited heater with a ferromagnetic outer conductor. Inner conductor 532 is nickel-clad copper. Electrical insulator 534 is silicon nitride, boron nitride, or magnesium oxide. Outer conductor 536 is a 1″ Schedule XXS carbon steel pipe. In this embodiment, heat is produced primarily in outer conductor 536, resulting in a small temperature differential across electrical insulator 534.

[0892] FIG. 63A and FIG. 63B depict cross-sectional representations of an embodiment of a temperature limited heater with a ferromagnetic outer conductor that is clad with a corrosion resistant alloy. Inner conductor 532 is copper. Outer conductor 536 is a 1″ Schedule XXS carbon steel pipe. Outer conductor 536 is coupled to jacket 540. Jacket 540 is made of corrosion resistant material (for example, 347H stainless steel). Jacket 540 provides protection from corrosive fluids in the wellbore (for example, sulfidizing and carburizing gases). Heat is produced primarily in outer conductor 536, resulting in a small temperature differential across electrical insulator 534.

[0893] FIG. 64A and FIG. 64B depict cross-sectional representations of an embodiment of a temperature limited heater with a ferromagnetic outer conductor. The outer conductor is clad with a conductive layer and a corrosion resistant alloy. Inner conductor 532 is copper. Electrical insulator 534 is silicon nitride, boron nitride, or magnesium oxide. Outer conductor 536 is a 1″ Schedule 80 446 stainless steel pipe. Outer conductor 536 is coupled to jacket 540. Jacket 540 is made from corrosion resistant material such as 347H stainless steel. In an embodiment, conductive layer 544 is placed between outer conductor 536 and jacket 540. Conductive layer 544 is a copper layer. Heat is produced primarily in outer conductor 536, resulting in a small temperature differential across electrical insulator 534. Conductive layer 544 allows a sharp decrease in the resistance of outer conductor 536 as the outer conductor approaches the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. Jacket 540 provides protection from corrosive fluids in the wellbore.

[0894] In certain embodiments, inner conductor 532 includes a core of copper or another non-ferromagnetic conductor surrounded by ferromagnetic material (for example, a low Curie temperature material such as Invar 36). In certain embodiments, the copper core has an outer diameter between about 0.125″ and about 0.375″ (for example, about 0.5″) and the ferromagnetic material has an outer diameter between about 0.625″ and about 1″ (for example, about 0.75″). The copper core may increase the turndown ratio of the heater and/or reduce the thickness needed in the ferromagnetic material, which may allow a lower cost heater to be made. Electrical insulator 534 may be magnesium oxide with an outer diameter between about 1″ and about 1.2″ (for example, about 1.11″). Outer conductor 536 may include non-ferromagnetic electrically conductive material with high mechanical strength such as 825 stainless steel. Outer conductor 536 may have an outer diameter between about 1.2″ and about 1.5″ (for example, about 1.33″). In certain embodiments, inner conductor 532 is a forward current path and outer conductor 536 is a return current path. Conductive layer 544 may include copper or another non-ferromagnetic material with an outer diameter between about 1.3″ and about 1.4″ (for example, about 1.384″). Conductive layer 544 may decrease the resistance of the return current path (to reduce the heat output of the return path such that little or no heat is generated in the return path) and/or increase the turndown ratio of the heater. Conductive layer 544 may reduce the thickness needed in outer conductor 536 and/or jacket 540, which may allow a lower cost heater to be made. Jacket 540 may include ferromagnetic material such as carbon steel or 410 stainless steel with an outer diameter between about 1.6″ and about 1.8″ (for example, about 1.684″). Jacket 540 may have a thickness of at least 2 times the skin depth of the ferromagnetic material in the jacket. Jacket 540 may provide protection from corrosive fluids in the wellbore. In some embodiments, inner conductor 532, electrical insulator 534, and outer conductor 536 are formed as composite heater (for example, an insulated conductor heater) and conductive layer 544 and jacket 540 are formed around (for example, wrapped) the composite heater and welded together to form the larger heater embodiment described herein.

[0895] In certain embodiments, jacket 540 includes ferromagnetic material that has a higher Curie temperature than ferromagnetic material in inner conductor 532. Such a temperature limited heater may “contain” current such that the current does not easily flow from the heater to the surrounding formation and/or to any surrounding fluids (for example, production fluids, formation fluids, brine, groundwater, or formation water). In this embodiment, a majority of the current flows through inner conductor 532 until the Curie temperature of the ferromagnetic material in the inner conductor is reached. After the Curie temperature of ferromagnetic material in inner conductor 532 is reached, a majority of the current flows through the core of copper in the inner conductor. The ferromagnetic properties of jacket 540 inhibit the current from flowing outside the jacket and “contain” the current. Such a heater may be used in lower temperature applications where fluids are present such as providing heat in a production wellbore to increase oil production.

[0896] In some embodiments, the conductor (for example, an inner conductor, an outer conductor, or a ferromagnetic conductor) is the composite conductor that includes two or more different materials. In certain embodiments, the composite conductor includes two or more ferromagnetic materials. In some embodiments, the composite ferromagnetic conductor includes two or more radially disposed materials. In certain embodiments, the composite conductor includes a ferromagnetic conductor and a non-ferromagnetic conductor. In some embodiments, the composite conductor includes the ferromagnetic conductor placed over a non-ferromagnetic core. Two or more materials may be used to obtain a relatively flat electrical resistivity versus temperature profile in a temperature region below the Curie temperature, and/or the phase transformation temperature range, and/or a sharp decrease (a high turndown ratio) in the electrical resistivity at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. In some cases, two or more materials are used to provide more than one Curie temperature and/or phase transformation temperature range for the temperature limited heater.

[0897] The composite electrical conductor may be used as the conductor in any electrical heater embodiment described herein. For example, the composite conductor may be used as the conductor in a conductor-in-conduit heater or an insulated conductor heater. In certain embodiments, the composite conductor may be coupled to a support member such as a support conductor. The support member may be used to provide support to the composite conductor so that the composite conductor is not relied upon for strength at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. The support member may be useful for heaters of lengths of at least 100 m. The support member may be a non-ferromagnetic member that has good high temperature creep strength. Examples of materials that are used for a support member include, but are not limited to, Haynes® 625 alloy and Haynes® HR120® alloy (Haynes International, Kokomo, Ind., U.S.A.), NF709, Incoloy® 800H alloy and 347HP alloy (Allegheny Ludlum Corp., Pittsburgh, Pa., U.S.A.). In some embodiments, materials in a composite conductor are directly coupled (for example, brazed, metallurgically bonded, or swaged) to each other and/or the support member. Using a support member may reduce the need for the ferromagnetic member to provide support for the temperature limited heater, especially at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. Thus, the temperature limited heater may be designed with more flexibility in the selection of ferromagnetic materials.

[0898] FIG. 65 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of the composite conductor with the support member. Core 542 is surrounded by ferromagnetic conductor 546 and support member 548. In some embodiments, core 542, ferromagnetic conductor 546, and support member 548 are directly coupled (for example, brazed together or metallurgically bonded together). In one embodiment, core 542 is copper, ferromagnetic conductor 546 is 446 stainless steel, and support member 548 is 347H alloy. In certain embodiments, support member 548 is a Schedule 80 pipe. Support member 548 surrounds the composite conductor having ferromagnetic conductor 546 and core 542. Ferromagnetic conductor 546 and core 542 may be joined to form the composite conductor by, for example, a coextrusion process. For example, the composite conductor is a 1.9 cm outside diameter 446 stainless steel ferromagnetic conductor surrounding a 0.95 cm diameter copper core.

[0899] In certain embodiments, the diameter of core 542 is adjusted relative to a constant outside diameter of ferromagnetic conductor 546 to adjust the turndown ratio of the temperature limited heater. For example, the diameter of core 542 may be increased to 1.14 cm while maintaining the outside diameter of ferromagnetic conductor 546 at 1.9 cm to increase the turndown ratio of the heater.

[0900] FIG. 66 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of the composite conductor with support member 548 separating the conductors. In one embodiment, core 542 is copper with a diameter of 0.95 cm, support member 548 is 347H alloy with an outside diameter of 1.9 cm, and ferromagnetic conductor 546 is 446 stainless steel with an outside diameter of 2.7 cm. The support member depicted in FIG. 66 has a lower creep strength relative to the support members depicted in FIG. 65.

[0901] In certain embodiments, support member 548 is located inside the composite conductor. FIG. 67 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of the composite conductor surrounding support member 548. Support member 548 is made of 347H alloy. Inner conductor 532 is copper. Ferromagnetic conductor 546 is 446 stainless steel. In one embodiment, support member 548 is 1.25 cm diameter 347H alloy, inner conductor 532 is 1.9 cm outside diameter copper, and ferromagnetic conductor 546 is 2.7 cm outside diameter 446 stainless steel. The turndown ratio is higher than the turndown ratio for the embodiments depicted in FIGS. 65, 66, and 68 for the same outside diameter, but the creep strength is lower.

[0902] In some embodiments, the thickness of inner conductor 532, which is copper, is reduced and the thickness of support member 548 is increased to increase the creep strength at the expense of reduced turndown ratio. For example, the diameter of support member 548 is increased to 1.6 cm while maintaining the outside diameter of inner conductor 532 at 1.9 cm to reduce the thickness of the conduit. This reduction in thickness of inner conductor 532 results in a decreased turndown ratio relative to the thicker inner conductor embodiment but an increased creep strength.

[0903] FIG. 68 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of the composite conductor surrounding support member 548. In one embodiment, support member 548 is 347H alloy with a 0.63 cm diameter center hole. In some embodiments, support member 548 is a preformed conduit. In certain embodiments, support member 548 is formed by having a dissolvable material (for example, copper dissolvable by nitric acid) located inside the support member during formation of the composite conductor. The dissolvable material is dissolved to form the hole after the conductor is assembled. In an embodiment, support member 548 is 347H alloy with an inside diameter of 0.63 cm and an outside diameter of 1.6 cm, inner conductor 532 is copper with an outside diameter of 1.8 cm, and ferromagnetic conductor 546 is 446 stainless steel with an outside diameter of 2.7 cm.

[0904] In certain embodiments, the composite electrical conductor is used as the conductor in the conductor-in-conduit heater. For example, the composite electrical conductor may be used as conductor 550 in FIG. 69.

[0905] FIG. 69 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of the conductor-in-conduit heater. Conductor 550 is disposed in conduit 552. Conductor 550 is a rod or conduit of electrically conductive material. Low resistance sections 554 are present at both ends of conductor 550 to generate less heating in these sections. Low resistance section 554 is formed by having a greater cross-sectional area of conductor 550 in that section, or the sections are made of material having less resistance. In certain embodiments, low resistance section 554 includes a low resistance conductor coupled to conductor 550.

[0906] Conduit 552 is made of an electrically conductive material. Conduit 552 is disposed in opening 556 in hydrocarbon layer 484. Opening 556 has a diameter that accommodates conduit 552.

[0907] Conductor 550 may be centered in conduit 552 by centralizers 558. Centralizers 558 electrically isolate conductor 550 from conduit 552. Centralizers 558 inhibit movement and properly locate conductor 550 in conduit 552. Centralizers 558 are made of ceramic material or a combination of ceramic and metallic materials. Centralizers 558 inhibit deformation of conductor 550 in conduit 552. Centralizers 558 are touching or spaced at intervals between approximately 0.1 m (meters) and approximately 3 m or more along conductor 550.

[0908] A second low resistance section 554 of conductor 550 may couple conductor 550 to wellhead 476. Electrical current may be applied to conductor 550 from power cable 560 through low resistance section 554 of conductor 550. Electrical current passes from conductor 550 through sliding connector 562 to conduit 552. Conduit 552 may be electrically insulated from overburden casing 564 and from wellhead 476 to return electrical current to power cable 560. Heat may be generated in conductor 550 and conduit 552. The generated heat may radiate in conduit 552 and opening 556 to heat at least a portion of hydrocarbon layer 484.

[0909] Overburden casing 564 may be disposed in overburden 482. In some embodiments, overburden casing 564 is surrounded by materials (for example, reinforcing material and/or cement) that inhibit heating of overburden 482. Low resistance section 554 of conductor 550 may be placed in overburden casing 564. Low resistance section 554 of conductor 550 is made of, for example, carbon steel. Low resistance section 554 of conductor 550 may be centralized in overburden casing 564 using centralizers 558. Centralizers 558 are spaced at intervals of approximately 6 m to approximately 12 m or, for example, approximately 9 m along low resistance section 554 of conductor 550. In a heater embodiment, low resistance sections 554 are coupled to conductor 550 by one or more welds. In other heater embodiments, low resistance sections are threaded, threaded and welded, or otherwise coupled to the conductor. Low resistance section 554 generates little or no heat in overburden casing 564. Packing 566 may be placed between overburden casing 564 and opening 556. Packing 566 may be used as a cap at the junction of overburden 482 and hydrocarbon layer 484 to allow filling of materials in the annulus between overburden casing 564 and opening 556. In some embodiments, packing 566 inhibits fluid from flowing from opening 556 to surface 568.

[0910] FIG. 70 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a removable conductor-in-conduit heat source. Conduit 552 may be placed in opening 556 through overburden 482 such that a gap remains between the conduit and overburden casing 564. Fluids may be removed from opening 556 through the gap between conduit 552 and overburden casing 564. Fluids may be removed from the gap through conduit 570. Conduit 552 and components of the heat source included in the conduit that are coupled to wellhead 476 may be removed from opening 556 as a single unit. The heat source may be removed as a single unit to be repaired, replaced, and/or used in another portion of the formation.

[0911] For a temperature limited heater in which the ferromagnetic conductor provides a majority of the resistive heat output below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range, a majority of the current flows through material with highly non-linear functions of magnetic field (H) versus magnetic induction (B). These non-linear functions may cause strong inductive effects and distortion that lead to decreased power factor in the temperature limited heater at temperatures below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. These effects may render the electrical power supply to the temperature limited heater difficult to control and may result in additional current flow through surface and/or overburden power supply conductors. Expensive and/or difficult to implement control systems such as variable capacitors or modulated power supplies may be used to compensate for these effects and to control temperature limited heaters where the majority of the resistive heat output is provided by current flow through the ferromagnetic material.

[0912] In certain temperature limited heater embodiments, the ferromagnetic conductor confines a majority of the flow of electrical current to an electrical conductor coupled to the ferromagnetic conductor when the temperature limited heater is below or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor. The electrical conductor may be a sheath, jacket, support member, corrosion resistant member, or other electrically resistive member. In some embodiments, the ferromagnetic conductor confines a majority of the flow of electrical current to the electrical conductor positioned between an outermost layer and the ferromagnetic conductor. The ferromagnetic conductor is located in the cross section of the temperature limited heater such that the magnetic properties of the ferromagnetic conductor at or below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor confine the majority of the flow of electrical current to the electrical conductor. The majority of the flow of electrical current is confined to the electrical conductor due to the skin effect of the ferromagnetic conductor. Thus, the majority of the current is flowing through material with substantially linear resistive properties throughout most of the operating range of the heater.

[0913] In certain embodiments, the ferromagnetic conductor and the electrical conductor are located in the cross section of the temperature limited heater so that the skin effect of the ferromagnetic material limits the penetration depth of electrical current in the electrical conductor and the ferromagnetic conductor at temperatures below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor. Thus, the electrical conductor provides a majority of the electrically resistive heat output of the temperature limited heater at temperatures up to a temperature at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor. In certain embodiments, the dimensions of the electrical conductor may be chosen to provide desired heat output characteristics.

[0914] Because the majority of the current flows through the electrical conductor below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range, the temperature limited heater has a resistance versus temperature profile that at least partially reflects the resistance versus temperature profile of the material in the electrical conductor. Thus, the resistance versus temperature profile of the temperature limited heater is substantially linear below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor if the material in the electrical conductor has a substantially linear resistance versus temperature profile. For example, the temperature limited heater in which the majority of the current flows in the electrical conductor below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range may have a resistance versus temperature profile similar to the profile shown in FIG. 336. The resistance of the temperature limited heater has little or no dependence on the current flowing through the heater until the temperature nears the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. The majority of the current flows in the electrical conductor rather than the ferromagnetic conductor below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range.

[0915] Resistance versus temperature profiles for temperature limited heaters in which the majority of the current flows in the electrical conductor also tend to exhibit sharper reductions in resistance near or at the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor. For example, the reduction in resistance shown in FIG. 336 is sharper than the reduction in resistance shown in FIG. 322. The sharper reductions in resistance near or at the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range are easier to control than more gradual resistance reductions near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range because little current is flowing through the ferromagnetic material.

[0916] In certain embodiments, the material and/or the dimensions of the material in the electrical conductor are selected so that the temperature limited heater has a desired resistance versus temperature profile below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor.

[0917] Temperature limited heaters in which the majority of the current flows in the electrical conductor rather than the ferromagnetic conductor below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range are easier to predict and/or control. Behavior of temperature limited heaters in which the majority of the current flows in the electrical conductor rather than the ferromagnetic conductor below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range may be predicted by, for example, the resistance versus temperature profile and/or the power factor versus temperature profile. Resistance versus temperature profiles and/or power factor versus temperature profiles may be assessed or predicted by, for example, experimental measurements that assess the behavior of the temperature limited heater, analytical equations that assess or predict the behavior of the temperature limited heater, and/or simulations that assess or predict the behavior of the temperature limited heater.

[0918] In certain embodiments, assessed or predicted behavior of the temperature limited heater is used to control the temperature limited heater. The temperature limited heater may be controlled based on measurements (assessments) of the resistance and/or the power factor during operation of the heater. In some embodiments, the power, or current, supplied to the temperature limited heater is controlled based on assessment of the resistance and/or the power factor of the heater during operation of the heater and the comparison of this assessment versus the predicted behavior of the heater. In certain embodiments, the temperature limited heater is controlled without measurement of the temperature of the heater or a temperature near the heater. Controlling the temperature limited heater without temperature measurement eliminates operating costs associated with downhole temperature measurement. Controlling the temperature limited heater based on assessment of the resistance and/or the power factor of the heater also reduces the time for making adjustments in the power or current supplied to the heater compared to controlling the heater based on measured temperature.

[0919] As the temperature of the temperature limited heater approaches or exceeds the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor, reduction in the ferromagnetic properties of the ferromagnetic conductor allows electrical current to flow through a greater portion of the electrically conducting cross section of the temperature limited heater. Thus, the electrical resistance of the temperature limited heater is reduced and the temperature limited heater automatically provides reduced heat output at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor. In certain embodiments, a highly electrically conductive member is coupled to the ferromagnetic conductor and the electrical conductor to reduce the electrical resistance of the temperature limited heater at or above the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor. The highly electrically conductive member may be an inner conductor, a core, or another conductive member of copper, aluminum, nickel, or alloys thereof.

[0920] The ferromagnetic conductor that confines the majority of the flow of electrical current to the electrical conductor at temperatures below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range may have a relatively small cross section compared to the ferromagnetic conductor in temperature limited heaters that use the ferromagnetic conductor to provide the majority of resistive heat output up to or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. A temperature limited heater that uses the electrical conductor to provide a majority of the resistive heat output below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range has low magnetic inductance at temperatures below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range because less current is flowing through the ferromagnetic conductor as compared to the temperature limited heater where the majority of the resistive heat output below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range is provided by the ferromagnetic material. Magnetic field (H) at radius (r) of the ferromagnetic conductor is proportional to the current (I) flowing through the ferromagnetic conductor and the core divided by the radius, or:
H∝I/r.  (EQN. 5)
Since only a portion of the current flows through the ferromagnetic conductor for a temperature limited heater that uses the outer conductor to provide a majority of the resistive heat output below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range, the magnetic field of the temperature limited heater may be significantly smaller than the magnetic field of the temperature limited heater where the majority of the current flows through the ferromagnetic material. The relative magnetic permeability (μ) may be large for small magnetic fields.

[0921] The skin depth (δ) of the ferromagnetic conductor is inversely proportional to the square root of the relative magnetic permeability (μ):
δ∝(1/μ)^1/2.  (EQN. 6)
Increasing the relative magnetic permeability decreases the skin depth of the ferromagnetic conductor. However, because only a portion of the current flows through the ferromagnetic conductor for temperatures below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range, the radius (or thickness) of the ferromagnetic conductor may be decreased for ferromagnetic materials with large relative magnetic permeabilities to compensate for the decreased skin depth while still allowing the skin effect to limit the penetration depth of the electrical current to the electrical conductor at temperatures below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor. The radius (thickness) of the ferromagnetic conductor may be between 0.3 mm and 8 mm, between 0.3 mm and 2 mm, or between 2 mm and 4 mm depending on the relative magnetic permeability of the ferromagnetic conductor. Decreasing the thickness of the ferromagnetic conductor decreases costs of manufacturing the temperature limited heater, as the cost of ferromagnetic material tends to be a significant portion of the cost of the temperature limited heater. Increasing the relative magnetic permeability of the ferromagnetic conductor provides a higher turndown ratio and a sharper decrease in electrical resistance for the temperature limited heater at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor.

[0922] Ferromagnetic materials (such as purified iron or iron-cobalt alloys) with high relative magnetic permeabilities (for example, at least 200, at least 1000, at least 1×10⁴, or at least 1×10⁵) and/or high Curie temperatures (for example, at least 600° C., at least 700° C., or at least 800° C.) tend to have less corrosion resistance and/or less mechanical strength at high temperatures. The electrical conductor may provide corrosion resistance and/or high mechanical strength at high temperatures for the temperature limited heater. Thus, the ferromagnetic conductor may be chosen primarily for its ferromagnetic properties.

[0923] Confining the majority of the flow of electrical current to the electrical conductor below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor reduces variations in the power factor. Because only a portion of the electrical current flows through the ferromagnetic conductor below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range, the non-linear ferromagnetic properties of the ferromagnetic conductor have little or no effect on the power factor of the temperature limited heater, except at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. Even at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range, the effect on the power factor is reduced compared to temperature limited heaters in which the ferromagnetic conductor provides a majority of the resistive heat output below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. Thus, there is less or no need for external compensation (for example, variable capacitors or waveform modification) to adjust for changes in the inductive load of the temperature limited heater to maintain a relatively high power factor.

[0924] In certain embodiments, the temperature limited heater, which confines the majority of the flow of electrical current to the electrical conductor below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor, maintains the power factor above 0.85, above 0.9, or above 0.95 during use of the heater. Any reduction in the power factor occurs only in sections of the temperature limited heater at temperatures near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. Most sections of the temperature limited heater are typically not at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range during use. These sections have a high power factor that approaches 1.0. The power factor for the entire temperature limited heater is maintained above 0.85, above 0.9, or above 0.95 during use of the heater even if some sections of the heater have power factors below 0.85.

[0925] Maintaining high power factors allows for less expensive power supplies and/or control devices such as solid state power supplies or SCRs (silicon controlled rectifiers). These devices may fail to operate properly if the power factor varies by too large an amount because of inductive loads. With the power factors maintained at high values; however, these devices may be used to provide power to the temperature limited heater. Solid state power supplies have the advantage of allowing fine tuning and controlled adjustment of the power supplied to the temperature limited heater.

[0926] In some embodiments, transformers are used to provide power to the temperature limited heater. Multiple voltage taps may be made into the transformer to provide power to the temperature limited heater. Multiple voltage taps allow the current supplied to switch back and forth between the multiple voltages. This maintains the current within a range bound by the multiple voltage taps.

[0927] The highly electrically conductive member, or inner conductor, increases the turndown ratio of the temperature limited heater. In certain embodiments, thickness of the highly electrically conductive member is increased to increase the turndown ratio of the temperature limited heater. In some embodiments, the thickness of the electrical conductor is reduced to increase the turndown ratio of the temperature limited heater. In certain embodiments, the turndown ratio of the temperature limited heater is between 1.1 and 10, between 2 and 8, or between 3 and 6 (for example, the turndown ratio is at least 1.1, at least 2, or at least 3).

[0928] FIG. 71 depicts an embodiment of a temperature limited heater in which the support member provides a majority of the heat output below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor. Core 542 is an inner conductor of the temperature limited heater. In certain embodiments, core 542 is a highly electrically conductive material such as copper or aluminum. In some embodiments, core 542 is a copper alloy that provides mechanical strength and good electrically conductivity such as a dispersion strengthened copper. In one embodiment, core 542 is Glidcop® (SCM Metal Products, Inc., Research Triangle Park, N.C., U.S.A.). Ferromagnetic conductor 546 is a thin layer of ferromagnetic material between electrical conductor 572 and core 542. In certain embodiments, electrical conductor 572 is also support member 548. In certain embodiments, ferromagnetic conductor 546 is iron or an iron alloy. In some embodiments, ferromagnetic conductor 546 includes ferromagnetic material with a high relative magnetic permeability. For example, ferromagnetic conductor 546 may be purified iron such as Armco ingot iron (AK Steel Ltd., United Kingdom). Iron with some impurities typically has a relative magnetic permeability on the order of 400. Purifying the iron by annealing the iron in hydrogen gas (H₂) at 1450° C. increases the relative magnetic permeability of the iron. Increasing the relative magnetic permeability of ferromagnetic conductor 546 allows the thickness of the ferromagnetic conductor to be reduced. For example, the thickness of unpurified iron may be approximately 4.5 mm while the thickness of the purified iron is approximately 0.76 mm.

[0929] In certain embodiments, electrical conductor 572 provides support for ferromagnetic conductor 546 and the temperature limited heater. Electrical conductor 572 may be made of a material that provides good mechanical strength at temperatures near or above the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of ferromagnetic conductor 546. In certain embodiments, electrical conductor 572 is a corrosion resistant member. Electrical conductor 572 (support member 548) may provide support for ferromagnetic conductor 546 and corrosion resistance. Electrical conductor 572 is made from a material that provides desired electrically resistive heat output at temperatures up to and/or above the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of ferromagnetic conductor 546.

[0930] In an embodiment, electrical conductor 572 is 347H stainless steel. In some embodiments, electrical conductor 572 is another electrically conductive, good mechanical strength, corrosion resistant material. For example, electrical conductor 572 may be 304H, 316H, 347HH, NF709, Incoloy® 800H alloy (Inco Alloys International, Huntington, West Va., U.S.A.), Haynes® HR120 alloy, or Inconel® 617 alloy.

[0931] In some embodiments, electrical conductor 572 (support member 548) includes different alloys in different portions of the temperature limited heater. For example, a lower portion of electrical conductor 572 (support member 548) is 347H stainless steel and an upper portion of the electrical conductor (support member) is NF709. In certain embodiments, different alloys are used in different portions of the electrical conductor (support member) to increase the mechanical strength of the electrical conductor (support member) while maintaining desired heating properties for the temperature limited heater.

[0932] In some embodiments, ferromagnetic conductor 546 includes different ferromagnetic conductors in different portions of the temperature limited heater. Different ferromagnetic conductors may be used in different portions of the temperature limited heater to vary the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range and, thus, the maximum operating temperature in the different portions. In some embodiments, the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range in an upper portion of the temperature limited heater is lower than the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range in a lower portion of the heater. The lower Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range in the upper portion increases the creep-rupture strength lifetime in the upper portion of the heater.

[0933] In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 71, ferromagnetic conductor 546, electrical conductor 572, and core 542 are dimensioned so that the skin depth of the ferromagnetic conductor limits the penetration depth of the majority of the flow of electrical current to the support member when the temperature is below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor. Thus, electrical conductor 572 provides a majority of the electrically resistive heat output of the temperature limited heater at temperatures up to a temperature at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of ferromagnetic conductor 546. In certain embodiments, the temperature limited heater depicted in FIG. 71 is smaller (for example, an outside diameter of 3 cm, 2.9 cm, 2.5 cm, or less) than other temperature limited heaters that do not use electrical conductor 572 to provide the majority of electrically resistive heat output. The temperature limited heater depicted in FIG. 71 may be smaller because ferromagnetic conductor 546 is thin as compared to the size of the ferromagnetic conductor needed for a temperature limited heater in which the majority of the resistive heat output is provided by the ferromagnetic conductor.

[0934] In some embodiments, the support member and the corrosion resistant member are different members in the temperature limited heater. FIGS. 72 and 73 depict embodiments of temperature limited heaters in which the jacket provides a majority of the heat output below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor. In these embodiments, electrical conductor 572 is jacket 540. Electrical conductor 572, ferromagnetic conductor 546, support member 548, and core 542 (in FIG. 72) or inner conductor 532 (in FIG. 73) are dimensioned so that the skin depth of the ferromagnetic conductor limits the penetration depth of the majority of the flow of electrical current to the thickness of the jacket. In certain embodiments, electrical conductor 572 is a material that is corrosion resistant and provides electrically resistive heat output below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of ferromagnetic conductor 546. For example, electrical conductor 572 is 825 stainless steel or 347H stainless steel. In some embodiments, electrical conductor 572 has a small thickness (for example, on the order of 0.5 mm).

[0935] In FIG. 72, core 542 is highly electrically conductive material such as copper or aluminum. Support member 548 is 347H stainless steel or another material with good mechanical strength at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of ferromagnetic conductor 546.

[0936] In FIG. 73, support member 548 is the core of the temperature limited heater and is 347H stainless steel or another material with good mechanical strength at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of ferromagnetic conductor 546. Inner conductor 532 is highly electrically conductive material such as copper or aluminum.

[0937] In some embodiments, a relatively thin conductive layer is used to provide the majority of the electrically resistive heat output of the temperature limited heater at temperatures up to a temperature at or near the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of the ferromagnetic conductor. Such a temperature limited heater may be used as the heating member in an insulated conductor heater. The heating member of the insulated conductor heater may be located inside a sheath with an insulation layer between the sheath and the heating member.

[0938] FIGS. 74A and 74B depict cross-sectional representations of an embodiment of the insulated conductor heater with the temperature limited heater as the heating member. Insulated conductor 574 includes core 542, ferromagnetic conductor 546, inner conductor 532, electrical insulator 534, and jacket 540. Core 542 is a copper core. Ferromagnetic conductor 546 is, for example, iron or an iron alloy.

[0939] Inner conductor 532 is a relatively thin conductive layer of non-ferromagnetic material with a higher electrical conductivity than ferromagnetic conductor 546. In certain embodiments, inner conductor 532 is copper. Inner conductor 532 may be a copper alloy. Copper alloys typically have a flatter resistance versus temperature profile than pure copper. A flatter resistance versus temperature profile may provide less variation in the heat output as a function of temperature up to the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range. In some embodiments, inner conductor 532 is copper with 6% by weight nickel (for example, CuNi6 or LOHM™). In some embodiments, inner conductor 532 is CuNi10Fe1Mn alloy. Below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of ferromagnetic conductor 546, the magnetic properties of the ferromagnetic conductor confine the majority of the flow of electrical current to inner conductor 532. Thus, inner conductor 532 provides the majority of the resistive heat output of insulated conductor 574 below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range.

[0940] In certain embodiments, inner conductor 532 is dimensioned, along with core 542 and ferromagnetic conductor 546, so that the inner conductor provides a desired amount of heat output and a desired turndown ratio. For example, inner conductor 532 may have a cross-sectional area that is around 2 or 3 times less than the cross-sectional area of core 542. Typically, inner conductor 532 has to have a relatively small cross-sectional area to provide a desired heat output if the inner conductor is copper or copper alloy. In an embodiment with copper inner conductor 532, core 542 has a diameter of 0.66 cm, ferromagnetic conductor 546 has an outside diameter of 0.91 cm, inner conductor 532 has an outside diameter of 1.03 cm, electrical insulator 534 has an outside diameter of 1.53 cm, and jacket 540 has an outside diameter of 1.79 cm. In an embodiment with a CuNi6 inner conductor 532, core 542 has a diameter of 0.66 cm, ferromagnetic conductor 546 has an outside diameter of 0.91 cm, inner conductor 532 has an outside diameter of 1.12 cm, electrical insulator 534 has an outside diameter of 1.63 cm, and jacket 540 has an outside diameter of 1.88 cm. Such insulated conductors are typically smaller and cheaper to manufacture than insulated conductors that do not use the thin inner conductor to provide the majority of heat output below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range.

[0941] Electrical insulator 534 may be magnesium oxide, aluminum oxide, silicon dioxide, beryllium oxide, boron nitride, silicon nitride, or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, electrical insulator 534 is a compacted powder of magnesium oxide. In some embodiments, electrical insulator 534 includes beads of silicon nitride.

[0942] In certain embodiments, a small layer of material is placed between electrical insulator 534 and inner conductor 532 to inhibit copper from migrating into the electrical insulator at higher temperatures. For example, a small layer of nickel (for example, about 0.5 mm of nickel) may be placed between electrical insulator 534 and inner conductor 532.

[0943] Jacket 540 is made of a corrosion resistant material such as, but not limited to, 347 stainless steel, 347H stainless steel, 446 stainless steel, or 825 stainless steel. In some embodiments, jacket 540 provides some mechanical strength for insulated conductor 574 at or above the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range of ferromagnetic conductor 546. In certain embodiments, jacket 540 is not used to conduct electrical current.

[0944] For long vertical temperature limited heaters (for example, heaters at least 300 m, at least 500 m, or at least 1 km in length), the hanging stress becomes important in the selection of materials for the temperature limited heater. Without the proper selection of material, the support member may not have sufficient mechanical strength (for example, creep-rupture strength) to support the weight of the temperature limited heater at the operating temperatures of the heater.

[0945] In certain embodiments, materials for the support member are varied to increase the maximum allowable hanging stress at operating temperatures of the temperature limited heater and, thus, increase the maximum operating temperature of the temperature limited heater. Altering the materials of the support member affects the heat output of the temperature limited heater below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range because changing the materials changes the resistance versus temperature profile of the support member. In certain embodiments, the support member is made of more than one material along the length of the heater so that the temperature limited heater maintains desired operating properties (for example, resistance versus temperature profile below the Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range) as much as possible while providing sufficient mechanical properties to support the heater. In some embodiments, transition sections are used between sections of the heater to provide strength that compensates for the difference in temperature between sections of the heater. In certain embodiments, one or more portions of the temperature limited heater have varying outside diameters and/or materials to provide desired properties for the heater.

[0946] In certain embodiments of temperature limited heaters, three temperature limited heaters are coupled together in a three-phase wye configuration. Coupling three temperature limited heaters together in the three-phase wye configuration lowers the current in each of the individual temperature limited heaters because the current is split between the three individual heaters. Lowering the current in each individual temperature limited heater allows each heater to have a small diameter. The lower currents allow for higher relative magnetic permeabilities in each of the individual temperature limited heaters and, thus, higher turndown ratios. In addition, there may be no return current path needed for each of the individual temperature limited heaters. Thus, the turndown ratio remains higher for each of the individual temperature limited heaters than if each temperature limited heater had its own return current path.

[0947] In the three-phase wye configuration, individual temperature limited heaters may be coupled together by shorting the sheaths, jackets, or canisters of each of the individual temperature limited heaters to the electrically conductive sections (the conductors providing heat) at their terminating ends (for example, the ends of the heaters at the bottom of a heater wellbore). In some embodiments, the sheaths, jackets, canisters, and/or electrically conductive sections are coupled to a support member that supports the temperature limited heaters in the wellbore.

[0948] In certain embodiments, coupling multiple heaters (for example, mineral insulated conductor heaters) to a single power source, such as a transformer, is advantageous. Coupling multiple heaters to a single transformer may result in using fewer transformers to power heaters used for a treatment area as compared to using individual transformers for each heater. Using fewer transformers reduces surface congestion and allows easier access to the heaters and surface components. Using fewer transformers reduces capital costs associated with providing power to the treatment area. In some embodiments, at least 4, at least 5, at least 10, at least 25 heaters, at least 35 heaters, or at least 45 heaters are powered by a single transformer. Additionally, powering multiple heaters (in different heater wells) from the single transformer may reduce overburden losses because of reduced voltage and/or phase differences between each of the heater wells powered by the single transformer. Powering multiple heaters from the single transformer may inhibit current imbalances between the heaters because the heaters are coupled to the single transformer.

[0949] To provide power to multiple heaters using the single transformer, the transformer may have to provide power at higher voltages to carry the current to each of the heaters effectively. In certain embodiments, the heaters are floating (ungrounded) heaters in the formation. Floating the heaters allows the heaters to operate at higher voltages. In some embodiments, the transformer provides power output of at least about 3 kV, at least about 4 kV, at least about 5 kV, or at least about 6 kV.

[0950] FIG. 75 depicts a top view representation of heater 438 with three insulated conductors 574 in conduit 570. Heater 438 may be located in a heater well in the subsurface formation. Conduit 570 may be a sheath, jacket, or other enclosure around insulated conductors 574. Each insulated conductor 574 includes core 542, electrical insulator 534, and jacket 540. Insulated conductors 574 may be mineral insulated conductors with core 542 being a copper alloy (for example, a copper-nickel alloy such as Alloy 180), electrical insulator 534 being magnesium oxide, and jacket 540 being Incoloy® 825, copper, or stainless steel (for example 347H stainless steel). In some embodiments, jacket 540 includes non-work hardenable metals so that the jacket is annealable.

[0951] In some embodiments, core 542 and/or jacket 540 include ferromagnetic materials. In some embodiments, one or more insulated conductors 574 are temperature limited heaters. In certain embodiments, the overburden portion of insulated conductors 574 include high electrical conductivity materials in core 542 (for example, pure copper or copper alloys such as copper with 3% silicon at a weld joint) so that the overburden portions of the insulated conductors provide little or no heat output. In certain embodiments, conduit 570 includes non-corrosive materials and/or high strength materials such as stainless steel. In one embodiment, conduit 570 is 347H stainless steel.

[0952] Insulated conductors 574 may be coupled to the single transformer in a three-phase configuration (for example, a three-phase wye configuration). Each insulated conductor 574 may be coupled to one phase of the single transformer. In certain embodiments, the single transformer is also coupled to a plurality of identical heaters 438 in other heater wells in the formation (for example, the single transformer may couple to 40 or more heaters in the formation). In some embodiments, the single transformer couples to at least 4, at least 5, at least 10, at least 15, or at least 25 additional heaters in the formation.

[0953] Electrical insulator 534′ may be located inside conduit 570 to electrically insulate insulated conductors 574 from the conduit. In certain embodiments, electrical insulator 534′ is magnesium oxide (for example, compacted magnesium oxide). In some embodiments, electrical insulator 534′ is silicon nitride (for example, silicon nitride blocks). Electrical insulator 534′ electrically insulates insulated conductors 574 from conduit 570 so that at high operating voltages (for example, 3 kV or higher), there is no arcing between the conductors and the conduit. In some embodiments, electrical insulator 534′ inside conduit 570 has at least the thickness of electrical insulators 534 in insulated conductors 574. The increased thickness of insulation in heater 438 (from electrical insulators 534 and/or electrical insulator 534′) inhibits and may prevent current leakage into the formation from the heater. In some embodiments, electrical insulator 534′ spatially locates insulated conductors 574 inside conduit 570.

[0954] FIG. 76 depicts an embodiment of three-phase wye transformer 580 coupled to a plurality of heaters 438. For simplicity in the drawing, only four heaters 438 are shown in FIG. 76. It is to be understood that several more heaters may be coupled to the transformer 580. As shown in FIG. 76, each leg (each insulated conductor) of each heater is coupled to one phase of transformer 580 and current is returned to the neutral or ground of the transformer (for example, returned through conductor 582 depicted in FIGS. 75 and 77).

[0955] Return conductor 582 may be electrically coupled to the ends of insulated conductors 574 (as shown in FIG. 77) current returns from the ends of the insulated conductors to the transformer on the surface of the formation. Return conductor 582 may include high electrical conductivity materials such as pure copper, nickel, copper alloys, or combinations thereof so that the return conductor provides little or no heat output. In some embodiments, return conductor 582 is a tubular (for example, a stainless steel tubular) that allows an optical fiber to be placed inside the tubular to be used for temperature and/or other measurement. In some embodiments, return conductor 582 is a small insulated conductor (for example, small mineral insulated conductor). Return conductor 582 may be coupled to the neutral or ground leg of the transformer in a three-phase wye configuration. Thus, insulated conductors 574 are electrically isolated from conduit 570 and the formation. Using return conductor 582 to return current to the surface may make coupling the heater to a wellhead easier. In some embodiments, current is returned using one or more of jackets 540, depicted in FIG. 75. One or more jackets 540 may be coupled to cores 542 at the end of the heaters and return current to the neutral of the three-phase wye transformer.

[0956] FIG. 77 depicts a side view representation of the end section of three insulated conductors 574 in conduit 570. The end section is the section of the heaters the furthest away from (distal from) the surface of the formation. The end section includes contactor section 576 coupled to conduit 570. In some embodiments, contactor section 576 is welded or brazed to conduit 570. Termination 578 is located in contactor section 576. Termination 578 is electrically coupled to insulated conductors 574 and return conductor 582. Termination 578 electrically couples the cores of insulated conductors 574 to the return conductor 582 at the ends of the heaters.

[0957] In certain embodiments, heater 438, depicted in FIGS. 75 and 77, includes an overburden section using copper as the core of the insulated conductors. The copper in the overburden section may be the same diameter as the cores used in the heating section of the heater. The copper in the overburden section may have a larger diameter than the cores in the heating section of the heater. Increasing the size of the copper in the overburden section may decrease losses in the overburden section of the heater.

[0958] Heaters that include three insulated conductors 574 in conduit 570, as depicted in FIGS. 75 and 77, may be made in a multiple step process. In some embodiments, the multiple step process is performed at the site of the formation or treatment area. In some embodiments, the multiple step process is performed at a remote manufacturing site away from the formation. The finished heater is then transported to the treatment area.

[0959] Insulated conductors 574 may be pre-assembled prior to the bundling either on site or at a remote location. Insulated conductors 574 and return conductor 582 may be positioned on spools. A machine may draw insulated conductors 574 and return conductor 582 from the spools at a selected rate. Preformed blocks of insulation material may be positioned around return conductor 582 and insulated conductors 574. In an embodiment, two blocks are positioned around return conductor 582 and three blocks are positioned around insulated conductors 574 to form electrical insulator 534′. The insulated conductors and return conductor may be drawn or pushed into a plate of conduit material that has been rolled into a tubular shape. The edges of the plate may be pressed together and welded (for example, by laser welding). After forming conduit 570 around electrical insulator 534′, the bundle of insulated conductors 574, and return conductor 582, the conduit may be compacted against the electrical insulator 582 so that all of the components of the heater are pressed together into a compact and tightly fitting form. During the compaction, the electrical insulator may flow and fill any gaps inside the heater.

[0960] In some embodiments, heater 438 (which includes conduit 570 around electrical insulator 534′ and the bundle of insulated conductors 574 and return conductor 582) is inserted into a coiled tubing tubular that is placed in a wellbore in the formation. The coiled tubing tubular may be left in place in the formation (left in during heating of the formation) or removed from the formation after installation of the heater. The coiled tubing tubular may allow for easier installation of heater 438 into the wellbore.

[0961] In some embodiments, one or more components of heater 438 are varied (for example, removed, moved, or replaced) while the operation of the heater remains substantially identical. FIG. 78 depicts an embodiment of heater 438 with three insulated cores 542 in conduit 570. In this embodiment, electrical insulator 534′ surrounds cores 542 and return conductor 582 in conduit 570. Cores 542 are located in conduit 570 without an electrical insulator and jacket surrounding the cores. Cores 542 are coupled to the single transformer in a three-phase wye configuration with each core 542 coupled to one phase of the transformer. Return conductor 582 is electrically coupled to the ends of cores 542 and returns current from the ends of the cores to the transformer on the surface of the formation.

[0962] FIG. 79 depicts an embodiment of heater 438 with three insulated conductors 574 and insulated return conductor in conduit 570. In this embodiment, return conductor 582 is an insulated conductor with core 542, electrical insulator 534, and jacket 540. Return conductor 582 and insulated conductors 574 are located in conduit 570 surrounded by electrical insulator 534′. Return conductor 582 and insulated conductors 574 may be the same size or different sizes. Return conductor 582 and insulated conductors 574 operate substantially the same as in the embodiment depicted in FIGS. 75 and 77.

[0963] FIGS. 80 and 81 depict embodiments of three insulated conductors 574 banded together. Heater 438 includes three insulated conductors 574 coupled together in a spiral configuration. In other embodiments, six, nine, or multiples of three insulated conductors are coupled together. In certain embodiments, insulated conductors 574 are held together in the spiral configuration with bands 584 that are periodically placed around insulated conductors 574.

[0964] Banding insulated conductors 574 together instead of placing the conductors in a casing allows open spaces between the conductors to radiate heat to the formation, thus increasing the radiating surface area of heater 438. Banding insulated conductors 574 together may improve the insertion strength of heater 438.

[0965] In some embodiments, insulated conductors 574 are banded onto and around support member 586, as shown in FIG. 81. Support member 586 may provide structural support and/or increase the insertion strength of heater 438. In some embodiments, support member 586 includes a conduit used to provide fluids and/or to remove fluids from heater 438. For example, oxidization inhibiting fluids may be provided to heater 438 through support member 586. In some embodiments, other structures are used to provide fluids and/or to remove fluids from heater 438.

[0966] Heater 438 may be provided power from single phase power sources (for example, as depicted in FIG. 80), or from three-phase power sources (for example, as depicted in FIG. 81) depending on desired operation of the heater. Support member 586 may provide electrical isolation for insulated conductors 438 coupled to the three-phase power source. The voltage differentials on the surfaces (jackets) of insulated conductors 574 in the three-phase embodiment may be reduced because of the proximity effect.

[0967] In some embodiments, optical sensor 588 is located at or near a center of insulated conductors 574. Optical sensor 588 may be used to assess properties of heater 438 such as, but not limited to, stress, temperature, and/or pressure. In some embodiments, support member 586 includes a notch, as shown in FIG. 81, for insertion of optical sensor 588. The notch may allow continuous insertion of optical sensor optical sensor 588 during installation of heater 438.

[0968] In some embodiments, three insulated conductor heaters (for example, mineral insulated conductor heaters) are coupled together into a single assembly. The single assembly may be built in long lengths and may operate at high voltages (for example, voltages of 4000 V nominal). In certain embodiments, the individual insulated conductor heaters are enclosed in corrosive resistant jackets to resist damage from the external environment. The jackets may be, for example, seam welded stainless steel armor similar to that used on type MC/CWCMC cable.

[0969] In some embodiments, three insulated conductor heaters are cabled and the insulating filler added in conventional methods known in the art. The insulated conductor heaters may include one or more heater sections that resistively heat and provide heat to formation adjacent to the heater sections. The insulated conductors may include one or more other sections that provide electricity to the heater sections with relatively small heat loss. The individual insulated conductor heaters may be wrapped with high temperature fiber tapes before being placed on a take-up reel (for example, a coiled tubing rig). The reel assembly may be moved to another machine for application of an outer metallic sheath or outer protective conduit.

[0970] In some embodiments, the fillers include glass, ceramic or other temperature resistant fibers that withstand operating temperature of 760° C. or higher. In addition, the insulated conductor cables may be wrapped in multiple layers of a ceramic fiber woven tape material. By wrapping the tape around the cabled insulated conductor heaters prior to application of the outer metallic sheath, electrical isolation is provided between the insulated conductor heaters and the outer sheath. This electrical isolation inhibits leakage current from the insulated conductor heaters passing into the subsurface formation and forces any leakage currents to return directly to the power source on the individual insulated conductor sheaths and/or on a lead-in conductor or lead-out conductor coupled to the insulated conductors. The lead-in or lead-out conductors may be coupled to the insulated conductors when the insulated conductors are placed into an assembly with the outer metallic sheath.

[0971] In certain embodiments, the insulated conductor heaters are wrapped with a metallic tape or other type of tape instead of the high temperature ceramic fiber woven tape material. The metallic tape holds the insulated conductor heaters together. A widely-spaced wide pitch spiral wrapping of a high temperature fiber rope may be wrapped around the insulated conductor heaters. The fiber rope may provide electrical isolation between the insulated conductors and the outer sheath. The fiber rope may be added at any stage during assembly. For example, the fiber rope may be added as a part of the final assembly when the outer sheath is added. Application of the fiber rope may be simpler than other electrical isolation methods because application of the fiber rope is done with only a single layer of rope instead of multiple layers of ceramic tape. The fiber rope may be less expensive than multiple layers of ceramic tape. The fiber rope may increase heat transfer between the insulated conductors and the outer sheath and/or reduce interference with any welding process used to weld the outer sheath around the insulated conductors (for example, seam welding).

[0972] In certain embodiments, an insulated conductor or another type of heater is installed in a wellbore or opening in the formation using outer tubing coupled to a coiled tubing rig. FIG. 82 depicts outer tubing 1128 partially unspooled from coiled tubing rig 1804. Outer tubing 1128 may be made of metal or polymeric material. Outer tubing 1128 may be a flexible conduit such as, for example, a tubing guide string or other coiled tubing string. Heater 438 may be pushed into outer tubing 1128, as shown in FIG. 83. In certain embodiments, heater 438 is pushed into outer tubing 1128 by pumping the heater into the outer tubing.

[0973] In certain embodiments, one or more flexible cups 1806 are coupled to the outside of heater 438. Flexible cups 1806 may have a variety of shapes and/or sizes but typically are shaped and sized to maintain at least some pressure inside at least a portion of outer tubing 1128 as heater 438 is pushed or pumped into the outer tubing. For example, flexible cups 1806 may have flexible edges that provide limited mechanical resistance as heater 438 is pushed into outer tubing 1128 but remain in contact with the inner walls of outer tubing 1128 as the heater is pushed so that pressure is maintained between the heater and the outer tubing. Maintaining at least some pressure in outer tubing 1128 between flexible cups 1806 allows heater 438 to be continuously pushed into the outer tubing with lower pump pressures. Without flexible cups 1806, higher pressures may be needed to push heater 438 into outer tubing 1128. In some embodiments, cups 1806 allow some pressure to be released while maintaining some pressure in outer tubing 1128. In certain embodiments, flexible cups 1806 are spaced to distribute pumping forces optimally along heater 438 inside outer tubing 1128.

[0974] Heater 438 is pushed into outer tubing 1128 until the heater is fully inserted into the outer tubing, as shown in FIG. 84. Drilling guide 696 may be coupled to the end of heater 438. Heater 438, outer tubing 1128, and drilling guide 696 may be spooled onto coiled tubing rig 1804, as shown in FIG. 85. After heater 438, outer tubing 1128, and drilling guide 696 are spooled onto coiled tubing rig 1804, the assembly may be transported to a location for installation of the heater. For example, the assembly may be transported to the location of a subsurface heater wellbore (opening).

[0975] FIG. 86 depicts coiled tubing rig 1804 being used to install heater 438 and outer tubing 1128 into opening 556 using drilling guide 696. In certain embodiments, opening 556 is an L-shaped opening or wellbore with a substantially horizontal or inclined portion in a hydrocarbon containing layer of the formation. In such embodiments, heater 438 has a heating section that is placed in the substantially horizontally or inclined portion of opening 556 to be used to heat the hydrocarbon containing layer. In some embodiments, opening 556 has a horizontal or inclined section that is at least about 1000 m in length, at least about 1500 m in length, or at least about 2000 m in length. Overburden casing 564 may be located around the outer walls of opening 556 in an overburden section of the formation. In some embodiments, drilling fluid is left in opening 556 after the opening has been completed (the opening has been drilled).

[0976] FIG. 87 depicts heater 438 and outer tubing 1128 installed in opening 556. Gap 1808 may be left at or near the far end of heater 438 and outer tubing 1128. Gap 1808 may allow for some heater expansion in opening 556 after the heater is energized.

[0977] After heater 438 and outer tubing 1128 are installed in opening 556, the outer tubing may be removed from the opening to leave the heater in place in the opening. FIG. 88 depicts outer tubing 1128 being removed from opening 556 while leaving heater 438 installed in the opening. Outer tubing 1128 is spooled back onto coiled tubing rig 1804 as the outer tubing is pulled off heater 438. In some embodiments, outer tubing 1128 is pumped down to allow the outer tubing to be pulled off heater 438.

[0978] FIG. 89 depicts outer tubing 1128 used to provide packing material 566 into opening 556. As outer tubing 1128 reaches the “shoe” or bend in opening 556, the outer tubing may be used to provide packing material into the opening. The shoe of opening 556 may be located at or near the bottom of overburden casing 564. Packing material 566 may be provided (for example, pumped) through outer tubing 1128 and out the end of the outer tubing at the shoe of opening 556. Packing material 566 is provided into opening 556 to seal off the opening around heater 438. Packing material 566 provides a barrier between the overburden section and heating section of opening 556. In certain embodiments, packing material 566 is cement or another suitable plugging material. In some embodiments, outer tubing 1128 is continuously spooled while packing material 566 is provided into opening 556. Outer tubing 1128 may be spooled slowly while packing material 566 is provided into opening 556 to allow the packing material to settle into the opening properly.

[0979] After packing material 566 is provided into opening 556, outer tubing 1128 is spooled further onto coiled tubing rig 1804, as shown in FIG. 90. FIG. 91 depicts outer tubing 1128 spooled onto coiled tubing rig 1804 with heater 438 installed in opening 556. In certain embodiments, flexible cups 1806 are spaced in the portion of opening 556 with overburden casing 564 to facilitate adequate stand-off of heater 438 in the overburden portion of the opening. Flexible cups 1806 may electrically insulate heater 438 from overburden casing 564. For example, flexible cups 1806 may space apart heater 438 and overburden casing 564 such that they are not in physical contact with each other.

[0980] After outer tubing 1128 is removed from opening 556, wellhead 476 and/or other completions may be installed at the surface of the opening, as shown in FIG. 92. When heater 438 is energized to begin heating, flexible cups 1806 may begin to burn or melt off. Flexible cups 1806 may begin to burn or melt off at relatively low temperatures during the heating process.

[0981] FIG. 93 depicts an embodiment of a heater in wellbore 742 in formation 524. The heater includes insulated conductor 574 in conduit 552 with material 590 between the insulated conductor and the conduit. In some embodiments, insulated conductor 574 is a mineral insulated conductor. Electricity supplied to insulated conductor 574 resistively heats the insulated conductor. Insulated conductor conductively transfers heat to material 590. Heat may transfer within material 590 by heat conduction and/or by heat convection. Radiant heat from insulated conductor 574 and/or heat from material 590 transfers to conduit 552. Heat may transfer to the formation from the heater by conductive or radiative heat transfer from conduit 552. Material 590 may be molten metal, molten salt, or other liquid. In some embodiments, a gas (for example, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and/or helium) is in conduit 552 above material 590. The gas may inhibit oxidation or other chemical changes of material 590. The gas may inhibit vaporization of material 590. U.S. Published Patent Application 2008-0078551 to DeVault et al., which is incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein, describes a system for placement in a wellbore, the system including a heater in a conduit with a liquid metal between the heater and the conduit for heating subterranean earth.

[0982] Insulated conductor 574 and conduit 552 may be placed in an opening in a subsurface formation. Insulated conductor 574 and conduit 552 may have any orientation in a subsurface formation (for example, the insulated conductor and conduit may be substantially vertical or substantially horizontally oriented in the formation). Insulated conductor 574 includes core 542, electrical insulator 534, and jacket 540. In some embodiments, core 542 is a copper core. In some embodiments, core 542 includes other electrical conductors or alloys (for example, copper alloys). In some embodiments, core 542 includes a ferromagnetic conductor so that insulated conductor 574 operates as a temperature limited heater. In some embodiments, core 542 does not include a ferromagnetic conductor.

[0983] In some embodiments, core 542 of insulated conductor 574 is made of two or more portions. The first portion may be placed adjacent to the overburden. The first portion may be sized and/or made of a highly conductive material so that the first portion does not resistively heat to a high temperature. One or more other portions of core 574 may be sized and/or made of material that resistively heats to a high temperature. These portions of core 574 may be positioned adjacent to sections of the formation that are to be heated by the heater. In some embodiments, the insulated conductor does not include a highly conductive first portion. A lead in cable may be coupled to the insulated conductor to supply electricity to the insulated conductor.

[0984] In some embodiments, core 542 of insulated conductor 574 is a highly conductive material such as copper. Core 542 may be electrically coupled to jacket 540 at or near the end of the insulated conductor. In some embodiments, insulated conductor 574 is electrically coupled to conduit 552. Electrical current supplied to insulated conductor 574 may resistively heat core 542, jacket 540, material 590, and/or conduit 552. Resistive heating of core 542, jacket 540, material 590, and/or conduit 552 generates heat that may transfer to the formation.

[0985] Electrical insulator 534 may be magnesium oxide, aluminum oxide, silicon dioxide, beryllium oxide, boron nitride, silicon nitride, or combinations thereof. In certain embodiments, electrical insulator 534 is a compacted powder of magnesium oxide. In some embodiments, electrical insulator 534 includes beads of silicon nitride. In certain embodiments, a thin layer of material clad over core 542 to inhibit the core from migrating into the electrical insulator at higher temperatures (i.e., to inhibit copper of the core from migrating into magnesium oxide of the insulation). For example, a small layer of nickel (for example, about 0.5 mm of nickel) may be clad on core 542.

[0986] In some embodiments, material 590 may be relatively corrosive. Jacket 540 and/or at least the inside surface of conduit 552 may be made of a corrosion resistant material such as, but not limited to, nickel, Alloy N (Carpenter Metals), 347 stainless steel, 347H stainless steel, 446 stainless steel, or 825 stainless steel. For example, conduit 552 may be plated or lined with nickel. In some embodiments, material 590 may be relatively non-corrosive. Jacket 540 and/or at least the inside surface of conduit 552 may be made of a material such as carbon steel.

[0987] In some embodiments, jacket 540 of insulated conductor 574 is not used as the main return of electrical current for the insulated conductor. In embodiments where material 590 is a good electrical conductor such as a molten metal, current returns through the molten metal in the conduit and/or through the conduit 552. In some embodiments, conduit 552 is made of a ferromagnetic material, (for example 410 stainless steel). Conduit 552 may function as a temperature limited heater until the temperature of the conduit approaches, reaches or exceeds the Curie temperature or phase transition temperature of the conduit material.

[0988] In some embodiments, material 590 returns electrical current to the surface from insulated conductor 574 (i.e., the material acts as the return or ground conductor for the insulated conductor). Material 590 may provide a current path with low resistance so that a long insulated conductor 574 is useable in conduit 552. The long heater may operate at low voltages for the length of the heater due to the presence of material 590 that is conductive.

[0989] FIG. 94 depicts an embodiment of a portion of insulated conductor 574 in conduit 552 wherein material 590 is a good conductor (for example, a liquid metal) and current flow is indicated by the arrows. Current flows down core 542 and returns through jacket 540, material 590, and conduit 552. Jacket 540 and conduit 552 may be at approximately constant potential. Current flows radially from jacket 540 to conduit 552 through material 590. Material 590 may resistively heat. Heat from material 590 may transfer through conduit 552 into the formation.

[0990] In embodiments where material 590 is partially electrically conductive (for example, the material is a molten salt), current returns mainly through jacket 540. All or a portion of the current that passes through partially conductive material 590 may pass to ground through conduit 552.

[0991] In the embodiment depicted in FIG. 93, core 542 of insulated conductor 574 has a diameter of about 1 cm, electrical insulator 534 has an outside diameter of about 1.6 cm, and jacket 540 has an outside diameter of about 1.8 cm. In other embodiments, the insulated conductor is smaller. For example, core 542 has a diameter of about 0.5 cm, electrical insulator 534 has an outside diameter of about 0.8 cm, and jacket 540 has an outside diameter of about 0.9 cm. Other insulated conductor geometries may be used. For the same size conduit 552, the smaller geometry of insulated conductor 574 may result in a higher operating temperature of the insulated conductor to achieve the same temperature at the conduit. The smaller geometry insulated conductors may be significantly more economically favorable due to manufacturing cost, weight, and other factors.

[0992] Material 590 may be placed between the outside surface of insulated conductor 574 and the inside surface of conduit 552. In certain embodiments, material 590 is placed in the conduit in a solid form as balls or pellets. Material 590 may melt below the operating temperatures of insulated conductor 574. Material may melt above ambient subsurface formation temperatures. Material 590 may be placed in conduit 552 after insulated conductor 574 is placed in the conduit. In certain embodiments, material 590 is placed in conduit 574 as a liquid. The liquid may be placed in conduit 552 before or after insulated conductor 574 is placed in the conduit (for example, the molten liquid may be poured into the conduit before or after the insulated conductor is placed in the conduit). Additionally, material 590 may be placed in conduit 552 before or after insulated conductor 574 is energized (i.e., supplied with electricity). Material 590 may be added to conduit 552 or removed from the conduit after operation of the heater is initialized. Material 590 may be added to or removed from conduit 552 to maintain a desired head of fluid in the conduit. In some embodiments, the amount of material 590 in conduit 552 may be adjusted (i.e., added to or depleted) to adjust or balance the stresses on the conduit. Material 590 may inhibit deformation of conduit 552. The head of material 590 in conduit 552 may inhibit the formation from crushing or otherwise deforming the conduit should the formation expand against the conduit. The head of fluid in conduit 552 allows the wall of the conduit to be relatively thin. Having thin conduits 552 may increase the economic viability of using multiple heaters of this type to heat portions of the formation.

[0993] Material 590 may support insulated conductor 574 in conduit 552. The support provided by material 590 of insulated conductor 574 may allow for the deployment of long insulated conductors as compared to insulated conductors positioned only in a gas in a conduit without the use of special metallurgy to accommodate the weight of the insulated conductor. In certain embodiments, insulated conductor 574 is buoyant in material 590 in conduit 552. For example, insulated conductor may be buoyant in molten metal. The buoyancy of insulated conductor 574 reduces creep associated problems in long, substantially vertical heaters. A bottom weight or tie down may be coupled to the bottom of insulated conductor 574 to inhibit the insulated conductor from floating in material 590.

[0994] Material 590 may remain a liquid at operating temperatures of insulated conductor 574. In some embodiments, material 590 melts at temperatures above about 100° C., above about 200° C., or above about 300° C. The insulated conductor may operate at temperatures greater than 200° C., greater than 400° C., greater than 600° C., or greater than 800° C. In certain embodiments, material 590 provides enhanced heat transfer from insulated conductor 574 to conduit 552 at or near the operating temperatures of the insulated conductor.

[0995] Material 590 may include metals such as tin, zinc, an alloy such as a 60% by weight tin, 40% by weight zinc alloy; bismuth; indium; cadmium, aluminum; lead; and/or combinations thereof (for example, eutectic alloys of these metals such as binary or ternary alloys). In one embodiment, material 590 is tin. Some liquid metals may be corrosive. The jacket of the insulated conductor and/or at least the inside surface of the canister may need to be made of a material that is resistant to the corrosion of the liquid metal. The jacket of the insulated conductor and/or at least the inside surface of the conduit may be made of materials that inhibit the molten metal from leaching materials from the insulating conductor and/or the conduit to form eutectic compositions or metal alloys. Molten metals may be highly thermal conductive, but may block radiant heat transfer from the insulated conductor and/or have relatively small heat transfer by natural convection.

[0996] Material 590 may be or include molten salts such as solar salt, salts presented in Table 1, or other salts. The molten salts may be infrared transparent to aid in heat transfer from the insulated conductor to the canister. In some embodiments, solar salt includes sodium nitrate and potassium nitrate (for example, about 60% by weight sodium nitrate and about 40% by weight potassium nitrate). Solar salt melts at about 220° C. and is chemically stable up to temperatures of about 593° C. Other salts that may be used include, but are not limited to LiNO₃ (melt temperature (T_m) of 264° C. and a decomposition temperature of about 600° C.) and eutectic mixtures such as 53% by weight KNO₃, 40% by weight NaNO₃ and 7% by weight NaNO₂ (T_m of about 142° C. and an upper working temperature of over 500° C.); 45.5% by weight KNO₃ and 54.5% by weight NaNO₂ (T_m of about 142-145° C. and an upper working temperature of over 500° C.); or 50% by weight NaCl and 50% by weight SrCl₂ (T_m of about 19° C. and an upper working temperature of over 1200° C.).

[0997]

	TABLE 1
	Material	Tm (° C.)	Tb (° C.)
	Zn	420	907
	CdBr2	568	863
	CdI2	388	744
	CuBr2	498	900
	PbBr2	371	892
	TlBr	460	819
	TlF	326	826
	ThI4	566	837
	SnF2	215	850
	SnI2	320	714
	ZnCl2	290	732

[0998] Some molten salts, such as solar salt, may be relatively non-corrosive so that the conduit and/or the jacket may be made of relatively inexpensive material (for example, carbon steel). Some molten salts may have good thermal conductivity, may have high heat density, and may result in large heat transfer by natural convection.

[0999] In fluid mechanics, the Rayleigh number is a dimensionless number associated with heat transfer in a fluid. When the Rayleigh number is below the critical value for the fluid, heat transfer is primarily in the form of conduction; and when the Rayleigh number is above the critical value, heat transfer is primarily in the form of convection. The Rayleigh number is the product of the Grashof number (which describes the relationship between buoyancy and viscosity in a fluid) and the Prandtl number (which describes the relationship between momentum diffusivity and thermal diffusivity). For the same size insulated conductors in conduits, and where the temperature of the conduit is 500° C., the Rayleigh number for solar salt in the conduit is about 10 times the Rayleigh number for tin in the conduit. The higher Rayleigh number implies that the strength of natural convection in the molten solar salt is much stronger than the strength of the natural convection in molten tin. The stronger natural convection of molten salt may distribute heat and inhibit the formation of hot spots at locations along the length of the conduit. Hot spots may be caused by coke build up at isolated locations adjacent to or on the conduit, contact of the conduit by the formation at isolated locations, and/or other high thermal load situations.

[1000] Conduit 552 may be a carbon steel or stainless steel canister. In some embodiments, conduit 552 may include cladding on the outer surface to inhibit corrosion of the conduit by formation fluid. Conduit 552 may include cladding on an inner surface of the conduit that is corrosion resistant to material 590 in the conduit. Cladding applied to conduit 552 may be a coating and/or a liner. If the conduit contains a metal salt, the inner surface of the conduit may include coating of nickel, or the conduit may be or include a liner of a corrosion resistant metal such as Alloy N. If the conduit contains a molten metal, the conduit may include a corrosion resistant metal liner or coating, and/or a ceramic coating (for example, a porcelain coating or fired enamel coating). In an embodiment, conduit 552 is a canister of 410 stainless steel with an outside diameter of about 6 cm. Conduit 552 may not need a thick wall because material 590 may provide internal pressure that inhibits deformation or crushing of the conduit due to external stresses.

[1001] FIG. 95 depicts an embodiment of the heater positioned in wellbore 742 of formation 524 with a portion of insulated conductor 574 and conduit 552 oriented substantially horizontally in the formation. Material 590 may provide a head in conduit 552 due to the pressure of the material. The pressure head may keep material 590 in conduit 552. The pressure head may also provide internal pressure that inhibits deformation or collapse of conduit 552 due to external stresses.

[1002] In some embodiments, two or more insulated conductors are placed in the conduit. In some embodiments, only one of the insulated conductors is energized. Should the energized conductor fail, one of the other conductors may be energized to maintain the material in a molten phase. The failed insulated conductor may be removed and/or replaced.

[1003] The conduit of the heater may be a ribbed conduit. The ribbed conduit may improve the heat transfer characteristics of the conduit as compared to a cylindrical conduit. FIG. 96 depicts a cross-sectional representation of ribbed conduit 592. FIG. 97 depicts a perspective view of a portion of ribbed conduit 592. Ribbed conduit 592 may include rings 594 and ribs 596. Rings 594 and ribs 596 may improve the heat transfer characteristics of ribbed conduit 592. In an embodiment, the cylinder of conduit has an inner diameter of about 5.1 cm and a wall thickness of about 0.57 cm. Rings 594 may be spaced about every 3.8 cm. Rings 594 may have a height of about 1.9 cm and a thickness of about 0.5 cm. Six ribs 596 may be spaced evenly about conduit 552. Ribs 596 may have a thickness of about 0.5 cm and a height of about 1.6 cm. Other dimensions for the cylinder, rings and ribs may be used. Ribbed conduit 592 may be formed from two or more rolled pieces that are welded together to form the ribbed conduit. Other types of conduit with extra surface area to enhance heat transfer from the conduit to the formation may be used.

[1004] In some embodiments, the ribbed conduit may be used as the conduit of a conductor-in-conduit heater. For example, the conductor may be a 3.05 cm 410 stainless steel rod and the conduit has dimensions as described above. In other embodiments, the conductor is an insulated conductor and a fluid is positioned between the conductor and the ribbed conduit. The fluid may be a gas or liquid at operating temperatures of the insulated conductor.

[1005] In some embodiments, the heat source for the heater is not an insulated conductor. For example, the heat source may be hot fluid circulated through an inner conduit positioned in an outer conduit. The material may be positioned between the inner conduit and the outer conduit. Convection currents in the material may help to more evenly distribute heat to the formation and may inhibit or limit formation of a hot spot where insulation that limits heat transfer to the overburden ends. In some embodiments, the heat sources are downhole oxidizers. The material is placed between an outer conduit and an oxidizer conduit. The oxidizer conduit may be an exhaust conduit for the oxidizers or the oxidant conduit if the oxidizers are positioned in a u-shaped wellbore with exhaust gases exiting the formation through one of the legs of the u-shaped conduit. The material may help inhibit the formation of hot spots adjacent to the oxidizers of the oxidizer assembly.

[1006] The material to be heated by the insulated conductor may be placed in an open wellbore. FIG. 98 depicts material 590 in open wellbore 742 in formation 524 with insulated conductor 574 in the wellbore. In some embodiments, a gas (for example, nitrogen, carbon dioxide, and/or helium) is placed in wellbore 742 above material 590. The gas may inhibit oxidation or other chemical changes of material 590. The gas may inhibit vaporization of material 590.

[1007] Material 590 may have a melting point that is above the pyrolysis temperature of hydrocarbons in the formation. The melting point of material 590 may be above 375° C., above 400° C., or above 425° C. The insulated conductor may be energized to heat the formation. Heat from the insulated conductor may pyrolyze hydrocarbons in the formation. Adjacent the wellbore, the heat from insulated conductor 574 may result in coking that reduces the permeability and plugs the formation near wellbore 742. The plugged formation inhibits material 590 from leaking from wellbore 742 into formation 524 when the material is a liquid. In some embodiments, material 590 is a salt.

[1008] In some embodiments, material 590 leaking from wellbore 742 into formation 524 may be self-healing and/or self-sealing. Material 590 flowing away from wellbore 742 may travel until the temperature becomes less than the solidification temperature of the material. Temperature may drop rapidly a relatively small distance away from the heater used to maintain material 590 in a liquid state. The rapid drop off in temperature may result in migrating material 590 solidifying close to wellbore 742. Solidified material 590 may inhibit migration of additional material from wellbore 742, and thus self-heal and/or self-seal the wellbore.

[1009] Return electrical current for insulated conductor 574 may return through jacket 540 of the insulated conductor. Any current that passes through material 590 may pass to ground. Above the level of material 590, any remaining return electrical current may be confined to jacket 540 of insulated conductor 574.

[1010] Using liquid material in open wellbores heated by heaters may allow for delivery of high power rates (for example, up to about 2000 W/m) to the formation with relatively low heater surface temperatures. Hot spot generation in the formation may be reduced or eliminated due to convection smoothing out the temperature profile along the length of the heater. Natural convection occurring in the wellbore may greatly enhance heat transfer from the heater to the formation. Also, the large gap between the formation and the heater may prevent thermal expansion of the formation from harming the heater.

[1011] In some embodiments, an 8″ (20.3 cm) wellbore may be formed in the formation. In some embodiments, casing may be placed through all or a portion of the overburden. A 0.6 inch (1.5 cm) diameter insulated conductor heater may be placed in the wellbore. The wellbore may be filled with solid material (for example, solid particles of salt). A packer may be placed near an interface between the treatment area and the overburden. In some embodiments, a pass through conduit in the packer may be included to allow for the addition of more material to the treatment area. A non-reactive or substantially non-reactive gas (for example, carbon dioxide and/or nitrogen) may be introduced into the wellbore. The insulated conductor may be energized to begin the heating that melts the solid material and heats the treatment area.

[1012] In some embodiments, other types of heat sources besides for insulated conductors are used to heat the material placed in the open wellbore. The other types of heat sources may include gas burners, pipes through which hot heat transfer fluid flows, or other types of heaters.

[1013] In some embodiments, heat pipes are placed in the formation. The heat pipes may reduce the number of active heat sources needed to heat a treatment area of a given size. The heat pipes may reduce the time needed to heat the treatment area of a given size to a desired average temperature. A heat pipe is a closed system that utilizes phase change of fluid in the heat pipe to transport heat applied to a first region to a second region remote from the first region. The phase change of the fluid allows for large heat transfer rates. Heat may be applied to the first region of the heat pipes from any type of heat source, including but not limited to, electric heaters, oxidizers, heat provided from geothermal sources, and/or heat provided from nuclear reactors.

[1014] Heat pipes are passive heat transport systems that include no moving parts. Heat pipes may be positioned in near horizontal to vertical configurations. The fluid used in heat pipes for heating the formation may have a low cost, a low melting temperature, a boiling temperature that is not too high (for example, generally below about 900° C.), a low viscosity at temperatures below about 540° C., a high heat of vaporization, and a low corrosion rate for the heat pipe material. In some embodiments, the heat pipe includes a liner of material that is resistant to corrosion by the fluid. TABLE 1 shows melting and boiling temperatures for several materials that may be used as the fluid in heat pipes. Other salts that may be used include, but are not limited to LiNO₃, and eutectic mixtures such as 53% by weight KNO₃; 40% by weight NaNO₃ and 7% by weight NaNO₂; 45.5% by weight KNO₃ and 54.5% by weight NaNO₂; or 50% by weight NaCl and 50% by weight SrCl₂.

[1015] FIG. 99 depicts schematic cross-sectional representation of a portion of the formation with heat pipes 598 positioned adjacent to a substantially horizontal portion of heat source 202. Heat source 202 is placed in a wellbore in the formation. Heat source 202 may be a gas burner assembly, an electrical heater, a leg of a circulation system that circulates hot fluid through the formation, or other type of heat source. Heat pipes 598 may be placed in the formation so that distal ends of the heat pipes are near or contact heat source 202. In some embodiments, heat pipes 598 mechanically attach to heat source 202. Heat pipes 598 may be spaced a desired distance apart. In an embodiment, heat pipes 598 are spaced apart by about 40 feet. In other embodiments, large or smaller spacings are used. Heat pipes 598 may be placed in a regular pattern with each heat pipe spaced a given distance from the next heat pipe. In some embodiments, heat pipes 598 are placed in an irregular pattern. An irregular pattern may be used to provide a greater amount of heat to a selected portion or portions of the formation. Heat pipes 598 may be vertically positioned in the formation. In some embodiments, heat pipes 598 are placed at an angle in the formation.

[1016] Heat pipes 598 may include sealed conduit 600, seal 602, liquid heat transfer fluid 604 and vaporized heat transfer fluid 606. In some embodiments, heat pipes 598 include metal mesh or wicking material that increases the surface area for condensation and/or promotes flow of the heat transfer fluid in the heat pipe. Conduit 600 may have first portion 608 and second portion 610. Liquid heat transfer fluid 604 may be in first portion 608. Heat source 202 external to heat pipe 598 supplies heat that vaporizes liquid heat transfer fluid 604. Vaporized heat transfer fluid 606 diffuses into second portion 610. Vaporized heat transfer fluid 606 condenses in second portion and transfers heat to conduit 600, which in turn transfers heat to the formation. The condensed liquid heat transfer fluid 604 flows by gravity to first portion 608.

[1017] Position of seal 602 is a factor in determining the effective length of heat pipe 598. The effective length of heat pipe 598 may also depend on the physical properties of the heat transfer fluid and the cross-sectional area of conduit 600. Enough heat transfer fluid may be placed in conduit 600 so that some liquid heat transfer fluid 604 is present in first portion 608 at all times.

[1018] Seal 602 may provide a top seal for conduit 600. In some embodiments, conduit 600 is purged with nitrogen, helium or other fluid prior to being loaded with heat transfer fluid and sealed. In some embodiments, a vacuum may be drawn on conduit 600 to evacuate the conduit before the conduit is sealed. Drawing a vacuum on conduit 600 before sealing the conduit may enhance vapor diffusion throughout the conduit. In some embodiments, an oxygen getter may be introduced in conduit 600 to react with any oxygen present in the conduit.

[1019] FIG. 100 depicts a perspective cut-out representation of a portion of a heat pipe embodiment with heat pipe 598 located radially around oxidizer assembly 612. Oxidizers 614 of oxidizer assembly 612 are positioned adjacent to first portion 608 of heat pipe 598. Fuel may be supplied to oxidizers 614 through fuel conduit 616. Oxidant may be supplied to oxidizers 614 through oxidant conduit 618. Exhaust gas may flow through the space between outer conduit 620 and oxidant conduit 618. Oxidizers 614 combust fuel to provide heat that vaporizes liquid heat transfer fluid 604. Vaporized heat transfer fluid 606 rises in heat pipe 598 and condenses on walls of the heat pipe to transfer heat to sealed conduit 600. Exhaust gas from oxidizers 614 provides heat along the length of sealed conduit 600. The heat provided by the exhaust gas along the effective length of heat pipe 598 may increase convective heat transfer and/or reduce the lag time before significant heat is provided to the formation from the heat pipe along the effective length of the heat pipe.

[1020] FIG. 101 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an angled heat pipe embodiment with oxidizer assembly 612 located near a lowermost portion of heat pipe 598. Fuel may be supplied to oxidizers 614 through fuel conduit 616. Oxidant may be supplied to oxidizers 614 through oxidant conduit 618. Exhaust gas may flow through the space between outer conduit 620 and oxidant conduit 618.

[1021] FIG. 102 depicts a perspective cut-out representation of a portion of a heat pipe embodiment with oxidizer 614 located at the bottom of heat pipe 598. Fuel may be supplied to oxidizer 614 through fuel conduit 616. Oxidant may be supplied to oxidizer 614 through oxidant conduit 618. Exhaust gas may flow through the space between the outer wall of heat pipe 598 and outer conduit 620. Oxidizer 614 combusts fuel to provide heat that vaporizers liquid heat transfer fluid 604. Vaporized heat transfer fluid 606 rises in heat pipe 598 and condenses on walls of the heat pipe to transfer heat to sealed conduit 600. Exhaust gas from oxidizers 614 provides heat along the length of sealed conduit 600 and to outer conduit 620. The heat provided by the exhaust gas along the effective length of heat pipe 598 may increase convective heat transfer and/or reduce the lag time before significant heat is provided to the formation from the heat pipe and oxidizer combination along the effective length of the heat pipe. FIG. 103 depicts a similar embodiment with heat pipe 598 positioned at an angle in the formation.

[1022] FIG. 104 depicts a perspective cut-out representation of a portion of a heat pipe embodiment with oxidizer 614 that produces flame zone adjacent to liquid heat transfer fluid 604 in the bottom of heat pipe 598. Fuel may be supplied to oxidizer 614 through fuel conduit 616. Oxidant may be supplied to oxidizer 614 through oxidant conduit 618. Oxidant and fuel are mixed and combusted to produce flame zone 622. Flame zone 622 provides heat that vaporizes liquid heat transfer fluid 604. Exhaust gases from oxidizer 614 may flow through the space between oxidant conduit 618 and the inner surface of heat pipe 598, and through the space between the outer surface of the heat pipe and outer conduit 620. The heat provided by the exhaust gas along the effective length of heat pipe 598 may increase convective heat transfer and/or reduce the lag time before significant heat is provided to the formation from the heat pipe and oxidizer combination along the effective length of the heat pipe.

[1023] FIG. 105 depicts a perspective cut-out representation of a portion of a heat pipe embodiment with a tapered bottom that accommodates multiple oxidizers of an oxidizer assembly. In some embodiments, efficient heat pipe operation requires a high heat input. Multiple oxidizers of oxidizer assembly 612 may provide high heat input to liquid heat transfer fluid 604 of heat pipe 598. A portion of oxidizer assembly with the oxidizers may be helically wound around a tapered portion of heat pipe 598. The tapered portion may have a large surface area to accommodate the oxidizers. Fuel may be supplied to the oxidizers of oxidizer assembly 612 through fuel conduit 616. Oxidant may be supplied to oxidizer 614 through oxidant conduit 618. Exhaust gas may flow through the space between the outer wall of heat pipe 598 and outer conduit 620. Exhaust gas from oxidizers 614 provides heat along the length of sealed conduit 600 and to outer conduit 620. The heat provided by the exhaust gas along the effective length of heat pipe 598 may increase convective heat transfer and/or reduce the lag time before significant heat is provided to the formation from the heat pipe and oxidizer combination along the effective length of the heat pipe.

[1024] FIG. 106 depicts a cross-sectional representation of a heat pipe embodiment that is angled within the formation. First wellbore 624 and second wellbore 626 are drilled in the formation using magnetic ranging or techniques so that the first wellbore intersects the second wellbore. Heat pipe 598 may be positioned in first wellbore 624. First wellbore 624 may be sloped so that liquid heat transfer fluid 604 within heat pipe 598 is positioned near the intersection of the first wellbore and second wellbore 626. Oxidizer assembly 612 may be positioned in second wellbore 626. Oxidizer assembly 612 provides heat to heat pipe 598 that vaporizes liquid heat transfer fluid in the heat pipe. Packer or seal 628 may direct exhaust gas from oxidizer assembly 612 through first wellbore 624 to provide additional heat to the formation from the exhaust gas.

[1025] In some embodiments, the temperature limited heater is used to achieve lower temperature heating (for example, for heating fluids in a production well, heating a surface pipeline, or reducing the viscosity of fluids in a wellbore or near wellbore region). Varying the ferromagnetic materials of the temperature limited heater allows for lower temperature heating. In some embodiments, the ferromagnetic conductor is made of material with a lower Curie temperature than that of 446 stainless steel. For example, the ferromagnetic conductor may be an alloy of iron and nickel. The alloy may have between 30% by weight and 42% by weight nickel with the rest being iron. In one embodiment, the alloy is Invar 36. Invar 36 is 36% by weight nickel in iron and has a Curie temperature of 277° C. In some embodiments, an alloy is a three component alloy with, for example, chromium, nickel, and iron. For example, an alloy may have 6% by weight chromium, 42% by weight nickel, and 52% by weight iron. A 2.5 cm diameter rod of Invar 36 has a turndown ratio of approximately 2 to 1 at the Curie temperature. Placing the Invar 36 alloy over a copper core may allow for a smaller rod diameter. A copper core may result in a high turndown ratio. The insulator in lower temperature heater embodiments may be made of a high performance polymer insulator (such as PFA or PEEK™) when used with alloys with a Curie temperature that is below the melting point or softening point of the polymer insulator.

[1026] In certain embodiments, a conductor-in-conduit temperature limited heater is used in lower temperature applications by using lower Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range ferromagnetic materials. For example, a lower Curie temperature and/or the phase transformation temperature range ferromagnetic material may be used for heating inside sucker pump rods. Heating sucker pump rods may be useful to lower the viscosity of fluids in the sucker pump or rod and/or to maintain a lower viscosity of fluids in the sucker pump rod. Lowering the viscosity of the oil may inhibit sticking of a pump used to pump the fluids. Fluids in the sucker pump rod may be heated up to temperatures less than about 250° C. or less than about 300° C. Temperatures need to be maintained below these values to inhibit coking of hydrocarbon fluids in the sucker pump system.

[1027] In certain embodiments, a temperature limited heater includes a flexible cable (for example, a furnace cable) as the inner conductor. For example, the inner conductor may be a 27% nickel-clad or stainless steel-clad stranded copper wire with four layers of mica tape surrounded by a layer of ceramic and/or mineral fiber (for example, alumina fiber, aluminosilicate fiber, borosilicate fiber, or aluminoborosilicate fiber). A stainless steel-clad stranded copper wire furnace cable may be available from Anomet Products, Inc. The inner conductor may be rated for applications at temperatures of 1000° C. or higher. The inner conductor may be pulled inside a conduit. The conduit may be a ferromagnetic conduit (for example, a ¾″ Schedule 80 446 stainless steel pipe). The conduit may be covered with a layer of copper, or other electrical conductor, with a thickness of about 0.3 cm or any other suitable thickness. The assembly may be placed inside a support conduit (for example, a 1¼″ Schedule 80 347H or 347HH stainless steel tubular). The support conduit may provide additional creep-rupture strength and protection for the copper and the inner conductor. For uses at temperatures greater than about 1000° C., the inner copper conductor may be plated with a more corrosion resistant alloy (for example, Incoloy® 825) to inhibit oxidation. In some embodiments, the top of the temperature limited heater is sealed to inhibit air from contacting the inner conductor.

[1028] The temperature limited heater may be a single-phase heater or a three-phase heater. In a three-phase heater embodiment, the temperature limited heater has a delta or a wye configuration. Each of the three ferromagnetic conductors in the three-phase heater may be inside a separate sheath. A connection between conductors may be made at the bottom of the heater inside a splice section. The three conductors may remain insulated from the sheath inside the splice section.

[1029] FIG. 107 depicts an embodiment of a three-phase temperature limited heater with ferromagnetic inner conductors. Each leg 632 has inner conductor 532, core 542, and jacket 540. Inner conductors 532 are ferritic stainless steel or 1% carbon steel. Inner conductors 532 have core 542. Core 542 may be copper. Each inner conductor 532 is coupled to its own jacket 540. Jacket 540 is a sheath made of a corrosion resistant material (such as 304H stainless steel). Electrical insulator 534 is placed between inner conductor 532 and jacket 540. Inner conductor 532 is ferritic stainless steel or carbon steel with an outside diameter of 1.14 cm and a thickness of 0.445 cm. Core 542 is a copper core with a 0.25 cm diameter. Each leg 632 of the heater is coupled to terminal block 634. Terminal block 634 is filled with insulation material 636 and has an outer surface of stainless steel. In some embodiments, insulation material 636 is silicon nitride, boron nitride, magnesium oxide or other suitable electrically insulating material. Inner conductors 532 of legs 632 are coupled (welded) in terminal block 634. Jackets 540 of legs 632 are coupled (welded) to the outer surface of terminal block 634. Terminal block 634 may include two halves coupled around the coupled portions of legs 632.

[1030] In some embodiments, the three-phase heater includes three legs that are located in separate wellbores. The legs may be coupled in a common contacting section (for example, a central wellbore, a connecting wellbore, or a solution filled contacting section). FIG. 108 depicts an embodiment of temperature limited heaters coupled in a three-phase configuration. Each leg 638, 640, 642 may be located in separate openings 556 in hydrocarbon layer 484. Each leg 638, 640, 642 may include heating element 644. Each leg 638, 640, 642 may be coupled to single contacting element 646 in one opening 556. Contacting element 646 may electrically couple legs 638, 640, 642 together in a three-phase configuration. Contacting element 646 may be located in, for example, a central opening in the formation. Contacting element 646 may be located in a portion of opening 556 below hydrocarbon layer 484 (for example, in the underburden). In certain embodiments, magnetic tracking of a magnetic element located in a central opening (for example, opening 556 of leg 640) is used to guide the formation of the outer openings (for example, openings 556 of legs 638 and 642) so that the outer openings intersect the central opening. The central opening may be formed first using standard wellbore drilling methods. Contacting element 646 may include funnels, guides, or catchers for allowing each leg to be inserted into the contacting element.

[1031] FIG. 109 depicts an embodiment of three heaters coupled in a three-phase configuration. Conductor “legs” 638, 640, 642 are coupled to three-phase transformer 648. Transformer 648 may be an isolated three-phase transformer. In certain embodiments, transformer 648 provides three-phase output in a wye configuration. Input to transformer 648 may be made in any input configuration, such as the shown delta configuration. Legs 638, 640, 642 each include lead-in conductors 650 in the overburden of the formation coupled to heating elements 644 in hydrocarbon layer 484. Lead-in conductors 650 include copper with an insulation layer. For example, lead-in conductors 650 may be a 4-0 copper cables with TEFLON® insulation, a copper rod with polyurethane insulation, or other metal conductors such as bare copper or aluminum. In certain embodiments, lead-in conductors 650 are located in an overburden portion of the formation. The overburden portion may include overburden casings 564. Heating elements 644 may be temperature limited heater heating elements. In an embodiment, heating elements 644 are 410 stainless steel rods (for example, 3.1 cm diameter 410 stainless steel rods). In some embodiments, heating elements 644 are composite temperature limited heater heating elements (for example, 347 stainless steel, 410 stainless steel, copper composite heating elements; 347 stainless steel, iron, copper composite heating elements; or 410 stainless steel and copper composite heating elements). In certain embodiments, heating elements 644 have a length of about 10 m to about 2000 m, about 20 m to about 400 m, or about 30 m to about 300 m.

[1032] In certain embodiments, heating elements 644 are exposed to hydrocarbon layer 484 and fluids from the hydrocarbon layer. Thus, heating elements 644 are “bare metal” or “exposed metal” heating elements. Heating elements 644 may be made from a material that has an acceptable sulfidation rate at high temperatures used for pyrolyzing hydrocarbons. In certain embodiments, heating elements 644 are made from material that has a sulfidation rate that decreases with increasing temperature over at least a certain temperature range (for example, 500° C. to 650° C., 530° C. to 650° C., or 550° C. to 650° C.). For example, 410 stainless steel may have a sulfidation rate that decreases with increasing temperature between 530° C. and 650° C. Using such materials reduces corrosion problems due to sulfur-containing gases (such as H₂S) from the formation. In certain embodiments, heating elements 644 are made from material that has a sulfidation rate below a selected value in a temperature range. In some embodiments, heating elements 644 are made from material that has a sulfidation rate at most about 25 mils per year at a temperature between about 800° C. and about 880° C. In some embodiments, the sulfidation rate is at most about 35 mils per year at a temperature between about 800° C. and about 880° C., at most about 45 mils per year at a temperature between about 800° C. and about 880° C., or at most about 55 mils per year at a temperature between about 800° C. and about 880° C. Heating elements 644 may also be substantially inert to galvanic corrosion.

[1033] In some embodiments, heating elements 644 have a thin electrically insulating layer such as aluminum oxide or thermal spray coated aluminum oxide. In some embodiments, the thin electrically insulating layer is a ceramic composition such as an enamel coating. Enamel coatings include, but are not limited to, high temperature porcelain enamels. High temperature porcelain enamels may include silicon dioxide, boron oxide, alumina, and alkaline earth oxides (CaO or MgO), and minor amounts of alkali oxides (Na₂O, K₂O, LiO). The enamel coating may be applied as a finely ground slurry by dipping the heating element into the slurry or spray coating the heating element with the slurry. The coated heating element is then heated in a furnace until the glass transition temperature is reached so that the slurry spreads over the surface of the heating element and makes the porcelain enamel coating. The porcelain enamel coating contracts when cooled below the glass transition temperature so that the coating is in compression. Thus, when the coating is heated during operation of the heater, the coating is able to expand with the heater without cracking.

[1034] The thin electrically insulating layer has low thermal impedance allowing heat transfer from the heating element to the formation while inhibiting current leakage between heating elements in adjacent openings and/or current leakage into the formation. In certain embodiments, the thin electrically insulating layer is stable at temperatures above at least 350° C., above 500° C., or above 800° C. In certain embodiments, the thin electrically insulating layer has an emissivity of at least 0.7, at least 0.8, or at least 0.9. Using the thin electrically insulating layer may allow for long heater lengths in the formation with low current leakage.

[1035] Heating elements 644 may be coupled to contacting elements 646 at or near the underburden of the formation. Contacting elements 646 are copper or aluminum rods or other highly conductive materials. In certain embodiments, transition sections 652 are located between lead-in conductors 650 and heating elements 644, and/or between heating elements 644 and contacting elements 646. Transition sections 652 may be made of a conductive material that is corrosion resistant such as 347 stainless steel over a copper core. In certain embodiments, transition sections 652 are made of materials that electrically couple lead-in conductors 650 and heating elements 644 while providing little or no heat output. Thus, transition sections 652 help to inhibit overheating of conductors and insulation used in lead-in conductors 650 by spacing the lead-in conductors from heating elements 644. Transition section 652 may have a length of between about 3 m and about 9 m (for example, about 6 m).

[1036] Contacting elements 646 are coupled to contactor 654 in contacting section 656 to electrically couple legs 638, 640, 642 to each other. In some embodiments, contact solution 658 (for example, conductive cement) is placed in contacting section 656 to electrically couple contacting elements 646 in the contacting section. In certain embodiments, legs 638, 640, 642 are substantially parallel in hydrocarbon layer 484 and leg 638 continues substantially vertically into contacting section 656. The other two legs 640, 642 are directed (for example, by directionally drilling the wellbores for the legs) to intercept leg 638 in contacting section 656.

[1037] Each leg 638, 640, 642 may be one leg of a three-phase heater embodiment so that the legs are substantially electrically isolated from other heaters in the formation and are substantially electrically isolated from the formation. Legs 638, 640, 642 may be arranged in a triangular pattern so that the three legs form a triangular shaped three-phase heater. In an embodiment, legs 638, 640, 642 are arranged in a triangular pattern with 12 m spacing between the legs (each side of the triangle has a length of 12 m).

[1038] FIG. 110 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment of centralizer 558 on heater 438. FIG. 111 depicts an end view representation of the embodiment of centralizer 558 on heater 438 depicted in FIG. 110. In certain embodiments, centralizers 558 are made of three or more parts coupled to heater 438 so that the parts are spaced around the outside diameter of the heater. Having spaces between the parts of a centralizer allows debris to fall along the heater (when the heater is vertical or substantially vertical) and inhibit debris from collecting at the centralizer. In certain embodiments, the centralizer is installed on a long heater without inserting a ring. In certain embodiments, heater 438, as depicted in FIGS. 110 and 111, is an electrical conductor used as part of a heater (for example, the electrical conductor of a conductor-in-conduit heater). In certain embodiments, centralizer 558 includes three centralizer parts 558A, 558B, and 558C. In other embodiments, centralizer 558 includes four or more centralizer parts. Centralizer parts 558A, 558B, 558C may be evenly distributed around the outside diameter of heater 438. Centralizer parts 558A, 558B, 558C may have shapes that inhibit collection of material and/or gouging of the canister that surrounds heater 438, even when the centralizer parts are rotated in the canister. In some embodiments, upper portions of centralizer parts 558A, 558B, 558C may taper and/or be rounded to inhibit accumulation of material on top of the centralizer parts.

[1039] In certain embodiments, centralizer parts 558A, 558B, 558C include insulators 660 and weld bases 662. Insulators 660 may be made of electrically insulating material such as, but not limited to, ceramic (for example, magnesium oxide) or silicon nitride. Weld bases 662 may be made of weldable metal such as, but not limited to, Alloy 625, the same metal used for heater 438, or another metal that may be brazed or solid state welded to insulators 660 and welded to a metal used for heater 438.

[1040] Weld bases 662 may be brazed or brazed to heater 438. In certain embodiments, insulators 660 are brazed, or otherwise coupled, to weld bases 662 to form centralizer parts 558A, 558B, 558C. Point load transfer between insulators 660 and weld bases 662 may be minimized by the coupling. In some embodiments, weld bases 662 are coupled to heater 438 first and then insulators 660 are coupled to the weld bases to form centralizer parts 558A, 558B, 558C. Insulators 660 may be coupled to weld bases 662 as the heater is being installed into the formation. In some embodiments, the bottoms of insulators 660 conform to the shape of heater 438. In other embodiments, the bottoms of insulators 660 are flat or have other geometries.

[1041] In certain embodiments, centralizer parts 558A, 558B, 558C are spaced evenly around the outside diameter of heater 438, as shown in FIGS. 110 and 111. In other embodiments, centralizer parts 558A, 558B, 558C have other spacings around the outside diameter of heater 438.

[1042] Having space between centralizer parts 558A, 558B, 558C allows installation of the heaters and centralizers from a spool or coiled tubing installation of the heaters and centralizers. Centralizer parts 558A, 558B, 558C also allow debris (for example, metal dust or pieces of formation) to fall along heater 438 through the area of the centralizer. Thus, debris is inhibited from collecting at or near centralizer 558. In addition, centralizer parts 558A, 558B, 558C may be inexpensive to manufacture and install and easy to replace if broken.

[1043] FIG. 112 depicts a side view representation of an embodiment of a substantially u-shaped three-phase heater. First ends of legs 638, 640, 642 are coupled to transformer 648 at first location 664. In an embodiment, transformer 648 is a three-phase AC transformer. Ends of legs 638, 640, 642 are electrically coupled together with connector 666 at second location 668. Connector 666 electrically couples the ends of legs 638, 640, 642 so that the legs can be operated in a three-phase configuration. In certain embodiments, legs 638, 640, 642 are coupled to operate in a three-phase wye configuration. In certain embodiments, legs 638, 640, 642 are substantially parallel in hydrocarbon layer 484. In certain embodiments, legs 638, 640, 642 are arranged in a triangular pattern in hydrocarbon layer 484. In certain embodiments, heating elements 644 include thin electrically insulating material (such as a porcelain enamel coating) to inhibit current leakage from the heating elements. In certain embodiments, the thin electrically insulating layer allows for relatively long, substantially horizontal heater leg lengths in the hydrocarbon layer with a substantially u-shaped heater. In certain embodiments, legs 638, 640, 642 are electrically coupled so that the legs are substantially electrically isolated from other heaters in the formation and are substantially electrically isolated from the formation.

[1044] In certain embodiments, overburden casings (for example, overburden casings 564, depicted in FIGS. 109 and 112) in overburden 482 include materials that inhibit ferromagnetic effects in the casings. Inhibiting ferromagnetic effects in casings 564 reduces heat losses to the overburden. In some embodiments, casings 564 may include non-metallic materials such as fiberglass, polyvinylchloride (PVC), chlorinated polyvinylchloride (CPVC), or high-density polyethylene (HDPE). HDPEs with working temperatures in a range for use in overburden 482 include HDPEs available from Dow Chemical Co., Inc. (Midland, Mich., U.S.A.). A non-metallic casing may also eliminate the need for an insulated overburden conductor. In some embodiments, casings 564 include carbon steel coupled on the inside diameter of a non-ferromagnetic metal (for example, carbon steel clad with copper or aluminum) to inhibit ferromagnetic effects or inductive effects in the carbon steel. Other non-ferromagnetic metals include, but are not limited to, manganese steels with at least 10% by weight manganese, iron aluminum alloys with at least 18% by weight aluminum, and austentitic stainless steels such as 304 stainless steel or 316 stainless steel.

[1045] In certain embodiments, one or more non-ferromagnetic materials used in casings 564 are used in a wellhead coupled to the casings and legs 638, 640, 642. Using non-ferromagnetic materials in the wellhead inhibits undesirable heating of components in the wellhead. In some embodiments, a purge gas (for example, carbon dioxide, nitrogen or argon) is introduced into the wellhead and/or inside of casings 564 to inhibit reflux of heated gases into the wellhead and/or the casings.

[1046] In certain embodiments, one or more of legs 638, 640, 642 are installed in the formation using coiled tubing. In certain embodiments, coiled tubing is installed in the formation, the leg is installed inside the coiled tubing, and the coiled tubing is pulled out of the formation to leave the leg installed in the formation. The leg may be placed concentrically inside the coiled tubing. In some embodiments, coiled tubing with the leg inside the coiled tubing is installed in the formation and the coiled tubing is removed from the formation to leave the leg installed in the formation. The coiled tubing may extend only to a junction of the hydrocarbon layer and the contacting section, or to a point at which the leg begins to bend in the contacting section.

[1047] FIG. 113 depicts a top view representation of an embodiment of a plurality of triads of three-phase heaters in the formation. Each triad 670 includes legs A, B, C (which may correspond to legs 638, 640, 642 depicted in FIGS. 109 and 112) that are electrically coupled by linkages 674. Each triad 670 is coupled to its own electrically isolated three-phase transformer so that the triads are substantially electrically isolated from each other. Electrically isolating the triads inhibits net current flow between triads.

[1048] The phases of each triad 670 may be arranged so that legs A, B, C correspond between triads as shown in FIG. 113. Legs A, B, C are arranged such that a phase leg (for example, leg A) in a given triad is about two triad heights from a same phase leg (leg A) in an adjacent triad. The triad height is the distance from a vertex of the triad to a midpoint of the line intersecting the other two vertices of the triad. In certain embodiments, the phases of triads 670 are arranged to inhibit net current flow between individual triads. There may be some leakage of current within an individual triad but little net current flows between two triads due to the substantial electrical isolation of the triads and, in certain embodiments, the arrangement of the triad phases.

[1049] In the early stages of heating, an exposed heating element (for example, heating element 644 depicted in FIGS. 109 and 112) may leak some current to water or other fluids that are electrically conductive in the formation so that the formation itself is heated. After water or other electrically conductive fluids are removed from the wellbore (for example, vaporized or produced), the heating elements become electrically isolated from the formation. Later, when water is removed from the formation, the formation becomes even more electrically resistant and heating of the formation occurs even more predominantly via thermally conductive and/or radiative heating. Typically, the formation (the hydrocarbon layer) has an initial electrical resistance that averages at least 10 ohm·m. In some embodiments, the formation has an initial electrical resistance of at least 100 ohm·m or of at least 300 ohm·m.

[1050] Using the temperature limited heaters as the heating elements limits the effect of water saturation on heater efficiency. With water in the formation and in heater wellbores, there is a tendency for electrical current to flow between heater elements at the top of the hydrocarbon layer where the voltage is highest and cause uneven heating in the hydrocarbon layer. This effect is inhibited with temperature limited heaters because the temperature limited heaters reduce localized overheating in the heating elements and in the hydrocarbon layer.

[1051] In certain embodiments, production wells are placed at a location at which there is relatively little or zero voltage potential. This location minimizes stray potentials at the production well. Placing production wells at such locations improves the safety of the system and reduces or inhibits undesired heating of the production wells caused by electrical current flow in the production wells. FIG. 114 depicts a top view representation of the embodiment depicted in FIG. 113 with production wells 206. In certain embodiments, production wells 206 are located at or near center of triad 670. In certain embodiments, production wells 206 are placed at a location between triads at which there is relatively little or zero voltage potential (at a location at which voltage potentials from vertices of three triads average out to relatively little or zero voltage potential). For example, production well 206 may be at a location equidistant from leg A of one triad, leg B of a second triad, and leg C of a third triad, as shown in FIG. 114.

[1052] FIG. 115 depicts a top view representation of an embodiment of a plurality of triads of three-phase heaters in a hexagonal pattern in the formation. FIG. 116 depicts a top view representation of an embodiment of a hexagon from FIG. 115. Hexagon 672 includes two triads of heaters. The first triad includes legs A1, B1, C1 electrically coupled together by linkages 674 in a three-phase configuration. The second triad includes legs A2, B2, C2 electrically coupled together by linkages 674 in a three-phase configuration. The triads are arranged so that corresponding legs of the triads (for example, A1 and A2, B1 and B2, C1 and C2) are at opposite vertices of hexagon 672. The triads are electrically coupled and arranged so that there is relatively little or zero voltage potential at or near the center of hexagon 672.

[1053] Production well 206 may be placed at or near the center of hexagon 672. Placing production well 206 at or near the center of hexagon 672 places the production well at a location that reduces or inhibits undesired heating due to electromagnetic effects caused by electrical current flow in the legs of the triads and increases the safety of the system. Having two triads in hexagon 672 provides for redundant heating around production well 206. Thus, if one triad fails or has to be turned off, production well 206 still remains at a center of one triad.

[1054] As shown in FIG. 115, hexagons 672 may be arranged in a pattern in the formation such that adjacent hexagons are offset. Using electrically isolated transformers on adjacent hexagons may inhibit electrical potentials in the formation so that little or no net current leaks between hexagons.

[1055] Triads of heaters and/or heater legs may be arranged in any shape or desired pattern. For example, as described above, triads may include three heaters and/or heater legs arranged in an equilateral triangular pattern. In some embodiments, triads include three heaters and/or heater legs arranged in other triangular shapes (for example, an isosceles triangle or a right angle triangle). In some embodiments, heater legs in the triad cross each other (for example, criss-cross) in the formation. In certain embodiments, triads includes three heaters and/or heater legs arranged sequentially along a straight line.

[1056] Distal sections of the heater legs may be electrically coupled together. The distal sections may be electrically coupled to a connector or to each other. In certain embodiments, contacting elements of the heater legs are physically coupled to establish the electrical coupling. For example, heater legs may be electrically coupled by soldering, by welding, by explosive crimping, by interconnecting brush contacts and/or by other techniques that involve physically attaching the legs to each other or to a connector. In some embodiments, the contacting elements of the heater legs are placed in a contacting solution or other electrically conductive material to electrically couple the heater legs together.

[1057] FIG. 117 depicts an embodiment with triads coupled to a horizontal connector well. Triad 670A includes legs 638A, 640A, 642A. Triad 670B includes legs 638B, 640B, 642B. Legs 638A, 640A, 642A and legs 638B, 640B, 642B may be arranged along a straight line on the surface of the formation. In some embodiments, legs 638A, 640A, 642A are arranged along a straight line and offset from legs 638B, 640B, 642B, which may be arranged along a straight line. Legs 638A, 640A, 642A and legs 638B, 640B, 642B include heating elements 644 located in hydrocarbon layer 484. Lead-in conductors 650 couple heating elements 644 to the surface of the formation. Heating elements 644 are coupled to contacting elements 646 at or near the underburden of the formation. In certain embodiments, transition sections (for example, transition sections 652 depicted in FIG. 109) are located between lead-in conductors 650 and heating elements 644, and/or between heating elements 644 and contacting elements 646.

[1058] Contacting elements 646 are coupled to contactor 654 in contacting section 656 to electrically couple legs 638A, 640A, 642A to each other to form triad 670A and electrically couple legs 638B, 640B, 642B to each other to form triad 670B. In certain embodiments, contactor 654 is a ground conductor so that triad 670A and/or triad 670B may be coupled in three-phase wye configurations. In certain embodiments, triad 670A and triad 670B are electrically isolated from each other. In some embodiments, triad 670A and triad 670B are electrically coupled to each other (for example, electrically coupled in series or parallel).

[1059] In certain embodiments, contactor 654 is a substantially horizontal contactor located in contacting section 656. Contactor 654 may be a casing or a solid rod placed in a wellbore drilled substantially horizontally in contacting section 656. Legs 638A, 640A, 642A and legs 638B, 640B, 642B may be electrically coupled to contactor 654 by any method described herein or any method known in the art. For example, containers with thermite powder are coupled to contactor 654 (for example, by welding or brazing the containers to the contactor); legs 638A, 640A, 642A and legs 638B, 640B, 642B are placed inside the containers; and the thermite powder is activated to electrically couple the legs to the contactor. The containers may be coupled to contactor 654 by, for example, placing the containers in holes or recesses in contactor 654 or coupled to the outside of the contactor and then brazing or welding the containers to the contactor.

[1060] In certain embodiments, two legs in separate wellbores intercept in a single contacting section. FIG. 118 depicts an embodiment of two temperature limited heaters coupled in a single contacting section. Legs 638 and 640 include one or more heating elements 644. Heating elements 644 may include one or more electrical conductors. In certain embodiments, legs 638 and 640 are electrically coupled in a single-phase configuration with one leg positively biased versus the other leg so that current flows downhole through one leg and returns through the other leg.

[1061] Heating elements 644 in legs 638 and 640 may be temperature limited heaters. In certain embodiments, heating elements 644 are solid rod heaters. For example, heating elements 644 may be rods made of a single ferromagnetic conductor element or composite conductors that include ferromagnetic material. During initial heating when water is present in the formation being heated, heating elements 644 may leak current into hydrocarbon layer 484. The current leaked into hydrocarbon layer 484 may resistively heat the hydrocarbon layer.

[1062] In some embodiments (for example, in oil shale formations), heating elements 644 do not need support members. Heating elements 644 may be partially or slightly bent, curved, made into an S-shape, or made into a helical shape to allow for expansion and/or contraction of the heating elements. In certain embodiments, solid rod heating elements 644 are placed in small diameter wellbores (for example, about 3¾″ (about 9.5 cm) diameter wellbores). Small diameter wellbores may be less expensive to drill or form than larger diameter wellbores, and there will be less cuttings to dispose of.

[1063] In certain embodiments, portions of legs 638 and 640 in overburden 482 have insulation (for example, polymer insulation) to inhibit heating the overburden. Heating elements 644 may be substantially vertical and substantially parallel to each other in hydrocarbon layer 484. At or near the bottom of hydrocarbon layer 484, leg 638 may be directionally drilled towards leg 640 to intercept leg 640 in contacting section 656. Drilling two wellbores to intercept each other may be easier and less expensive than drilling three or more wellbores to intercept each other. The depth of contacting section 656 depends on the length of bend in leg 638 needed to intercept leg 640. For example, for a 40 ft (about 12 m) spacing between vertical portions of legs 638 and 640, about 200 ft (about 61 m) is needed to allow the bend of leg 638 to intercept leg 640. Coupling two legs may require a thinner contacting section 656 than coupling three or more legs in the contacting section.

[1064] FIG. 119 depicts an embodiment for coupling legs 638 and 640 in contacting section 656. Heating elements 644 are coupled to contacting elements 646 at or near junction of contacting section 656 and hydrocarbon layer 484. Contacting elements 646 may be copper or another suitable electrical conductor. In certain embodiments, contacting element 646 in leg 640 is a liner with opening 676. Contacting element 646 from leg 638 passes through opening 676. Contactor 654 is coupled to the end of contacting element 646 from leg 638. Contactor 654 provides electrical coupling between contacting elements in legs 638 and 640.

[1065] In certain embodiments, contacting elements 646 include one or more fins or projections. The fins or projections may increase an electrical contact area of contacting elements 646. In some embodiments, contacting element 646 of leg 640 has an opening or other orifice that allows the contacting element of 638 to couple to the contacting element of leg 640.

[1066] In certain embodiments, legs 638 and 640 are coupled together to form a diad. Three diads may be coupled to a three-phase transformer to power the legs of the heaters. FIG. 120 depicts an embodiment of three diads coupled to a three-phase transformer. In certain embodiments, transformer 648 is a delta three-phase transformer. Diad 678A includes legs 638A and 640A. Diad 678B includes legs 638B and 640B. Diad 678C includes legs 638C and 640C. Diads 678A, 678B, 678C are coupled to the secondaries of transformer 648. Diad 678A is coupled to the “A” secondary. Diad 678B is coupled to the “B” secondary. Diad 678C is coupled to the “C” secondary.

[1067] Coupling the diads to the secondaries of the delta three-phase transformer isolates the diads from ground. Isolating the diads from ground inhibits leakage to the formation from the diads. Coupling the diads to different phases of the delta three-phase transformer also inhibits leakage between the heating legs of the diads in the formation.

[1068] In some embodiments, diads are used for treating formations using triangular or hexagonal heater patterns. FIG. 121 depicts an embodiment of groups of diads in a hexagonal pattern. Heaters may be placed at the vertices of each of the hexagons in the hexagonal pattern. Each group 680 of diads (enclosed by dashed circles) may be coupled to a separate three-phase transformer. “A”, “B”, and “C” inside groups 680 represent each diad (for example, diads 678A, 678B, 678C depicted in FIG. 120) that is coupled to each of the three secondary phases of the transformer with each phase coupled to one diad (with the heaters at the vertices of the hexagon). The numbers “1”, “2”, and “3” inside the hexagons represent the three repeating types of hexagons in the pattern depicted in FIG. 121.

[1069] FIG. 122 depicts an embodiment of diads in a triangular pattern. Three diads 678A, 678B, 678C may be enclosed in each group 680 of diads (enclosed by dashed rectangles). Each group 680 may be coupled to a separate three-phase transformer.

[1070] In certain embodiments, exposed metal heating elements are used in substantially horizontal sections of u-shaped wellbores. Substantially u-shaped wellbores may be used in tar sands formations, oil shale formation, or other formations with relatively thin hydrocarbon layers. Tar sands or thin oil shale formations may have thin shallow layers that are more easily and uniformly heated using heaters placed in substantially u-shaped wellbores. Substantially u-shaped wellbores may also be used to process formations with thick hydrocarbon layers. In some embodiments, substantially u-shaped wellbores are used to access rich layers in a thick hydrocarbon formation.

[1071] Heaters in substantially u-shaped wellbores may have long lengths compared to heaters in vertical wellbores because horizontal heating sections do not have problems with creep or hanging stress encountered with vertical heating elements. Substantially u-shaped wellbores may make use of natural seals in the formation and/or the limited thickness of the hydrocarbon layer. For example, the wellbores may be placed above or below natural seals in the formation without punching large numbers of holes in the natural seals, as would be needed with vertically oriented wellbores. Using substantially u-shaped wellbores instead of vertical wellbores may also reduce the number of wells needed to treat a surface footprint of the formation. Using less wells reduces capital costs for equipment and reduces the environmental impact of treating the formation by reducing the amount of wellbores on the surface and the amount of equipment on the surface. Substantially u-shaped wellbores may also utilize a lower ratio of overburden section to heated section than vertical wellbores.

[1072] Substantially u-shaped wellbores may allow for flexible placement of the openings of the wellbores on the surface. Openings to the wellbores may be placed according to the surface topology of the formation. In certain embodiments, the openings of wellbores are placed at geographically accessible locations such as topological highs (for examples, hills). For example, the wellbore may have a first opening on a first topologic high and a second opening on a second topologic high and the wellbore crosses beneath a topologic low (for example, a valley with alluvial fill) between the first and second topologic highs. This placement of the openings may avoid placing openings or equipment in topologic lows or other inaccessible locations. In addition, the water level may not be artesian in topologically high areas. Wellbores may be drilled so that the openings are not located near environmentally sensitive areas such as, but not limited to, streams, nesting areas, or animal refuges.

[1073] FIG. 123 depicts a cross-sectional representation of an embodiment of a heater with an exposed metal heating element placed in a substantially u-shaped wellbore. Heaters 438A, 438B, 438C have first end portions at first location 664 on surface 568 of the formation and second end portions at second location 668 on the surface. Heaters 438A, 438B, 438C have sections 682 in overburden 482. Sections 682 are configured to provide little or no heat output. In certain embodiments, sections 682 include an insulated electrical conductor such as insulated copper. Sections 682 are coupled to heating elements 644.

[1074] In certain embodiments, portions of heating elements 644 are substantially parallel in hydrocarbon layer 484. In certain embodiments, heating elements 644 are exposed metal heating elements. In certain embodiments, heating elements 644 are exposed metal temperature limited heating elements. Heating elements 644 may include ferromagnetic materials such as 9% by weight to 13% by weight chromium stainless steel like 410 stainless steel, chromium stainless steels such as T/P91 or T/P92, 409 stainless steel, VM12 (Vallourec and Mannesmann Tubes, France) or iron-cobalt alloys for use as temperature limited heaters. In some embodiments, heating elements 644 are composite temperature limited heating elements such as 410 stainless steel and copper composite heating elements or 347H, iron, copper composite heating elements. Heating elements 644 may have lengths of at least about 100 m, at least about 500 m, or at least about 1000 m, up to lengths of about 6000 m.

[1075] Heating elements 644 may be solid rods or tubulars. In certain embodiments, solid rod heating elements have diameters several times the skin depth at the Curie temperature of the ferromagnetic material. Typically, the solid rod heating elements may have diameters of 1.91 cm or larger (for example, 2.5 cm, 3.2 cm, 3.81 cm, or 5.1 cm). In certain embodiments, tubular heating elements have wall thicknesses of at least twice the skin depth at the Curie temperature of the ferromagnetic material. Typically, the tubular heating elements have outside diameters of between about 2.5 cm and about 15.2 cm and wall thickness in range between about 0.13 cm and about 1.01 cm.

[1076] In certain embodiments, tubular heating elements 644 allow fluids to be convected through the tubular heating elements. Fluid flowing through the tubular heating elements may be used to preheat the tubular heating elements to initially heat the formation and/or to recover heat from the formation after heating is completed for the in situ heat treatment process. Fluids that may flow through the tubular heating elements include, but are not limited to, air, water, steam, helium, carbon dioxide or other fluids. In some embodiments, a hot fluid, such as carbon dioxide or helium, flows through the tubular heating elements to provide heat to the formation. The hot fluid may be used to provide heat to the formation before electrical heating is used to provide heat to the formation. In some embodiments, the hot fluid is used to provide heat in addition to electrical heating. Using the hot fluid to provide heat to the formation in addition to providing electrical heating may be less expensive than using electrical heating alone to provide heat to the formation. In some embodiments, water and/or steam flows through the tubular heating element to recover heat from the formation. The heated water and/or steam may be used for solution mining and/or other processes.

[1077] Transition sections 684 may couple heating elements 644 to sections 682. In certain embodiments, transition sections 684 include material that has a high electrical conductivity but is corrosion resistant, such as 347 stainless steel over copper. In an embodiment, transition sections include a composite of stainless steel clad over copper. Transition sections 684 inhibit overheating of copper and/or insulation in sections 682.

[1078] FIG. 124 depicts a top view representation of an embodiment of a surface pattern of the heaters depicted in FIG. 123. Heaters 438A-L may be arranged in a repeating triangular pattern on the surface of the formation. A triangle may be formed by heaters 438A, 438B, and 438C and a triangle formed by heaters 438C, 438D, and 438E. In some embodiments, heaters 438A-L are arranged in a straight line on the surface of the formation. Heaters 438A-L have first end portions at first location 664 on the surface and second end portions at second location 668 on the surface. Heaters 438A-L are arranged such that (a) the patterns at first location 664 and second location 668 correspond to each other, (b) the spacing between heaters is maintained at the two locations on the surface, and/or (c) the heaters all have substantially the same length (substantially the same horizontal distance between the end portions of the heaters on the surface as shown in the top view of FIG. 124).

[1079] As depicted in FIGS. 123 and 124, cables 686, 688 may be coupled to transformer 580 and one or more heater units, such as the heater unit including heaters 438A, 438B, 438C. Cables 686, 688 may carry a large amount of power. In certain embodiments, cables 686, 688 are capable of carrying high currents with low losses. For example, cables 686, 688 may be thick copper or aluminum conductors. The cables may also have thick insulation layers. In some embodiments, cable 686 and/or cable 688 may be superconducting cables. The superconducting cables may be cooled by liquid nitrogen. Superconducting cables are available from Superpower, Inc. (Schenectady, N.Y., U.S.A.). Superconducting cables may minimize power loss and reduce the size of the cables needed to couple transformer 580 to the heaters. In some embodiments, cables 686, 688 may be made of carbon nanotubes. Carbon nanotubes as conductors may have about 1000 times the conductivity of copper for the same diameter. Also, carbon nanotubes may not require refrigeration during use.

[1080] In certain embodiments, bus bar 690A is coupled to first end portions of heaters 438A-L and bus bar 690B is coupled to second end portions of heaters 438A-L. Bus bars 690A,B electrically couple heaters 438A-L to cables 686, 688 and transformer 580. Bus bars 690A,B distribute power to heaters 438A-L. In certain embodiments, bus bars 690A,B are capable of carrying high currents with low losses. In some embodiments, bus bars 690A,B are made of superconducting material such as the superconductor material used in cables 686, 688. In some embodiments, bus bars 690A,B may include carbon nanotube conductors.

[1081] As shown in FIG. 124, heaters 438A-L are coupled to a single transformer 580. In certain embodiments, transformer 580 is a source of time-varying current. In certain embodiments, transformer 580 is an electrically isolated, single-phase transformer. In certain embodiments, transformer 580 provides power to heaters 438A-L from an isolated secondary phase of the transformer. First end portions of heaters 438A-L may be coupled to one side of transformer 580 while second end portions of the heaters are coupled to the opposite side of the transformer. Transformer 580 provides a substantially common voltage to the first end portions of heaters 438A-L and a substantially common voltage to the second end portions of heaters 438A-L. In certain embodiments, transformer 580 applies a voltage potential to the first end portions of heaters 438A-L that is opposite in polarity and substantially equal in magnitude to a voltage potential applied to the second end portions of the heaters. For example, a +660 V potential may be applied to the first end portions of heaters 438A-L and a −660 V potential applied to the second end portions of the heaters at a selected point on the wave of time-varying current (such as AC or modulated DC). Thus, the voltages at the two end portion of the heaters may be equal in magnitude and opposite in polarity with an average voltage that is substantially at ground potential.

[1082] Applying the same voltage potentials to the end portions of all heaters 438A-L produces voltage potentials along the lengths of the heaters that are substantially the same along the lengths of the heaters. FIG. 125 depicts a cross-sectional representation, along a vertical plane, such as the plane A-A shown in FIG. 123, of substantially u-shaped heaters in a hydrocarbon layer. The voltage potential at the cross-sectional point shown in FIG. 125 along the length of heater 438A is substantially the same as the voltage potential at the corresponding cross-sectional points on heaters 438B-L. At lines equidistant between heater wellheads, the voltage potential is approximately zero. Other wells, such as production wells or monitoring wells, may be located along these zero voltage potential lines, if desired. Production wells 206 located close to the overburden may be used to transport formation fluid that is initially in a vapor phase to the surface. Production wells located close to a bottom of the heated portion of the formation may be used to transport formation fluid that is initially in a liquid phase to the surface.

[1083] In certain embodiments, the voltage potential at the midpoint of heaters 438A-L is about zero. Having similar voltage potentials along the lengths of heaters 438A-L inhibits current leakage between the heaters. Thus, there is little or no current flow in the formation and the heaters may have long lengths. Having the opposite polarity and substantially equal voltage potentials at the end portions of the heaters also halves the voltage applied at either end portion of the heater versus having one end portion of the heater grounded and one end portion at full potential. Reducing (halving) the voltage potential applied to an end portion of the heater generally reduces current leakage, reduces insulator requirements, and/or reduces arcing distances because of the lower voltage potential to ground applied at the end portions of the heaters.

[1084] In certain embodiments, substantially vertical heaters are used to provide heat to the formation. Opposite polarity and substantially equal voltage potentials, as described above, may be applied to the end portions of the substantially vertical heaters. FIG. 126 depicts a side view representation of substantially vertical heaters coupled to a substantially horizontal wellbore. Heaters 438A, 438B, 438C, 438D, 438E, 438F are substantially vertical in hydrocarbon layer 484. First end portions of heaters 438A, 438B, 438C, 438D, 438E, 438F are coupled to bus bar 690A on a surface of the formation. Second end portions of heaters 438A, 438B, 438C, 438D, 438E, 438F are coupled to bus bar 690B in contacting section 656.

[1085] Bus bar 690B may be a bus bar located in a substantially horizontal wellbore in contacting section 656. Second end portions of heaters 438A, 438B, 438C, 438D, 438E, 438F may be coupled to bus bar 690B by any method described herein or any method known in the art. For example, containers with thermite powder are coupled to bus bar 690B (for example, by welding or brazing the containers to the bus bar), end portions of heaters 438A, 438B, 438C, 438D, 438E, 438F are placed inside the containers, and the thermite powder is activated to electrically couple the heaters to the bus bar. The containers may be coupled to bus bar 690B by, for example, placing the containers in holes or recesses in bus bar 690B or coupled to the outside of the bus bar and then brazing or welding the containers to the bus bar.

[1086] Bus bar 690A and bus bar 690B may be coupled to transformer 580 with cables 686, 688, as described above. Transformer 580 may provide voltages to bar 690A and bus bar 690B as described above for the embodiments depicted in FIGS. 123 and 124. For example, transformer 580 may apply a voltage potential to the first end portions of heaters 438A-F that is opposite in polarity and substantially equal in magnitude to a voltage potential applied to the second end portions of the heaters. Applying the same voltage potentials to the end portions of all heaters 438A-F may produce voltage potentials along the lengths of the heaters that are substantially the same along the lengths of the heaters. Applying the same voltage potentials to the end portions of all heaters 438A-F may inhibit current leakage between the heaters and/or into the formation. In some embodiments, heaters 438A-F are electrically coupled in pairs to the isolated delta winding on the secondary of a three-phase transformer.

[1087] In certain embodiments, it may be advantageous to allow some current leakage into the formation during early stages of heating to heat the formation at a faster rate. Current leakage from the heaters into the formation electrically heats the formation directly. The formation is heated by direct electrical heating in addition to conductive heat provided by the heaters. The formation (the hydrocarbon layer) may have an initial electrical resistance that averages at least 10 ohm·m. In some embodiments, the formation has an initial electrical resistance of at least 100 ohm·m or of at least 300 ohm·m. Direct electrical heating is achieved by having opposite potentials applied to adjacent heaters in the hydrocarbon layer. Current may be allowed to leak into the formation until a selected temperature is reached in the heaters or in the formation. The selected temperature may be below or near the temperature that water proximate one or more heaters boils off. After water boils off, the hydrocarbon layer is substantially electrically isolated from the heaters and direct heating of the formation is inefficient. After the selected temperature is reached, the voltage potential is applied in the opposite polarity and substantially equal magnitude manner described above for FIGS. 123 and 124 so that adjacent heaters will have the same voltage potential along their lengths.

[1088] Current is allowed to leak into the formation by reversing the polarity of one or more heaters shown in FIG. 124 so that a first group of heaters has a positive voltage potential at first location 664 and a second group of heaters has a negative voltage potential at the first location. The first end portions, at first location 664, of a first group of heaters (for example, heaters 438A, 438B, 438D, 438E, 438G, 438H, 438J, 438K, depicted in FIG. 124) are applied with a positive voltage potential that is substantially equal in magnitude to a negative voltage potential applied to the second end portions, at second location 668, of the first group of heaters. The first end portions, at first location 664, of the second group of heaters (for example, heaters 438C, 438F, 438I, 438L) are applied with a negative voltage potential that is substantially equal in magnitude to the positive voltage potential applied to the first end portions of the first group of heaters. Similarly, the second end portions, at second location 668, of the second group of heaters are applied with a positive voltage potential substantially equal in magnitude to the negative potential applied to the second end portions of the first group of heaters. After the selected temperature is reached, the first end portions of both groups of heaters are applied with voltage potential that is opposite in polarity and substantially similar in magnitude to the voltage potential applied to the second end portions of both groups of heaters.

[1089] In some embodiments, the heating elements have thin electrically insulating material to inhibit current leakage from the heating elements. In some embodiments, the thin electrically insulating layer is aluminum oxide or thermal spray coated aluminum oxide. In some embodiments, the thin electrically insulating layer is an enamel coating of a ceramic composition. The thin electrically insulating layer may inhibit heating elements of a three-phase heater from leaking current between the elements, from leaking current into the formation, and from leaking current to other heaters in the formation. Thus, the three-phase heater may have a longer heater length.

[1090] In certain embodiments, a plurality of substantially horizontal (or inclined) heaters are coupled to a single substantially horizontal bus bar in the subsurface formation. Having the plurality of substantially horizontal heaters connected to a single bus bar in the subsurface reduces the overall footprint of heaters on the surface of the formation and the number of wells drilled in the formation. In addition, the amount of subsurface space used to couple the heaters may be minimized so that more of the formation is treated with heat to recover hydrocarbons (for example, there is less unheated depth in the formation). The number and spacing of heaters coupled to the single bus bar may be varied depending on factors such as, but not limited to, size of the treatment area, vertical thickness of the formation, heating requirements for the formation, number of layers in the formation, and capacity limitations of the surface power supply.

[1091] FIG. 127 depicts an embodiment of pluralities of substantially horizontal heaters 438A,B coupled to bus bars 690A,B in hydrocarbon layer 484. Heaters 438A,B have sections 682 in the overburden of hydrocarbon layer 484. Sections 682 may include high electrical conductivity, low thermal loss electrical conductors such as copper or copper clad carbon steel. Heaters 438A,B enter hydrocarbon layer 484 with substantially vertical sections and then redirect so that the heaters have substantially horizontal sections in hydrocarbon layer 484. The substantially horizontal sections of heaters 438A,B in hydrocarbon layer 484 may provide the majority of the heat to the hydrocarbon layer. Heaters 438A,B may be coupled to bus bars 690A,B, which are located distant from each other in the formation while being substantially parallel to each other.

[1092] In certain embodiments, heaters 438A,B include exposed metal heating elements. In certain embodiments, heaters 438A,B include exposed metal temperature limited heating elements. The heating elements may include ferromagnetic materials such as 9% by weight to 13% by weight chromium stainless steel like 410 stainless steel, chromium stainless steels such as T/P91 or T/P92, 409 stainless steel, VM12 (Vallourec and Mannesmann Tubes, France) or iron-cobalt alloys for use as temperature limited heaters. In some embodiments, the heating elements are composite temperature limited heating elements such as 410 stainless steel and copper composite heating elements or 347H, iron, copper composite heating elements. The substantially horizontal sections of heaters 438A,B in hydrocarbon layer 484 may have lengths of at least about 100 m, at least about 500 m, or at least about 1000 m, up to lengths of about 6000 m.

[1093] In some embodiments, two groups of heaters 438A,B enter the subsurface near each other and then branch away from each other in hydrocarbon layer 484. Having the surface portions of more than one group of heaters located near each other creates less of a surface footprint of the heaters and allows a single group of surface facilities to be used for both groups of heaters.

[1094] In certain embodiments, the groups of heaters 438A or 438B are each coupled to a single transformer. In some embodiments, three heaters in the groups are coupled in a triad configuration (each heater is coupled to one of the phases (A, B, or C) of a three phase transformer and the bus bar is coupled to the neutral, or center point, of the transformer). Each phase of the three-phase transformer may be coupled to more than one heater in each group of heaters (for example, phase A may be coupled to 5 heaters in the group of heaters 438A). In some embodiments, the heaters are coupled to a single phase transformer (either in series or in parallel configurations).

[1095] FIG. 128 depicts an embodiment of pluralities of substantially horizontal heaters 438A,B coupled to bus bars 690A,B in hydrocarbon layer 484. In such an embodiment, two groups of heaters 438A,B enter the formation at distal locations on the surface of the formation. Heaters 438A,B branch towards each other in hydrocarbon layer 484 so that the ends of the heaters are directed towards each other. Heaters 438A,B may be coupled to bus bars 690A,B, which are located proximate each other and substantially parallel to each other. Bus bars 690A,B may enter the subsurface in proximity to each other so that the footprint of the bus bars on the surface is small.

[1096] In certain embodiments, heaters 438A,B are coupled to a single phase transformer in series or parallel. The heaters may be coupled so that the polarity (direction of current flow) alternates in the row of heaters so that each heater has a polarity opposite the heater adjacent to it. Additionally, heaters 438A,B and bus bars 690A,B may be electrically coupled such that the bus bars are opposite in polarity from each other (the current flows in opposite directions at any point in time in each bus bar). Coupling the heaters and the bus bars in such a manner inhibits current leakage into and/or through the formation.

[1097] As shown in FIGS. 127 and 128, heaters 438A may be electrically coupled to bus bar 690A and heaters 438B may be electrically coupled to bus bar 690B. Bus bars 690A,B may electrically couple to the ends of heaters 438A,B and be a return or neutral connection for the heaters with bus bar 690A being the neutral connection for heaters 438A and bus bar 690B being the neutral connection for heaters 438B. Bus bars 690A,B may be located in wellbores that are formed substantially perpendicular to the path of wellbores with heaters 438A,B, as shown in FIG. 127. Directional drilling and/or magnetic steering may be used so that the wells for bus bars 690A,B and the wellbores for heaters 438A,B intersect.

[1098] In certain embodiments, heaters 438A,B are coupled to bus bars 690A,B using “mousetrap” type connectors 692. In some embodiments, other couplings, such as those described herein or known in the art, are used to couple heaters 438A,B to bus bars 690A,B. For example, a molten metal or a liquid conducting fluid may fill up the connection space (in the wellbores) to electrically couple the heaters and the bus bars.

[1099] FIG. 129 depicts an enlarged view of an embodiment of bus bar 690 coupled to heaters 438 with connectors 692. In certain embodiments, bus bar 690 includes carbon steel or other electrically conducting metals. In some embodiments, a high electrical conductivity conductor or metal is coupled to or included in bus bar 690. For example, bus bar 690 may include carbon steel with copper cladded to the carbon steel.

[1100] In some embodiments, a centralizer or other centralizing device is used to locate or guide heaters 438 and/or bus bars 690 so that the heaters and bus bars can be coupled. FIG. 130 depicts an enlarged view of an embodiment of bus bar 690 coupled to heater 438 with connectors 692 and centralizers 558. Centralizers 558 may locate heater 438 and/or bus bar 690 so that connectors 692 easily couple the heater and the bus bar. Centralizers 558 may ensure proper spacing of heater 438 and/or bus bar 690 so that the heater and the bus bar can be coupled with connectors 692. Centralizers 558 may inhibit heater 438 and/or bus bar 690 from contacting the sides of the wellbores at or near connectors 692.

[1101] FIG. 131 depicts a cross-sectional representation of connector 692 coupling to bus bar 690. FIG. 132 depicts a perspective representation of connector 692 coupling to bus bar 690. Connectors 692 are shown in proximity to bus bar 690 (before the connector clamps around the bus bar). Connector 692 is connected or directly attached to the heater so that the connector is rotatable around the end of the heater while maintaining electrical contact with the heater. In some embodiments, the connector and the end of the heater are twisted into position to align with the bus bar. Connector 692 includes collets 694. Collets 694 are shaped (for example, diagonally cut or helically profiled) so that as the connector is pushed onto bus bar 690, the shape of the collets rotates the head of the connector as the collets slide over the bus bar. Collets 694 may be spring loaded so that the collets hold down against bus bar 690 after the collets slide over the bus bar. Thus, connector 692 clamps to bus bar 690 using collets 694. Connector 692, including collets 694, is made of electrically conductive materials so that the connector electrically couples bus bar 690 to the heater attached to the connector.

[1102] In some embodiments, an explosive element is added to connectors 692, such as the connectors shown in FIGS. 131 and 132. Connector 692 is used to position bus bar 690 and the heater in proper positions for explosive bonding of the bus bar to the heater. The explosive element may be located on connector 692. For example, the explosive element may be located on one or both of collets 694. The explosive element may be used to explosively bond connector 692 to bus bar 690 so that the heater is metallically bonded to the bus bar.

[1103] In some embodiment, the explosive bonding is applied along the axial direction of bus bar 690. In some embodiments, the explosive bonding process is a self cleaning process. For example, the explosive bonding process may drive out air and/or debris from between components during the explosion. In some embodiments, the explosive element is a shape charge explosive element. Using the shape charge element may focus the explosive energy in a desired direction.

[1104] FIG. 133 depicts an embodiment of three u-shaped heaters with common overburden sections coupled to a single three-phase transformer. In certain embodiments, heaters 438A, 438B, 438C are exposed metal heaters. In some embodiments, heaters 438A, 438B, 438C are exposed metal heaters with a thin, electrically insulating coating on the heaters. For example, heaters 438A, 438B, 438C may be 410 stainless steel, carbon steel, 347H stainless steel, or other corrosion resistant stainless steel rods or tubulars (such as 2.5 cm or 3.2 cm diameter rods). The rods or tubulars may have porcelain enamel coatings on the exterior of the rods to electrically insulate the rods.

[1105] In some embodiments, heaters 438A, 438B, 438C are insulated conductor heaters. In some embodiments, heaters 438A, 438B, 438C are conductor-in-conduit heaters. Heaters 438A, 438B, 438C may have substantially parallel heating sections in hydrocarbon layer 484. Heaters 438A, 438B, 438C may be substantially horizontal or at an incline in hydrocarbon layer 484. In some embodiments, heaters 438A, 438B, 438C enter the formation through common wellbore 428A. Heaters 438A, 438B, 438C may exit the formation through common wellbore 428B. In certain embodiments, wellbores 428A, 428B are uncased (for example, open wellbores) in hydrocarbon layer 484.

[1106] Openings 556A, 556B, 556C span between wellbore 428A and wellbore 428B. Openings 556A, 556B, 556C may be uncased openings in hydrocarbon layer 484. In certain embodiments, openings 556A, 556B, 556C are formed by drilling from wellbore 428A and/or wellbore 428B. In some embodiments, openings 556A, 556B, 556C are formed by drilling from each wellbore 428A and 428B and connecting at or near the middle of the openings. Drilling from both sides towards the middle of hydrocarbon layer 484 allows longer openings to be formed in the hydrocarbon layer. Thus, longer heaters may be installed in hydrocarbon layer 484. For example, heaters 438A, 438B, 438C may have lengths of at least about 1500 m, at least about 3000 m, or at least about 4500 m.

[1107] Having multiple long, substantially horizontal or inclined heaters extending from only two wellbores in hydrocarbon layer 484 reduces the footprint of wells on the surface needed for heating the formation. The number of overburden wellbores that need to be drilled in the formation is reduced, which reduces capital costs per heater in the formation. Heating the formation with long, substantially horizontal or inclined heaters also reduces overall heat losses in overburden 482 when heating the formation because of the reduced number of overburden sections used to treat the formation (for example, losses in overburden 482 are a smaller fraction of total power supplied to the formation).

[1108] In some embodiments, heaters 438A, 438B, 438C are installed in wellbores 428A, 428B and openings 556A, 556B, 556C by pulling the heaters through the wellbores and the openings from one end to the other. For example, an installation tool may be pushed through the openings and coupled to a heater in wellbore 428A. The heater may then be pulled through the openings towards wellbore 428B using the installation tool. The heater may be coupled to the installation tool using a connector such as a claw, a catcher, or other devices known in the art.