Anodes for rechargeable lithium batteries

[0002] This application is based upon provisional application Ser. No. 60/092,206, filed Jul. 9, 1998, and upon provisional application Ser. No. 60/142,312 filed Dec. 21, 1998, and is a continuation-in-part of PCT application Ser. No. PCT/US99/12868 filed Jun. 8, 1999, and is a continuation-in-part of PCT/US99/18811 filed Aug. 17, 1999 which PCT application was abandoned.

[0004] This invention relates to new anode materials for lithium ion batteries. More specifically this invention relates to new anode materials for lithium-ion batteries consisting of intermetallic materials having active and inactive metals with respect to lithium, such as for instance Sn and Cu metals, respectively. Lithium-ion batteries are under development for the consumer electronics market such as cellular phones, laptop computers, and camcorders. Lithium batteries are also being developed for high energy/power systems such as electric vehicles. A major concern about lithium batteries is safety, primarily when metallic lithium is used as the anode material. This arises because lithium has a very high oxidation potential and thus reactivity in the cell environment. One approach to the safety issue is to use carbon as a host structure for lithium. The carbon can be either graphite or a less crystalline form of pyrolyzed carbon. Lithium-intercalated graphite/carbon electrodes improve the safety of lithium cells, but do not completely overcome the safety problems, because there is still the possibility of depositing metallic lithium at the top of the charge when the voltage of the lithiated carbon/graphite anode approaches that of metallic lithium. Carbon itself when present in a finely divided form with a high surface area, can be highly reactive particularly if oxygen is released within the cell from a highly oxidizing cathode material such as Li_1−xCoO₂, Li_1−xNiO₂, and Li_1−xMn₂O₄.

[0005] There is, therefore, a need to find alternative anode materials to carbon. Many binary lithium alloy systems, such as Li_xAl, Li_xSi and Li_xSn have been extensively studied in the past. These alloys undergo several phase transitions during charge and discharge; the structures undergo severe lattice expansion and contraction that limits the cycle-life of the electrode. An improvement in cycle-life has been made by using an amorphous tin oxide negative (anode) electrode, in which the tin ions are initially reduced to a metallic state (during the charge process of lithium-ion cells), and thereafter alloyed with lithium to form a series of phases within the Li_xSn system (0<x≦4.4). Several high-temperature phases are known, in order of increasing lithium content, they are: Li₂Sn₅, LiSn, Li₇Sn₃, Li₅Sn₂, Li₁₃Sn₅, Li₇Sn₂and Li₂₂Sn₅; they are generated during the electrochemical reaction of lithium with tin at 400° C. At 25° C., the electrochemical profile has indicated that the compositions of the stable phases are Li₂Sn₅, Li₂Sn₃, Li₇Sn₃, Li₅Sn₂, Li₇Sn₂and Li₂₂Sn₅. Tin-oxide electrodes suffer an irreversible capasity loss on the first cycle because a significant amount of the lithium is trapped within the charged electrode as lithium oxide. Furthermore, lithium oxide is an insulator, which reduces the electronic conductivity of the electrode, a serious disadvantage since for optimum performance the anode needs to be an electrical conductor.

[0006] We have invented a new anode for a lithium battery by replacing the oxygen of a tin oxide electrode with a metal such as copper, which has not only excellent electrical properties, but also has a low oxidation potential, and therefore a low reactivity in a lithium cell environment; copper foil is also used as the current collector at the negative electrode in conventional Li_xC₆/Li_1−xCoO₂lithium-ion cells. More generally, the invention relates to the use of intermetallic compounds, based on the structure types of copper-tin and lithium-copper-tin materials, as defined by their relationship to NiAs type, Ni₂In type and lithiated zinc-blende-type materials as anode materials for rechargeable lithium batteries. The invention also includes nonaqueous electrochemical cells incorporating the new anodes and the methods of making the anodes and cells. In the anode, there is one or more of an active metal which can alloy substantially with lithium (such as tin) and, in most instances, there is one or more of an inactive metal which does not substantially alloy with lithium (such as copper). There are other examples in which the anode material components consist of two (or more) active metals that can alloy with lithium, such as tin and germanium.

[0007] The invention also includes cells and batteries incorporating the new anode materials with standard state-of-the-art cathodes such as lithium cobalt oxide, lithium nickel oxide or lithium manganese oxides (and various substituted oxides), cathodes now useful in lithium rechargeable batteries.

[0008] The invention consists of certain novel features and a combination of parts hereinafter fully described, illustrated in the accompanying drawings, and particularly pointed out in the appended claims, it being understood that various changes in the details may be made without departing from the spirit, or sacrificing any of the advantages of the present invention.

[0009] FIG. 1 depicts a schematic illustration of an electrochemical cell;

[0010] FIG. 2 is a representation of the ideal structure of a high-temperature Cu₆Sn₅intermetallic compound, labeled η-Cu₆Sn₅;

[0011] FIG. 3 is a representation of the ideal structure of NiAs;

[0012] FIG. 4 is a representation of the ideal structure of Ni₂In;

[0013] FIG. 5ais a [001] crystallographic projection of the high-temperature structure of η-Cu₆Sn₅shown in FIG. 2 showing the displacement of Sn atoms that is required for the transformation to a cubic Li_xCu₆Sn₅-type structure (x_max˜13);

[0014] FIG. 5bis a [001] crystallographic projection of the ideal structure of the room-temperature Cu₆Sn₅intermetallic compound, labeled η′-Cu₆Sn₅, showing the displacement of Sn (or Cu) atoms that is required for the transformation to a cubic Li_xCu₆Sn₅-type structure;

[0015] FIG. 6 is a [001] crystallographic projection of the ideal structure of the Ni₃Sn₂(and Co₃Sn₂) intermetallic compound;

[0016] FIG. 7 shows the X-ray diffraction patterns (CuK_∝ radiation)of a) a standard Cu₆Sn₅sample at room-temperature, b) Li_xCu₆Sn₅obtained by electrochemical insertion of lithium at room temperature, c) a standard Li₂CuSn sample at room temperature, and d) a chemically delithiated sample of Li₂CuSn at room temperature;

[0017] FIG. 8ais a representation of the ordered room-temperature structure of Li₂CuSn;

[0018] FIG. 8bis a representation of the disordered high-temperature structure of Li₂CuSn;

[0019] FIG. 8cis a representation of the zinc-blende type CuSn framework of the Li₂CuSn structure shown in FIG. 8a;

[0020] FIG. 9 is a [001] crystallographic projection of the ordered structure of Li₂CuSn shown in FIG. 8a;

[0021] FIG. 10 shows the in-situ X-ray diffraction data (CuK_∝ radiation) of a Li/Li_xCu₆Sn₅cell;

[0022] FIG. 11 is an electrochemical profile of the first four discharge and three charge cycles of a Li/Sn cell between 1.2 volts and 0.0 volts;

[0023] FIG. 12 is a graphical representation similar to FIG. 11 for a Li/Cu₆Sn₆cell;

[0024] FIG. 13 is a graphical representation similar to FIG. 11 for a Li/Cu₆Sn₅cell;

[0025] FIG. 14 is a graphical representation similar to FIG. 11 for a Li/Cu₆Sn₄cell;

[0026] FIG. 15 is a graphical representation similar to FIG. 11 for a Li/Li₂CuSn cell;

[0027] FIG. 16 is a graphical representation showing the relationship between cell capacity and the first twenty cycles for Li/Sn, Li/Cu₆Sn_5+δ (where δ=0,+1,−1,−3) and Li/Li₂CuSn cells cycled between 1.2 volts and 0.0 volts;

[0028] FIG. 17 is a graphical representation similar to FIG. 16 for Li/Sn and Li/Cu₆Sn_5+δ (where δ=0,+1,−1) cells cycled between 1.2 volts and 0.2 volts;

[0029] FIG. 18 shows the X-ray diffraction pattern (CuK_∝ radiation) of a Ni₃Sn₂sample at room-temperature;

[0030] FIG. 19 shows the X-ray diffraction pattern (CuK_∝ radiation) of a Li₂AgSn sample at room-temperature;

[0031] FIG. 20 shows the X-ray diffraction patterns (CuKα radiation) of (a) an InSb sample at room temperature, (b) a Li_xInSb electrode lithiated to 0.5 V vs. Li_xand (c) a cycled Li_xInSb electrode after lithium extraction to 1.2 V vs. Li;

[0032] FIG. 21 is a graphical representation similar to FIG. 11 for the first 18 cycles of a Li/InSb cell cycled between 1.2 volts and 0.5 volts;

[0033] FIG. 22 is a graphical representation similar to FIG. 16 for the first 22 cycles of a Li/InSb cell cycled between 1.2 volts and 0.5 volts;

[0034] FIG. 23 is an expanded graphical representation similar to FIG. 21 for the 10^thcycle of a Li/InSb cell cycled between 1.2 volts and 0.5 volts;

[0035] FIG. 24 shows the X-ray diffraction patterns (CuKα radiation) of a zinc-substituted Cu₆Sn₅structure, Cu_6−xZn_xSn₅, with x=1, and two nickel-substituted Cu₆Sn₅structures, Cu_6−yNi_ySn₅, with y=1 and 2;

[0036] FIG. 25 is a graphical representation similar to FIG. 11 for 4 cycles of a Li/Cu_6−xZn_xSn₅(x=1) cell; and

[0037] FIG. 26 is a graphical representation similar to FIG. 16 for the first 13 and 14 cycles of a Li/Cu_6−xZn_xSn₅(x=1) cell, and a Li/Cu_6−yNi_ySn₅(y−1), respectively, where the dot (·) is Zn, and the star (*) is Ni.

[0038] As prebiously stated, the invention relates to a new anode for use in an electrochemical cell 10 having an anode 12 separated from a cathode 16 by an electrolyte 14, all contained in an insulating housing 18 with suitable terminals (not shown) being provided in electronic contact with the anode 12 and the cathode 16, as shown schematically in FIG. 1. Binders and other materials normally associated with both the electrolyte and the anode and cathode are well known and are not described herein, but are included as is understood by those of ordinary skill in this art.

[0039] The anodes of the present invention include intermetallics comprising a substantially active element (or elements) which alloys with lithium with a substantially inactive element (or elements) which does not alloy with lithium, or alternatively, comprising a combination of substantially active alloying elements, the anodes having structure types based on the copper-tin compound Cu₆Sn₅and lithium-copper-tin derivatives, such as the compound Li₂CuSn. Metals which are considered active, that is metals which can form a binary alloy with lithium useful in this invention are preferably one or more of Sn, Si, Al, Ga, Ge, In, Bi, Pb, Zn, Cd, Hg and Sb. The substantially inactive elements which do not form substantial binary alloys with Li are selected preferably from the first row of transition metals and more preferably one or more of Cu, Ni, Co, Fe, M, Cr, Ti, V and Sc, and in addition, Mg and Ag along with the noble metals, Pd, Rh, and Ir. More specifically, the preferred combinations of inactive and active metals are Cu and Ni, and one or more of Sn, Ge, Sb, Si and Al. It is understood that the active and inactive metals may be present in a wide variety of ratios as will hereinafter be described with the Cu₆Sn₅and Li₂CuSn intermetallic compounds, by way of example only. It should be understood that various combinations, relative amounts and relative “activities” of both the inactive metals and the active metals may be used in the context of intermetallic compounds without departing from the true spirit and scope of the present invention.

[0040] By way of example only, we selected the eta-phase Cu₆Sn₅and the intermetallic phase Li₂CuSn to demonstrate the principles of this invention; in this invention, we describe in detail the structural properties and electrochemical properties of Cu₆Sn_5+δ (δ=−3, −1, 0, +1) and Li₂CuSn electrode materials in cells with metallic lithium electrodes.

[0041] The concept of using an intermetallic compound, MM′, where M is an “active” alloying element and M′ is an “inactive” element (or elements) can be considered, broadly speaking, analogous on a macroscopic scale to a metal oxide insertion electrode, such as MnO₂in which Mn is the electrochemically active ion and O is the inactive ion. In an MnO₂host electrode, lithium ions are inserted into the structure to a composition LiMnO₂with a concomitant reduction of the manganese ions from a tetravalent to a trivalent state. In MnO₂, the ratio of the inactive element to active element is 2:1; for the uptake of one lithium ion per manganese ion, the capacity of the MnO₂electrode is 308 mAh/g. Manganese oxides, such as the spinel-related phase, λ-MnO₂, that expand and contract isotopically during lithium insertion and extraction with minimal volume expansion of the unit cell provide greatly enhanced cycling stability compared to manganese oxide structures that expand and contract anisotopically with a large volume increase, as in the ramsdellite-Li_xMnO₂structure.

[0042] In an intermetallic system such as Cu₆Sn₅, the tin atoms can be regarded, broadly speaking, as the electrochemically active component (because it forms a binary Li_xSn alloy system with Li) and the copper atoms as the inactive component, (because it does not substantially alloy with Li). Lithium insertion into the Cu₆Sn₅structure takes place initially in a topotactic reaction to yield a structure, believed to have the nominal composition Li₁₃Cu₆Sn₅, or Li_2.17CuSn_0.83, i.e., with a maximum of 13 Li per Cu₆Sn₅formula unit, which is approximately the same as that of Li₂CuSn. Thus during the reaction, the Cu₆Sn₅structure provides a host framework for the uptake of lithium. It is believed that further reaction with lithium necessitates a displacement reaction and a break-up of the Li_xCu₆Sn₅structure; the lithium combines with the active tin to form a series of Li_xSn compounds (0<x≦4.4) within a residual copper matrix. In this latter-type reaction, the divided copper atoms/particles that are produced on electrochemical cycling would provide an electronically conducting matrix to contain the lithiated tin particles and to accommodate at least some of the damaging expansion/contraction of the Li_xSn particles during discharge and charge (note that in a Li/Cu₆Sn₅cell, extensive discharge means the formation of a “Li_xCu₆Sn₅” composite electrode (with x>˜13) consisting of domains of lithiated tin and copper metal). Optimum cycling conditions would be expected from such a composite Cu/Li_xSn material if it had an ideal microstructure in which the Cu and Li_xSn particles were evenly distributed with sufficient porosity to accommodate the reacted lithium, thus allowing a minimal isotropic expansion of the overall electrode. Although it is believed that the initial topotactic reaction provides a Li_xCu₆Sn₅electrode with superior cycling behavior compared to the subsequent displacement reaction, the invention also includes the composite electrodes that are derived over longer-term cycling by the displacement reaction described above and which can yield higher capacities than can be obtained from the topotactic reaction alone.

[0043] The Cu₆Sn₅structure exists in a high temperature form and a low temperature form. The transition from the one form to the other takes place at 460K as previously reported. The high-temperature structure of Cu₆Sn₅, labeled η-Cu₆Sn₅and shown in FIG. 2, was first reported in 1928 to have the NiAs-type structure. Simplistically, η-Cu₆Sn₅has a defect NiAs structure in which the Cu atoms adopt the octahedral sites occupied by Ni in NiAs, and the Sn atoms occupy the trigonal prismatic sites adopted by As; there is one vacant trigonal prismatic Sn site per Cu₆Sn₅unit. A recent analysis in 1994, of the room-temperature Cu₆Sn₅structure, labeled η′-Cu₆Sn₅, has shown that this compound has features of both a NiAs-type and a Ni₂In-type structure.

[0044] In the well known NiAs structure, which has a hexagonal-close-packed ABACABAC arrangement of atoms (FIG. 3a), the Ni atoms are octahedrally coordinated to six As atoms, whereas the As atoms are coordinated in trigonal prismatic manner to six Ni atoms. The [001] crystallographic projection of the NiAs structure in FIG. 3 shows that the Ni and As atoms are arranged in strings. There are twice as many As strings as Ni strings. The Ni strings are densely packed, whereas the As strings contain half as many As atoms as there are Ni atoms in the Ni strings. In FIG. 3, the NiAs structure is seen to consist of an array of hexagonal columns, each column consisting of alternating Ni strings and As strings, and each column containing an As string at its center.

[0045] The [001] crystallographic projection of the Ni₂In structure is shown in FIG. 4. In this structure, there is a similar hexagonal arrangement of atom strings as described for NiAs (FIG. 3). In Ni₂In, however, strings of Ni atoms (octahedrally coordinated to surrounding In atoms) alternate with strings containing both In and Ni atoms to make up the hexagonal columns. In the In—Ni strings, the In atoms have trigonal prismatic coordination to the Ni atoms in neighboring strings; the Ni atoms in the In—Ni strings reside midway between the In atoms in trigonal bipyramidal interstices (with respect to neighboring In atoms) to provide a very dense structure (ρ=9.902 g/ml). Each hexagonal column contains, at its center, a similar string of In and Ni atoms.

[0046] The close relationship between the high- and low-temperature forms of the Cu₆Sn₅structure and the NiAs and Ni₂In structures can be seen in FIGS. 3, 4, 5aand 5b. In the [001] crystallographic projection of the high-temperature modification, η-Cu₆Sn₅, shown in FIG. 5a, the Cu atoms and the Sn atoms are arranged in discrete strings, as in the NiAs structure (FIG. 3). In the [001] crystallographic projection of the room-temperature modification, η′-Cu₆Sn₅, shown in FIG. 5b, the Cu atoms are arranged in discrete rows as they are in η-Cu₆Sn₅(FIG. 5a), but in this structure the Sn strings also contain some Cu atoms; these Cu atoms are located between the Sn atoms in trigonal bipyramidal sites, one-fifth of which are occupied in the structure. In η′-Cu₆Sn₅, there exist hexagonal columns that consist of Cu strings that alternate with Sn—Cu strings; the center of the hexagonal columns contain identical Sn—Cu strings. Thus, η′-Cu₆Sn₅may be regarded as having a defect Ni₂In-type structure in which 80% of the trigonal bipyramidal sites are vacant. Intermetallic compounds that are assigned either to the NiAs- or the Ni₂In-type structure commonly have a composition between that of NiAs and Ni₂In. A superstructure is formed if the structure is ordered. Examples of such superstructures are found in room-temperature modifications of η′-Cu₆Sn₅, Ni₃Sn₂, and Co₃Sn₂intermetallic compounds. The [001] crystallographic projection of the Ni₃Sn₂structure (which is isostructural with Co₃Sn₂) is shown in FIG. 6; it demonstrates that Ni₃Sn₂(and Co₃Sn₂) is of the same structure type as η′-Cu₆Sn₅(FIG. 5b). In practice, however, it is believed that these structures are not ideally ordered and that some disorder can exist, for example between the copper and tin atom sites in the Cu₆Sn₅structures shown in FIGS. 5aand 5b.

[0047] An important aspect of this invention is the discovery by combined electrochemical and in-situ X-ray diffraction studies of Cu₆Sn₅electrodes in lithium cells, that lithium can be inserted topotactically into the Cu₆Sn₅structure and that this process is reversible. It is believed, however, that the degree to which the lithium insertion reaction takes place is highly dependent on structural features of the intermetallic electrode, such as anti-site disorder and the reaction conditions under which the intermetallic electrodes are made. The X-ray diffraction data of various lithiated and delithiated samples (FIGS. 7a-d) showed that the lithiated phase Li_xCu₆Sn₅(FIG. 7b) has an X-ray pattern similar to that of Li₂CuSn (FIG. 7c). The structure of Li₂CuSn has cubic symmetry. The room-temperature form of Li₂CuSn (space group symmetry F-43 m), shown in FIG. 8a, is ordered. The Sn atoms and one-half of the Li atoms form two interlinked face-centered-cubic arrays. The Cu atoms and remaining Li atoms occupy interstitial sites located at the center of cubes defined by 4 Sn and 4 Li atoms of the face-centered-cubic arrays. The high-temperature phase of Li₂CuSn has higher symmetry, Fm-3 m. In this case, the Li and Cu atoms within the cubes are randomly disordered, as shown in FIG. 8bto provide a Heusler-type phase, such as Ni₂MnGa, in which the Ni atoms occupy the same sites as the disordered Li and Cu atoms in FIG. 8b, and the Mn and Ga atoms occupy the sites of the Sn and remaining Li atoms, respectively.

[0048] Of particular note is that the CuSn framework of the ordered Li₂CuSn structure (FIG. 8a) has a zinc-blende-type lattice, as shown in FIG. 8c. Therefore, Li₂CuSn may be regarded as having a lithiated zinc-blende-type structure in which the Li atoms occupy the interstitial sites of the CuSn host framework. The invention thus includes zinc-blende-type framework structures as insertion electrodes for lithium batteries. Other examples of such a zinc-blendetype framework structure is provided by the AgSn component in Li₂AgSn and by the MgSi component in Li₂MgSi. Additional examples of zinc-blende-type structures are AlSb, GaSb, and InSb. Of particular significance is that by using the zinc-blende framework for an insertion electrode, it is possible to tailor the operating voltage of a lithium cell by changing the metal atoms in the framework.

[0049] The ordered Li₂CuSn structure, as depicted in a second representation of the structure in FIG. 9, bears a close relationship to the η′-Cu₆Sn₅structure (FIG. 5a); this relationship, which is seen in the arrangement of the hexagonal columns, makes it easy to understand the topotactic reaction when lithium is inserted electrochemically into η-Cu₆Sn₅. It is apparent from the X-ray diffraction data in FIG. 10 obtained in-situ in an electrochemical cell that the lithiation process involves a two-phase reaction. The phase transformation from η-Cu₆Sn₅to the Li₂CuSn-type structure can be understood if lithium insertion into the hexagonal columns of η-Cu₆Sn₅displaces the Sn atoms from the center of the columns into the trigonal bipyramidal interstitial sites in neighboring Sn strings, as shown by the arrows in FIG. 5a. [Note that fall lithiation of η-Cu₆Sn₅with an ideal defect NiAs-type structure would result in the composition Li₁₃Cu₆Sn₅(alternatively, Li_2.17CuSn_0.83or Li₂Cu{Sn_0.83Li_0.17}), in which 17% of the Sn sites are occupied by Li.] Such a reaction makes the hexagonal channels (5.6-6.2 Å in diameter) accessible for lithium occupation and creates two interstitial sites per hexagon for the incoming Li atoms (FIG. 9). However, to accommodate the inserted Li atoms, the layers of Cu and Sn atoms shear from their hexagonal-close-packed sequence ABACABAC in the η-Cu₆Sn₅structure to the cubic-close-packed sequence ABCABC of like atoms in the Li₂CuSn-type structure.

[0050] During the transformation from η-Cu₆Sn₅to Li₁₃Cu₆Sn₅, all the Cu atoms and one-half of the Sn atoms remain in their original strings. Even though 50% of the Sn atoms are displaced during lithium insertion from one string to another during lithium insertion, the phase transition is topotactic, i.e., a transition in which a definite orientation relationship exists between the two phases and in which some structural reorganization is necessary. In this transformation, one-half of the tin atoms are displaced by approximately 2.7 Å from their trigonal prismatic sites in a two-phase reaction to form columns of tin with the other one-half of the tin atoms. Thus, during this reaction, the “inactive” copper subarray and one-half of the tin subarray of the structure remain spatially intact. In the lithiated product, each Sn atom and each Cu atom is coordinated tetrahedrally to neighboring Cu and Sn atoms, respectively, in a zinc-blende-type structure. This topotactic reaction is reversible. Lithium insertion into the room-temperature structure, η′-Cu₆Sn₅(FIG. 5b), in which Cu atoms partially occupy 20% of the interstitial trigonal bipyramidal sites can occur by a similar reaction mechanism described for η-Cu₆Sn₅above. However, in this case, in order to form a Li₂CuSn-type structure, the ideal phase transformation would necessitate the diffusion of Sn atoms in the Sn—Cu strings to interstitial sites in neighboring strings, as shown by the arrows in FIG. 5b. The transformation also necessitates that the Cu atoms diffuse from the Sn—Cu strings to partially occupy the Li sites of an ordered Li₂CuSn-type structure. It is expected, therefore, that the fully-lithiated η′-Cu₆Sn₅structure would have the composition Li₉Cu₆Sn₅, and that the atom arrangement, in Li₂CuSn notation, would be (Li_1.8Cu_0.2)CuSn. Because there are less interstitial sites available in η′-Cu₆Sn₅compared with η-Cu₆Sn₅, the theoretical gravimetric capacity of η′-Cu₆Sn₅(248 mAh/g) is significantly less than that of η-Cu₆Sn₅(358 mAh/g) (Table 1).

[0051] Without being bound by theory and by the terminology used to describe the processes by which lithium is inserted into the intermetallic host electrode structures of the invention, the applicants believe that because of the structural relationship between η′-Cu₆Sn₅(FIG. 5b) and Ni₂In (FIG. 4), lithium insertion into η′-Cu₆Sn₅may initially occur by the occupation of the interstitial trigonal bi-pyramidal sites by lithium before the transformation to the zinc-blende-type structure. Thus, for η′-Cu₆Sn₅— related materials, including both η-Cu₆Sn₅and η′-Cu₆Sn₅, the initial lithiated Li_xCu₆Sn₅products can be lithiated to a NiAs-type structure before converting to a lithiated zinc-blende-type structure. The invention is thus extended to incorporate such lithiated NiAs-type structures.

[0052] Thus, the discovery of the lithium insertion reaction into Cu₆Sn₅has immediate important implications for the development of a new family of intermetallic electrodes with the Cu₆Sn₅and Li₂CuSn structure types. The invention therefore extends to include the family of compounds having structures related to the NiAs, Ni₂In, Cu₆Sn₅and Li₂CuSn structure types shown in FIGS. 3, 4, 5a, 5b, 8a, 8band 8c.

[0053] For example, the Ni₃Sn₂(and Co₃Sn₂) structure shown in FIG. 6 is remarkably similar to that of η′-Cu₆Sn₅(FIG. 5b), having strings of Ni, and strings of Sn—Ni arranged in identical fashion to the strings of Cu and Sn—Cu in η′-Cu₆Sn₅. The difference between Ni₃Sn₂(Co₃Sn₂) and η′-Cu₆Sn₅structures is only in the number of interstitial trigonal bipyramidal sites occupied by the Ni (Co) and Cu atoms, respectively, in the Sn strings. For example, in Ni₃Sn₂, 50% of the interstitial trigonal bipyramidal sites are occupied by Ni, in contrast to the 20% occupation by Cu in η′-Cu₆Sn₅. Therefore, using the analogy to η′-Cu₆Sn₅, Ni₃Sn₂may, in principle, accommodate lithium to the composition Li₃Ni₃Sn₂, or in Li₂CuSn notation, to the composition (Li_1.5Ni_0.5)NiSn; it offers a lower gravimetric capacity (195 mAh/g) and volumetric capacity (1755 mAh/mi) compared to η′-Cu₆Sn₅and η′-Cu₆Sn₅(Table 1). Because of the high number of Ni atoms that must be accommodated in the Li sites of Li₃Ni₃Sn₂, it is anticipated that the phase transition should be more difficult to accomplish in Li_xNi₃Sn₂electrodes compared to Cu₆Sn₅electrodes. This hypothesis is supported by electrochemical data from nickel-tin electrodes that are inferior to the data derived from the analogous coppertin materials. With this structural argument, electrode materials of this invention that are close to the ideal NiAs composition and structure are expected to perform better than those electrodes close to the Ni₂In composition and structure.

[0054] In a further embodiment of the invention, Table 2 illustrates the wide variety of compounds that can exist with the Li₂CuSn structure. The hexagonally shaped channels in Li₂CuSn-type structures accommodate the inserted lithium. A particular embodiment of the invention therefore includes those isostructural materials in which non-lithium metals, M, occupy the Cu and Sn atom sites of Li₂CuSn shown in FIG. 8a. One such example is Li₂AgSn, the X-ray diffraction pattern of which is shown in FIG. 19. Another particularly attractive example is Li₂MgSi because Mg and Si are relatively light and inexpensive materials. The invention also includes those structures in which at least some M sites are occupied by Li. This is believed to occur in Li_xCu₆Sn₅electrodes. For example, Cu₆Sn₅can be represented CuSn_0.83□_0.17where □ refers to a vacancy. On lithiation, therefore, the ideal Li₂CuSn-type structure is reached at the composition Li₂Cu(Sn_0.83Li_0.17), or alternatively Li_2.17CuSn_0.83, or alternatively Li₁₃Cu₆Sn₅. In this instance, 17% of the Sn sites are occupied by Li. The reaction of Cu₆Sn₅with lithium to form Li₁₃Cu₆Sn₅provides an electrode with a theoretical gravimetric capacity and a theoretical volumetric capacities of 358 mAh/g and 2506 mAh/ml, respectively, compared to the theoretical capacities of graphite, viz., 372 mAh/g and 818 mAh/ml (Table 1). A particular advantage of Cu₆Sn₅-type electrodes, therefore, is that they offer a significantly enhanced volumetric capacity to carbon.

[0055] It has been demonstrated that it is possible to extract the lithium from the Li₂CuSn structure, both chemically and electrochemically. Complete extraction of lithium would result in a copper-tin electrode with approximately the same CuSn ratio as in η-Cu₆Sn₅. Chemical extraction of lithium with NOBF₄from Li₂CuSn results in a Cu₆Sn₅-type structure, as shown by the strong similarity between the room-temperature X-ray diffraction data of a chemically treated Li₂CuSn sample (FIG. 7d) and a standard Cu₆Sn₅sample (FIG. 7a). These X-ray diffraction data clearly confirm the reversibility of the reaction

[0056] xLi+Cu₆Sn₅⇄Li_xCu₆Sn₅

[0057] In the high-temperature structure of Li₂CuSn shown in FIG. 8b, the Cu atoms and one half of the Li atoms are disordered over the sites they normally occupy in the ideal, ordered structure at room-temperature (FIG. 8a). In practice, it is believed that at room temperature some disorder exists between these sites. This invention thus extends to include these disordered structures.

[0058] In MnO₂, the ratio of inactive element to active element is 2:1 which is approximately twice the ratio in Cu₆Sn₅(1.2:1). Therefore, it is believed that increasing the inactive copper content as a separate Cu phase in the intermetallic electrode would provide greater cycling stability; conversely, increasing the active tin content as a separate Sn phase probably would reduce the cycling stability of the intermetallic electrode.

[0059] Li/Cu₆Sn_5+δ cells were evaluated with electrodes having δ values of −1 (Cu₆Sn₄, copper-rich), 0 (Cu₆Sn₅) and +1 (Cu₆Sn₆, tin-rich). The electrochemical behavior of a standard Li/Sn cell was determined, for comparison. The electrochemical profiles of the first two discharge—and subsequent charge cycles of a Li/Sn cell and LiCu₆Sn_5+δ cells (δ=0,±1) charged and discharged between 1.2 and 0.0 V are shown in FIGS. 11-14. All cells show an initial steep drop in voltage followed by a voltage plateau during discharge at approximately 400 mV; the latter process appears to correspond initially to the insertion of lithium into the Cu₆Sn₅component and on subsequent cycling to the formation of at least some Li₇Sn₃within a copper matrix. It is believed that reaction beyond the Li₇Sn₃composition, i.e., when the cell voltage decreases to 0 V, occurs with the successive formation of phases with increasing lithium content, Li₅Sn₂, Li₇Sn₂and Li₂₂Sn₅, as reported for Li/Sn cells at 25° C., but within copper matrix. It can be seen from the current interrupts that occur every hour during discharge and charge that the impedance of each cell improves dramatically after the first discharge. This improvement in performance can be attributed to better contact between electrolyte and active material and improved particle to particle contact that occurs during the early “conditioning” of the cells.

[0060] Electrochemical extraction from the intermetallic phase Li₂CuSn occurs with a steadily increasing voltage to the cut-off potential, 1.2 V (see FIG. 15). On the subsequent discharge, the electrode does not show the characteristic plateau at 400 mV, but rather shows a continuous decrease in voltage to 0V.

[0061] The relatively poor performance of Li₂CuSn electrodes compared to Cu₆Sn₅electrodes observed in these initial tests is attributed to the high reactivity of the Li₂CuSn phase (particularly in moist air), and to the difficulty of assembling Li₂CuSn electrodes and cells without some degradation of the electrode. From this viewpoint, it is clearly advantageous to load cells with unlithiated electrodes, such as Cu₆Sn₅rather than with Li₂CuSn electrodes.

[0062] The addition of copper to a tin electrode decreases the theoretical capacity of the tin electrode, whereas increasing the tin content increases the capacity, see Table 3; Table 3 gives the theoretical capacity of Li₂CuSn in terms of its ideal fully-delithiated composition CuSn; it has the same composition as Cu₆Sn₆(δ=1). Complete removal of lithium from Li₂CuSn corresponds to a capacity of 273 mAh/g. Compared to the theoretical capacity of 372 mAh/g for LiC₆, the gravimetric capacity of the copper-tin electrodes, when lithiated to a 1:1 Li:Sn ratio is too small for it to be of practical interest for lithium-ion cells. However, for compositions reaching higher lithium content (for example, Li₇Sn₃to Li_4.4Sn), the available capacity becomes more attractive, see Table 3. Note that in Li₁₃Cu₆Sn₅, which is believed to represent the maximum uptake of Li by the ideal η-Cu₆Sn₅, structure, the Li:Sn ratio is 2.6:1 which is close to that in Li₇Sn₃(2.3:1). Because lithium-metal alloy systems have high crystallographic densities, they provide significantly higher volumetric capacities than lithiated carbon, LiC₆(˜750 mAh/ml). For example, Cu₆Sn₅has a density of 8.28 g/ml; it will, therefore, provide a volumetric capacity of approximately 2450 mAh/ml when discharged to a Li₇Sn₃composition (Li_11.67Cu₆Sn₅). A major advantage of these intermnetallic electrodes, therefore, is that they will occupy less volume than lithiated carbon electrodes for a given capacity value.

[0063] The capacity vs. cycle no. for Li/Sn and Li/Cu₆Sn_5+δ (δ=0, +1, −1, −3) and Li/Li₂CuSn cells cycled over the range 1.2 to 0 V for the first 20 cycles is shown in FIG. 16. Although a pure tin electrode provides a significantly higher capacity on the initial discharge (˜670 mAh/g) than copper-tin electrodes, the capacity of the pure tin electrodes decreases rapidly on cycling, dropping to ˜115 mAh/g after 10 cycles. By contrast, the copper-tin electrodes Cu₆Sn_5+δ (δ=0, +1, −1, −3) show lower capacity, but significantly better stability to electrochemical cycling. Cu₆Sn₆, Cu₆Sn₅, and Cu₆Sn₄electrode powders that were not subjected to high-energy ball milling deliver 350,340 and 440 mAh/g on the initial discharge, and 180, 175 and 280 mAh/g after 10 cycles, respectively. The copper-rich electrodes Cu₆Sn₄(δ=−1) and Cu₆Sn₂(δ=−3) show the greatest cycling stability after 20 cycles, in agreement with the hypothesis that higher concentrations of inactive component in composite copper-tin electrodes should enhance electrochemical recharge ability. Reducing the voltage window to 1.2 to 0.2 V improves the cycling stability of the copper-tin electrodes even further; in this case, excellent cycling stability is achieved but at the expense of some capacity. For example, over this voltage range, the Cu₆Sn₄electrode delivers an initial capacity of 165 mAh/g, which increases on cycling as the electrode is “conditioned”; it delivers a steady 190 mAh/g after 10 cycles, see FIG. 17. This extra stability is attributed to two major factors: 1) the reversible topotactic reaction of lithium into the Cu₆Sn₅component, and 2) to the presence of an inactive, electronically copper component that serves to counter the deleterious volumetric expansion/contraction of any binary Li_xSn alloys that might be formed during cycling, particularly towards the end of discharge when the lithium concentration at the copper-tin intermetallic surface exceeds the limit allowed by the topotactic lithium insertion reaction, i.e., in excess of the lithium content in Li_˜13Cu₆Sn₅.

[0064] A further example of the stability of the internetallic insertion electrodes of the present invention is given with respect to the compound InSb with a zinc-blende-type structure.

[0065] FIG. 20ashows the X-ray diffraction pattern of an initial InSb electrode having the zinc-blende-type structure. FIGS. 20band 20cshow the patterns of a Li_xInSb electrode after the initial electrochemical lithiation of a Li/inSb cell to a 0.5 volt and subsequent delithiation reaction to 1.2 volt, respectively. The X-ray diffraction pattern of the Li_xInSb electrode at 0.5 volt (FIG. 20b) resembles that of the parent InSb structure (FIG. 20a) but has a cubic lattice parameter 6.553 Å which is slightly larger than that of InSb (6.475 Å), as reflected by the slight shift of the peaks to lower two-theta values. This change in lattice parameter reflects only a small change in the cubic unit cell volume, namely, 3.66%. It is important to note that the X-ray diffraction pattern of the lithiated product in FIG. 20balso closely resembles that of Li₃Sb, because the idea structure of LI₃Sb can be regarded as a lithiated Li₂lnSb structure in which the In atoms have been replaced by Li. This finding has important implications for designing zinc-blende-type intermetallic insertion electrodes that are tolerant to at least some over lithiation of the structure. Furthermore, it is clear from the X-ray diffraction pattern in FIG. 20cthat the zinc-blende-type structure of InSb is regenerated after subsequent lithium extraction to 1.2 volt.

[0066] The voltage profiles of the first 18 cycles of a Li/InSb cell and the capacity vs. cycle number plot for the first 22 cycle s are shown in FIGS. 21 and 22, respectively. It can be seen from FIGS. 21 and 22 that, apart from the first lithiation reaction, the electrochemical reaction is reversible when cells are cycled between 1.2 and 0.5 V. The exact reasons for the initial capacity loss on the first two cycles (450 to 290 mhAg, 64%) are unknown, although it can be speculated that this may be due to surface oxidation of the intermetallic electrode materials during processing. It is believed that this capacity loss can be reduced by improved processing techniques under inert conditions. Furthermore, in order to combat this capacity loss, the invention also includes intermetallic electrodes with additional lithium in the starting electrode, either as free lithium metal, or lithium as an integral part of the intermetallic electrode structure to compensate for any lithium that may be irreversibly locked within the negative intermetallic electrode during the initial lithiation reaction (charge) of the electrochemical cell.

[0067] Of particular significance to this invention is the typical profile of the Li/InSb cell shown in FIG. 23. The theoretical capacity of the InSb electrode, when lithiated to the filily lithiated zinc-blende composition Li₂InSb, is 229 mAh/g. Lithium insertion into InSb to form Li₂InSb is consistent with the two-stage reaction process that occurs between approximately 900 mV and 650 mV vs. Li in the expanded plot of cycle 10 in FIG. 24 because the two lithium atoms in the Li₂InSb are located in two crystallographically independent positions and hence have different site energies. Therefore, the data in FIGS. 21, 22 and 23, that show a reversible capacity between 290 and 250 mAh/g during at least the first twelve cycles, imply that InSb can be lithiated beyond the fially lithiated zinc-blende composition without severely damaging the reversibility of the cell or the InSb zinc-blende structure that is generated after delithiation of the electrode at 1.2 volts vs. Li. Although the reasons for this excellent and surprising behavior have not precisely been determined, the X-ray diffraction data in FIGS. 20a, band csuggests that further lithiation of Li₂InSb results in Li₃Sb-type structure which has a strong crystallographic relationship to both InSb and Li₂InSb-type structures. Such a reaction, which is believed to occur as a displacement reaction, can be represented (for complete reaction with lithium):

[0068] Li+Li₂InSb⇄Li₃Sb_1−xIn_x+x Sb+(1−x)In

[0069] Because of the strong resemblance of the X-ray diffraction pattern in FIG. 20bin Li₃Sb, it is believed that the value of x in the reaction above is close or equal to zero and that In is preferentially extruded from the lattice in very finely divided form; the In can be reincorporated into the structure on reversing the direction of the current. The fact that all components of this system remain metallic or semiconducting at all states of charge and discharge is believed to contribute towards the good reversibility of the reaction, as well as the strong crystallographic relationship between the InSb, Li₂InSb and Li₃Sb intermetallic structures. The lithiation of InSb is analogous to that which occurs in some metal oxides at room temperature such as Fe₃O₄

[0070] Li+Fe₃O₄→LiFe₃O₄+7Li→4Li₂O+3Fe

[0071] In contrast to the Li_xInSb intermetallic system, the lithiation of Fe₃O₄at room temperature is irreversible, because of the nature of the Fe₃O₄(spinel) to rocksalt (LiFe₃O₄) transformation and the insulating properties of the fully discharged Li₂O product. The overall reaction becomes more reversible at higher temperatures when iron can be more easily reincorporated back into the close-packed oxygen array to regenerate lithium-iron oxide spinel phases.

[0072] This invention is thus extended to include overlithiated intermetallic zinc-blende electrode structures, and particularly those with a Li₃Sb-type structure. Furthermore, an additional advantage of the Li₃Sb-type structure is that it can be used as an excellent end-of-charge indicator to signal full lithiation of the Li₂InSb-zinc-blende-type electrode structures.

[0073] As further examples to illustrate the scope of the invention as previously described herein, the copper atoms of the Cu₆Sn₅NiAs-type) structure were partially replaced by Zn or Ni atoms, thus increasing and reducing the number of valence electrons associated with the metal elements in the structure, respectively. For example, the compounds Cu_6−xZn_xSn₅and Cu_6−yNi_ySn₅with x=1 and y=1 and y=2 were prepared, the X-ray diffraction patterns of which are illustrated in FIG. 24 showed that they were isostructural with Cu₆Sn₅. These compounds showed enhanced electrochemical behavior to Cu₆Sn₅. For example, FIG. 25 shows the typical charge/discharge profiles for cycles 4 to 7 of a Li/Cu_6−xZn_xSn₅cell when cycled between 1.2 and 0.2 V. A plot of capacity vs. cycle life for a Li/Cu_6−xZn_xSn₅cell and a Li/Cu_6−yNi_ySn₅(y=1) cell is shown in FIG. 26 where the dot (·) is Zn, and the star (*) is Ni. These samples were prepared in the presence of 3-5 w/o (weight percent) carbon, thereby allowing for the substitution of carbon atom for some of the metal atoms. If other non-metals were substituted for carbon, then these non-metals would also substitute for some of the metal atoms.

[0074] Therefore, in a further embodiment of the invention, it stands to reason that selective substitution of metal atoms with other atoms in the intermetallic host structure, such as a NiAs-type structure, a NiIn-type structure and a zinc-blende type structure can be achieved without significantly altering their structures or seriously affecting the electrochemical performance of the electrode. Moreover, it is well known in the art that zinc-blende structures exist that are comprised of a metal atom and a non-metal atom, well known examples being the mineral zinc-blende itself, ZnS, and also AgO, GaP, and ZnSe, that contain the non-metal elements S, O, P and Se, respectively. Therefore, the invention also includes those intermetallic compounds defined above in which the metal atoms can be at least partially substituted by a non-metal element, the intermetallic compound preferably containing less than 50 atom percent of a non-metal element, more preferably less than 20 atom percent of a non-metal element, and most preferably less than 10 atom percent of a non-metal element, the non-metals being selected from one or more of B, C, N, O, F, P, S, Cl, As, Se, Br, Te and I.

[0075] This invention thus also embodies electrode intermetallic host structures that transform on lithiation to a lithiated zinc-blende-type structure in the presence of an additional substantially inactive (non-alloying) element (or elements) with respect to lithium, or alternatively, an additional substantially active alloying element (or elements) with respect to lithium, or both.

[0076] In this regard, the invention also encompasses the use of carbonaceous additives, such as graphite and pyrolyzed carbons, to the intermetallic negative electrode, thereby providing a composite electrode structure or composite matrix to improve the current collection around electronically disconnected particles. Additional advantages of carbonaceous additives are that they can also contribute to the overall electrochemical capacity of the negative electrode and to provide end-of-charge indicators to prevent overlithiation of the intermetallic electrode materials.

[0077] Cu₆Sn₅was synthesized by reacting metallic tin and metallic copper in stoichiometric amounts at 400° C. under argon for 12 hours. The sample was ground by mechanical milling to an average particle size of less than 10 microns. X-ray diffraction data, collected on a Siemens D5000 powder diffractometer with CuKα radiation showed that the Cu₆Sn₅product was an essentially single-phase product as shown in FIG. 7a.

[0078] Copper-rich and tin-rich materials Cu₆Sn_5+δ (δ=1, −3), i.e., Cu₆Sn₆, Cu₆Sn₄, and Cu₆Sn₂were prepared in identical fashion to Cu₆Sn₅in Example 1 with the required excess/deficiency of copper. The samples were ground by mechanical milling to an average particle size of less than 10 microns. The copper-rich and tin-rich materials showed the characteristic peaks of Cu₆Sn₅and additional peaks of copper and tin metal, respectively.

[0079] Li₂CuSn was prepared by heating lithium metal, copper metal and tin metal at 900° C. under argon for 3 hours. The sample was ground by mechanical milling to an average particle size of less than 40 microns. X-ray diffraction data, collected on a Siemens D5000 powder diffractometer with CuKα radiation showed that the Li₂CuSn product was an essentially singlephase product as shown in FIG. 7c.

[0080] Li₂CuSn was chemically delithiated by reaction with NOBF₄in acetonitrile at room temperature. X-ray diffraction data, collected on a Siemens D5000 powder diffractometer with CuKα radiation showed that the product was an essentially single-phase product with a Cu₆Sn₅-type structure as shown in FIG. 7d.

[0081] Ni₃Sn₂was synthesized by reacting metallic tin and metallic nickel in stoichiometric amounts at 650° C. under argon for 12 hours. The sample was ground by mechanical milling to an average particle size of less than 40 microns. X-ray diffraction data, collected on a Siemens D5000 powder diffractometer with CuKα radiation showed that the Ni₃Sn₂product was an essentially single-phase product as shown in FIG. 18.

[0082] Li₂AgSn was prepared by heating lithium metal; silver metal and tin metal at 900° C. under argon for 3 hours. The sample was ground by mechanical milling to an average particle size of less than 40 microns. X-ray diffraction data, collected on a Siemens D5000 powder diffractometer with CuKα radiation showed that the Li₂AgSn product was an essentially single-phase product as shown in FIG. 19.

[0083] InSb was prepared by ball-milling indium metal and antimony metal powder at room temperature in air for 20 hours. Thereafter, the sample was annealed under argon for 10 hours at 400° C., and subsequently ground to an average particle size of less than 40 microns. X-ray diffraction data, collected on a Siemens D5000 powder diffractometer with CuKα radiation showed that the InSb product was an essentially single-phase product as shown in FIG. 20a.

[0084] Samples of Cu_6−xZn_xSn₅were prepared by ball milling Cu, Zn, and Sn in the appropriate stoichiometric ratios with values between 0<x<6. For these samples, 3-5% weight percent (about 25 atom percent) carbon was added as a solid lubricant into the mixer. Samples were examined by powder XRD using a Siemens D5000 powder diffractometer with CuKα radiation. The samples were found to be single phase in the range of (0<x<2). The X-ray pattern showing the single phase product Cu₅ZnSn₅(x=1) is shown in FIG. 24.

[0085] Samples of Cu_6−yNi_ySn₅were prepared by ball milling Cu, Ni and Sn in the appropriate stoichiometric ratios with values between 0<y<6. For these samples, 3-5% weight percent (about 25 atom percent) carbon was added as a solid lubricant into the mixer. Samples were examined by powder XRD using a Siemens D5000 powder diffractometer with CuKα radiation. The samples were found to be single phase in the range of (0<y<3). The X-ray patterns showing the single phase products Cu₅NiSn₅(y=1) and Cu₄Ni₂Sn₅(y=2) are shown in FIG. 24.

[0086] The intermetallic materials were evaluated as electrodes in coin cells (size 1225) 12 mm diameter and 2.5 mm high against a counter lithium electrode. The cells had the configuration: Li/1M LiPF₆in ethylene carbonate, diethyl carbonate (50:50)/Intermetallic electrode. For the intermetallic electrodes, laminates were made containing approximately 6 mg (81%) of the intermetallic compound, intimately mixed with 10% (by weight) binder (Kynar 2801) and 9% (by weight) carbon (XC-72) in tetrahydrofuran (THF). Metallic lithium foil was used as the counter (negative) electrode. Li/Copper-tin cells were charged and discharged at constant current (generally at 0.1 mA), within the voltage range of either 1.2 to 0.0 V, or 1.2 to 0.2 V and Li/InSb cells within the voltage range of 1.2 to 0.5 volts. The electrochemical data from the various intermetallic electrodes are shown in various electrochemical plots, as in FIG. 10: a Li/Cu₆Sn₅cell; FIG. 11: a Li/Sn cell (reference); FIG. 12: a Li/Cu₆Sn₆cell, FIG. 13; a Li/Cu₆Sn₅cell; FIG. 14: a Li/Cu₆Sn₄cell; FIG. 15: a Li/Li₂CuSn cell; FIG. 16: a collective plot of Li/Sn, Li/Cu₆Sn₆, Li/Cu₆Sn₅, Li/Cu₆Sn₄, Li/Cu₆Sn₂and Li/Li₂CuSn cells; FIG. 17: a second collective plot of Li/Sn, Li/Cu₆Sn₆, Li/Cu₆Sn₅and Li/Cu₆Sn₄cells; FIG. 21: a Li/InSb cell; and FIG. 22: a Li/InSb cell. FIG. 23, a Li/SnSb cell, FIG. 25, a Li/Cu_6−xZn_xSn₅(x=1) cell, and FIG. 26, a Li/Cu_6−xZn_xSn₅(x=1) and a Li/Cu_6−yNi_ySn₅(y=1) cell.

[0087] Intermetallic electrodes based on the Cu₆Sn₅and Li₂CuSn structure types have been discovered to be usefuil negative electrodes for lithium-ion cells. The new anodes that operate substantially by a topotactic reaction mechanism may provide a significant improvement over the cycling capability of state-of-the-art binary lithium alloy electrodes. Cycling stability of these electrodes is however, gained at the expense of the capacity of the binary lithium alloy systems.

[0088] While there has been disclosed what is considered to be the preferred embodiment of the present invention, it is understood that various changes in the details may be made without departing from the spirit, or sacrificing any of the advantages of the present invention.