US 6,498,015 B1Grant
Methods of identifying agents that modulate the binding between MDC and an MDC receptor
Issue Date:2002-12-24
•45 Claims
•10 Drawing Sheets
Abstract
The present invention provides purified and isolated polynucleotide sequences encoding a novel human macrophage-derived C-C chemokine designated Macrophage Derived Chemokine (MDC), and polypeptide analogs thereof. Also provided are materials and methods for the recombinant production of the chemokine, and purified and isolated chemokine protein, and polypeptide analogs thereof. Also provided are antibodies reactive with the chemokine and methods of making and using all of the foregoing.
Metadata
Assignee
- ICOS Corporation
Inventors
- Ronald Godiska
- Patrick W. Gray
- Carol J. Raport
Application Information
Application Number:US 08/939,107
Filing Date:1997-09-26
Priority Date:1995-06-07
Art Unit:7
Classifications
IPC:
G01N 3353
Field of Search:
435 72435 71435 724435 69143532543525234353201435440536 235530350530351530324436501
Patent Drawings (10 sheets)
Description
[0002] This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/660,542, filed Jun. 7, 1996, now U.S. Pat. No. 5,932,703 issued Aug. 3, 1999, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/558,658, filed Nov. 16, 1995, now abandoned which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/479,620, filed Jun. 7, 1995. All of these applications are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.
Field of the Invention
[0003] The present invention relates generally to chemokines and more particularly to purified and isolated polynucleotides encoding a novel human C-C chemokine, to purified and isolated chemokine protein encoded by the polynucleotides, to chemokine analogs, and to materials and methods for the recombinant production of the novel chemokine protein, to antibodies reactive with the novel chemokine, and to uses of all of the for foregoing materials.
Background
[0004] Chemokines, also known as “intercrines” and “SIS cytokines”, comprise a family of small secreted proteins (e.g., 70-100 amino acids and about 8-10 kiloDaltons) which attract and activate leukocytes and thereby aid in the stimulation and regulation of the immune system. The name “chemokine” is derived from chemotactic cytokine, and refers to the ability of these proteins to stimulate chemotaxis of leukocytes. Indeed, chemokines may comprise the main attractants for inflammatory cells into pathological tissues. See generally, Baggiolini et al., Annu. Rev. Immunol,15: 675-705 (1997); and Baggiolini et al., Advances in Immunology,55:97-179 (1994), both of which are incorporated by reference herein. While leukocytes comprise a rich source of chemokines, several chemokines are expressed in a multitude of tissues. Baggiolini et al. (1994), Table II.
[0005] Previously identified chemokines generally exhibit 20-70% amino acid identity to each other and contain four highly-conserved cysteine residues. Based on the relative position of the first two of these cysteine residues, chemokines have been further classified into two subfamilies. In the “C-X-C” or “α” subfamily, encoded by genes localized to human chromosome 4, the first two cysteines are separated by one amino acid. In the “C-C” or “β” subfamily, encoded by genes on human chromosome 17, the first two cysteines are adjacent. X-ray crystallography and NMR studies of several chemokines have indicated that, in each family, the first and third cysteines form a first disulfide bridge, and the second and fourth cysteines form a second disulfide bridge, strongly influencing the native conformation of the proteins. In humans alone, nearly ten distinct sequences have been described for each chemokine subfamily. Chemokines of both subfamilies have characteristic leader sequences of twenty to twenty-five amino acids.
[0006] The C-X-C chemokines, which include IL-8, GROα/β/γ, platelet basic protein, Platelet Factor 4 (PF4), IP-10, NAP2, and others, share approximately 25% to 60% identity when any two amino acid sequences are compared (except for the GROα/β/γ members, which are 84-88% identical with each other). Most of the C-X-C chemokines (excluding IP-10 and Platelet Factor 4) share a common E-L-R tri-peptide motif upstream of the first two cysteine residues, and are potent stimulants of neutrophils, causing rapid shape change, chemotaxis, respiratory bursts, and degranulation. These effects are mediated by seven-transmembrane-domain rhodopsin-like G protein-coupled receptors; a receptor specific for IL-8 has been cloned by Holmes et al., Science,253:1278-80 (1991), while a similar receptor (77% identity) which recognizes IL-8, GRO and NAP2 has been cloned by Murphy and Tiffany, Science,253:1280-83 (1991). Progressive truncation of the N-terminal amino acid sequence of certain C-X-C chemokines, including IL-8, is associated with marked increases in activity.
[0007] The C-C chemokines, which include Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins MIP-1α and MIP-1β, Monocyte chemoattractant proteins 1, 2, 3, and 4 (MCP-1/2/3/4), RANTES, I-309, eotaxin, TARC, and others, share 25% to 70% amino acid identity with each other. Previously-identified C-C chemokines activate monocytes, causing calcium flux and chemotaxis. More selective effects are seen on lymphocytes, for example, T lymphocytes, which respond best to RANTES. Five seven-transmembrane-domain G protein-coupled receptors for C-C chemokines have been cloned to date, including a C-C chemokine receptor-1 (CCR1) which recognizes, e.g., MIP-1α and RANTES (Neote et al., Cell,72:415-425 (1993)); a CCR2 receptor which has two splice variants and which recognizes, e.g., MCP-1 (Charo et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.,91:2752-56 (1994)); CCR3, which recognizes, e.g., eotaxin, RANTES, and MCP-3 (Combadiere, J. Biol. Chem.,270:16491 (1995)); CCR4, which recognizes MIP-1α, RANTES, and MCP-1 (Power et al., J. Biol. Chem.,270:19495 (1995)); and CCR5, which recognizes MIP-1α, MIP-1β, and RANTES (Samson et al., Biochemstry,35:3362 (1996)). Several CC chemokines have been shown to act as attractants for activated T lymphocytes. See Baggiolini et a. (1997).
[0008] The roles of a number of chemokines, particularly IL-8, have been well documented in various pathological conditions. See generally Baggiolini et al.(1994), supra, Table VII. Psoriasis, for example, has been linked to over-production of IL-8, and several studies have observed high levels of IL-8 in the synovial fluid of inflamed joints of patients suffering from rheumatic diseases, osteoarthritis, and gout.
[0009] The role of C-C chemokines in pathological conditions also has been documented, albeit less comprehensively than the role of IL-8. For example, the concentration of MCP-1 is higher in the synovial fluid of patients suffering from rheumatoid arthritis than that of patients suffering from other arthritic diseases. The MCP-1 dependent influx of mononuclear phagocytes may be an important event in the development of idiopathic pulmonary fibrosis. The role of C-C chemokines in the recruitment of monocytes into atherosclerotic areas is currently of intense interest, with enhanced MCP-1 expression having been detected in macrophage-rich arterial wall areas but not in normal arterial tissue. Expression of MCP-1 in malignant cells has been shown to suppress the ability of such cells to form tumors in vivo. (See U.S. Pat. No. 5,179,078, incorporated herein by reference.) A need therefore exists for the identification and characterization of additional C-C chemokines, to further elucidate the role of this important family of molecules in pathological conditions, and to develop improved treatments for such conditions utilizing chemokine-derived products.
[0010] Chemokines of the C-C subfamily have been shown to possess utility in medical imaging, e.g., for imaging sites of infection, inflammation, and other sites having C-C chemokine receptor molecules. See, e.g., Kunkel et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,413,778, incorporated herein by reference. Such methods involve chemical attachment of a labelling agent (e.g., a radioactive isotope) to the C-C chemokine using art recognized techniques (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,965,392 and 5,037,630, incorporated herein by reference), administration of the labelled chemokine to a subject in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, allowing the labelled chemokine to accumulate at a target site, and imaging the labelled chemokine in vivo at the target site. A need in the art exists for additional new C-C chemokines to increase the available arsenal of medical imaging tools.
[0011] The C-C chemokines RANTES, MIP-α, and MIP-1β also have been shown to be the primary mediators of the suppressive effect of human T cells on the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), the agent responsible for causing human Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). These chemokines show a dose-dependent ability to inhibit specific strains of HIV from infecting cultured T cell lines [Cocchi et al., Science,270:1811 (1995)]. However, not all tested strains of the virus are equally susceptible to this inhibition; therefore, a need exists for additional C-C chemokines for use as inhibitors of strains of HIV.
[0012] More generally, due to the importance of chemokines as mediators of chemotaxis and inflammation, a need exists for the identification and isolation of new members of the chemokine family to facilitate modulation of inflammatory and immune responses.
[0013] For example, substances that promote inflammation may promote the healing of wounds or the speed of recovery from conditions such as pneumonia, where inflammation is important to eradication of infection. Modulation of inflammation is similarly important in pathological conditions manifested by inflammation. Crohn's disease, manifested by chronic inflammation of all layers of the bowel, pain, and diarrhea, is one such pathological condition. The failure rate of drug therapy for Crohn's disease is relatively high, and the disease is often recurrent even in patients receiving surgical intervention. The identification, isolation, and characterization of novel chemokines facilitates modulation of inflammation.
[0014] Similarly, substances that induce an immune response may promote palliation or healing of any number of pathological conditions. Due to the important role of leukocytes (e.g., neutrophils and monocytes) in cell-mediated immune responses, and due to the established role of chemokines in leukocyte chemotaxis, a need exists for the identification and isolation of new chemokines to facilitate modulation of immune responses.
[0015] Additionally, the established correlation between chemokine expression and inflammatory conditions and disease states provides diagnostic and prognostic indications for the use of chemokines, as well as for antibody substances that are specifically immunoreactive with chemokines; a need exists for the identification and isolation of new chemokines to facilitate such diagnostic and prognostic indications.
[0016] In addition to their ability to attract and activate leukocytes, some chemokines, such as IL-8, have been shown to be capable of affecting the proliferation of non-leukocytic cells. See Tuschil, J. Invest. Dermatol.,99:294-298 (1992). A need exists for the identification and isolation of new chemokines to facilitate modulation of such cell proliferation.
[0017] It will also be apparent from the foregoing discussion of chemokine activities that a need exists for modulators of chemokine activities, to inhibit the effects of endogenously-produced chemokines and/or to promote the activities of endogenously-produced or exogenously administered chemokines. Such modulators typically include small molecules, peptides, chemokine fragments and analogs, and/or antibody substances. Chemokine inhibitors interfere with chemokine signal transduction, i.e., by binding chemokine molecules, by competitively or non-competitively binding chemokine receptors, and/or by interfering with signal transduction downstream from the chemokine receptors. A need exists in the art for effective assays to rapidly screen putative chemokine modulators for modulating activity.
[0018] For all of the aforementioned reasons, a need exists for recombinant methods of production of newly discovered chemokines, which methods facilitate clinical applications involving the chemokines and chemokine inhibitors.
Summary of the Invention
[0019] The present invention provides novel purified and isolated polynucleotides and polypeptides, antibodies, and methods and assays that fulfill one or more of the needs outlined above.
[0020] For example, the invention provides purified and isolated polynucleotides (i.e., DNA and RNA, both sense and antisense strands) encoding a novel human chemokine of the C-C subfamily, herein designated “Macrophage Derived Chemokine” or “MDC”. Preferred DNA sequences of the invention include genomic and cDNA sequences and chemically synthesized DNA sequences. Polynucleotides encoding non-human vertebrate forms of MDC, especially mammalian and avian forms of MDC, also are intended as aspects of the invention.
[0021] The nucleotide sequence of a cDNA, designated MDC cDNA, encoding this chemokine, is set forth in SEQ ID NO: 1, which sequence includes 5′ and 3′ non-coding sequences. A preferred DNA of the present invention comprises nucleotides 20 to 298 of SEQ ID NO. 1, which nucleotides comprise the MDC coding sequence.
[0022] The MDC protein comprises a putative twenty-four amino acid signal sequence at its amino terminus. A preferred DNA of the present invention comprises nucleotides 92 to 298 of SEQ ID NO. 1, which nucleotides comprise the putative coding sequence of the mature (secreted) MDC protein, without the signal sequence.
[0023] The amino acid sequence of chemokine MDC is set forth in SEQ ID NO: 2. Preferred polynucleotides of the present invention include, in addition to those polynucleotides described above, polynucleotides that encode the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO: 2, and that differ from the polynucleotides described in the preceding paragraphs only due to the well-known degeneracy of the genetic code.
[0024] Similarly, since twenty-four amino acids (positions −24 to −1) of SEQ ID NO: 2 comprise a putative signal peptide that is cleaved to yield the mature MDC chemokine, preferred polynucleotides include those which encode amino acids 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO: 2. Thus, a preferred polynucleotide is a purified polynucleotide encoding a polypeptide having an amino acid sequence comprising amino acids 1-69 of SEQ ID NO: 2.
[0025] Among the uses for the polynucleotides of the present invention is the use as a hybridization probe, to identify and isolate genomic DNA encoding human MDC, which gene is likely to have a three exon/two intron structure characteristic of C-C chemokines genes. (See Baggiolini et al. (1994), supra); to identify and isolate DNAs having sequences encoding non-human proteins homologous to MDC; to identify human and non-human chemokines having similarity to MDC; and to identify those cells which express MDC and the conditions under which this protein is expressed. Polynucleotides encoding human MDC have been employed to successfully isolate polynucleotides encoding at least two exemplary non-human embodiments of MDC (rat and mouse). (See SEQ ID NOs: 35-38.)
[0026] Hybridization probes of the invention also have diagnostic utility, e.g., for screening for inflammation in human tissue, such as colon tissue. More particularly, hybridization studies using an MDC polynucleotide hybridization probe distinguished colon tissue of patients with Crohn's disease (MDC hybridization detected in epithelium, lamina propria, Payer's patches, and smooth muscle) from normal human colon tissue (no hybridization above background).
[0027] Generally speaking, a continuous portion of the MDC cDNA of the invention that is at least about 14 nucleotides, and preferably about 18 nucleotides, is useful as a hybridization probe of the invention. Thus, in one embodiment, the invention includes a DNA comprising a continuous portion of the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1 or of the non-coding strand complementary thereto, the continuous portion comprising at least 18 nucleotides, the DNA being capable of hybridizing under stringent conditions to a coding or non-coding strand of a human MDC gene. For diagnostic utilities, hybridization probes of the invention preferably show hybridization specificity for MDC gene sequences. Thus, in a preferred embodiment, hybridization probe DNAs of the invention fail to hybridize under the stringent conditions to other human chemokine genes (e.g., MCP-1 genes, MCP-2 genes, MCP-3 genes, RANTES genes, MIP-1α genes, MIP-1β genes, and I-309 genes, etc.).
[0028] In another aspect, the invention provides a purified polynucleotide which hybridizes under stringent conditions to the non-coding strand of the DNA of SEQ ID NO: 1. Similarly, the invention provides a purified polynucleotide which, but for the redundancy of the genetic code, would hybridize under stringent conditions to the non-coding strand of the DNA of SEQ ID NO: 1. Exemplary stringent hybridization conditions are as follows: hybridization at 42° C. in 5×SSC, 20 mM NaPO4, pH 6.8, 50% formamide; and washing at 42° C. in 0.2×SSC. Those skilled in the art understand that it is desirable to vary these conditions empirically based on the length and the GC nucleotide base content of the sequences to be hybridized, and that formulas for determining such variation exist. [See, e.g., Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: a Laboratory Manual. Second Edition, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (1989).]
[0029] In another aspect, the invention includes plasmid and viral DNA vectors incorporating DNAs of the invention, including any of the DNAs described above or elsewhere herein. Preferred vectors include expression vectors in which the incorporated MDC-encoding cDNA is operatively linked to an endogenous or heterologous expression control sequence. Such expression vectors may further include polypeptide-encoding DNA sequences operably linked to the MDC-encoding DNA sequences, which vectors may be expressed to yield a fusion protein comprising the MDC polypeptide of interest.
[0030] In another aspect, the invention includes a prokaryotic or eukaryotic host cell stably transfected or transformed with a DNA or vector of the present invention. In preferred host cells, the mature MDC polypeptide encoded by the DNA or vector of the invention is expressed. The DNAs, vectors, and host cells of the present invention are useful, e.g., in methods for the recombinant production of large quantities of MDC polypeptides of the present invention. Such methods are themselves aspects of the invention. For example, the invention includes a method for producing MDC wherein a host cell of the invention is grown in a suitable nutrient medium and MDC protein is isolated from the cell or the medium.
[0031] In yet another aspect, the invention includes purified and isolated MDC polypeptides. A preferred peptide is a purified chemokine polypeptide having an amino acid sequence comprising amino acids 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO: 2 (human MDC). Mouse and Rat MDC polypeptides are taught in SEQ ID NOs: 36 and 38. The polypeptides of the present invention may be purified from natural sources, but are preferably produced by recombinant procedures, using the DNAs, vectors, and/or host cells of the present invention, or are chemically synthesized. Purified polypeptides of the invention may be glycosylated or non-glyclosylated, water soluble or insoluble, oxidized, reduced, etc., depending on the host cell selected, recombinant production method, isolation method, processing, storage buffer, and the like.
[0032] Moreover, an aspect of the invention includes MDC polypeptide analogs wherein one or more amino acid residues is added, deleted, or replaced from the MDC polypeptides of the present invention, which analogs retain one or more of the biological activities characteristic of the C-C chemokines. The small size of MDC facilitates chemical synthesis of such polypeptide analogs, which may be screened for MDC biological activities (e.g., the ability to induce macrophage chemotaxis, or inhibit monocyte chemotaxis) using the many activity assays described herein. Alternatively, such polypeptide analogs may be produced recombinantly using well-known procedures, such as site-directed mutagenesis of MDC-encoding DNAs of the invention.
[0033] In a related aspect, the invention includes polypeptide analogs wherein one or more amino acid residues is added, deleted, or replaced from the MDC polypeptides of the present invention, which analogs lack the biological activities of C-C chemokines or MDC, but which are capable of competitively or non-competitively inhibiting the binding of MDC polypeptides with a C-C chemokine receptor. Such polypeptides are useful, e.g., for modulating the biological activity of endogenous MDC in a host, as well as useful for medical imaging methods described above.
[0034] Certain specific analogs of MDC are contemplated to modulate the structure, intermolecular binding characteristics, and biological activities of MDC. For example, amino-terminal (N-terminal) and carboxy-terminal (C-terminal) deletion analogs (truncations) are specifically contemplated to change MDC structure and function.
[0035] Additionally, the following single-amino acid alterations (alone or in combination) are specifically contemplated: (1) substitution of a non-basic amino acid for the basic arginine and/or lysine amino acids at positions 24 and 27, respectively, of SEQ ID NO: 2; (2) substitution of a charged or polar amino acid (e.g., serine, lysine, arginine, histidine, aspartate, glutamate, asparagine, glutamine or cysteine) for the tyrosine amino acid at position 30 of SEQ ID NO: 2, the tryptophan amino acid at position 59 of SEQ ID NO: 2, and/or the valine amino acid at position 60 of SEQ ID NO: 2; and (3) substitution of a basic or small, non-charged amino acid (e.g., lysine, arginine, histidine, glycine, alanine) for the glutamic acid amino acid at position 50 of SEQ ID NO: 2. Specific analogs having these amino acid alterations are encompassed by the following formula (SEQ ID NO: 25):
| Met Ala Arg Leu Gln Thr Ala Leu Leu Val Val Leu Val Leu Leu Ala | |
| −24 −20 −15 −10 | |
| Val Ala Leu Gln Ala Thr Glu Ala Gly Pro Tyr Gly Ala Asn Met Glu | |
| −5 1 5 | |
| Asp Ser Val Cys Cys Arg Asp Tyr Val Arg Tyr Arg Leu Pro Leu Xaa | |
| 10 15 20 | |
| Val Val Xaa His Phe Xaa Trp Thr Ser Asp Ser Cys Pro Arg Pro Gly | |
| 25 30 35 40 | |
| Val Val Leu Leu Thr Phe Arg Asp Lys Xaa Ile Cys Ala Asp Pro Arg | |
| 45 50 55 | |
| Val Pro Xaa Xaa Lys Met Ile Leu Asn Lys Leu Ser Gln | |
| 60 65 |
[0036] wherein the amino acid at position 24 is selected from the group consisting of arginine, glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, proline, serine, threonine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, aspartate, glutamate, asparagine, glutamine, cysteine, and methionine; wherein the amino acid at position 27 is independently selected from the group consisting of lysine, glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, proline, serine, threonine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, aspartate, glutamate, asparagine, glutamine, cysteine, and methionine; wherein the amino acid at position 30 is independently selected from the group consisting of tyrosine, serine, lysine, arginine, histidine, aspartate, glutamate, asparagine, glutamine, and cysteine; wherein the amino acid at position 50 is independently selected from the group consisting of glutamic acid, lysine, arginine, histidine, glycine, and alanine; wherein the amino acid at position 59 is independently selected from the group consisting of tryptophan, serine, lysine, arginine, histidine, aspartate, glutamate, asparagine, glutamine, and cysteine; and wherein the amino acid at position 60 is independently selected from the group consisting of valine, serine, lysine, arginine, histidine, aspartate, glutamate, asparagine, glutamine, and cysteine. Such MDC polypeptide analogs are specifically contemplated to modulate the binding characteristics of MDC to chemokine receptors and/or other molecules (e.g., heparin, glycosaminoglycans, erythrocyte chemokine receptors) that are considered to be important in presenting MDC to its receptor. In one preferred embodiment, MDC polypeptide analogs of the invention comprise amino acids 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO: 25.
[0037] The following additional analogs have been synthesized and also are intended as aspects of the invention: (a) a polypeptide comprising a sequence of amino acids identified by positions 1 to 70 of SEQ ID NO: 30; (b) a polypeptide comprising a sequence of amino acids identified by positions 9 to 69 of SEQ ID NO: 2; (c) a polypeptide comprising a sequence of amino acids identified by positions 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO: 31; and (d) a polypeptide comprising a sequence of amino acids identified by positions 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO: 32.
[0038] In related aspects, the invention provides purified and isolated polynucleotides encoding such MDC polypeptide analogs, which polynucleotides are useful for, e.g., recombinantly producing the MDC polypeptide analogs; plasmid and viral vectors incorporating such polynucleotides, and prokaryotic and eukaryotic host cells stably transformed with such DNAs or vectors.
[0039] In another aspect, the invention includes antibody substances (e.g., monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies, single chain antibodies, chimeric or humanized antibodies, and the like) which are immunoreactive with MDC polypeptides and polypeptide analogs of the invention. Such antibodies are useful, e.g., for purifying polypeptides of the present invention, for quantitative measurement of endogenous MDC in a host, e.g., using well-known ELISA techniques, and for modulating binding of MDC to its receptor(s). The invention further includes hybridoma cell lines that produce antibody substances of the invention.
[0040] Recombinant MDC polypeptides and polypeptide analogs of the invention may be utilized in a like manner to antibodies in binding reactions, to identify cells expressing receptor(s) of MDC and in standard expression cloning techniques to isolate polynucleotides encoding the receptor(s). Such MDC polypeptides, MDC polypeptide analogs, and MDC receptor polypeptides are useful for modulation of MDC chemokine activity, and for identification of polypeptide and chemical (e.g., small molecule) MDC agonists and antagonists.
[0041] Additional aspects of the invention relate to pharmaceutical utilities of MDC polypeptides and polypeptide analogs of the invention. For example, MDC has been shown to modulate leukocyte chemotaxis. In particular, MDC has been shown to induce macrophage chemotaxis and to inhibit monocyte chemotaxis. Thus, in one aspect, the invention includes a method for modulating (e.g., up-regulating or down-regulating) leukocyte chemotaxis in a mammalian host comprising the step of administering to the mammalian host an MDC polypeptide or polypeptide analog of the invention, wherein the MDC polypeptide or MDC polypeptide analog modulates leukocyte chemotaxis in the host. In preferred methods, the leukocytes are monocytes and/or macrophages. For example, empirically determined quantities of MDC are administered (e.g., in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier) to induce macrophage chemotaxis or to inhibit monocyte chemotaxis, whereas inhibitory MDC polypeptide analogs are employed to achieve the opposite effect.
[0042] In another aspect, the invention provides a method for palliating an inflammatory condition in a patient, the condition characterized by at least one of (i) monocyte chemotaxis toward a site of inflammation in said patient or (ii) fibroblast cell proliferation, the method comprising the step of administering to the patient a therapeutically effective amount of MDC. In one embodiment, a therapeutically effective amount of MDC is an amount capable of inhibiting monocyte chemotaxis. In another embodiment, a therapeutically effective amount of MDC is an amount capable of inhibiting fibroblast cell proliferation. Such therapeutically effective amounts are empirically determined using art-recognized dose-response assays.
[0043] As an additional aspect, the invention provides a pharmaceutical composition comprising an MDC polypeptide or polypeptide analog of the invention in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. Similarly, the invention relates to the use of composition according to the invention for the treatment of disease states, e.g., inflammatory disease states. In one embodiment, the inflammatory disease state is characterized by monocyte chemotaxis toward a site of inflammation in a patient having the disease state. In another embodiment, the inflammatory disease state is characterized by fibroblast cell proliferation in a patient having the disease state.
[0044] It will also be apparent from the teachings herein relating to the various activities of MDC that modulators of MDC activities, to inhibit the effects of endogenously-produced MDC and/or to promote the activities of endogenously-produced or exogenously administered MDC, have therapeutic utility. Such modulators typically include small molecules, peptides, chemokine fragments and analogs, and/or antibody substances. MDC inhibitors interfere with MDC signal transduction, e.g., by binding MDC molecules, by competitively or non-competitively binding MDC receptors on target cells, and/or by interfering with signal transduction in the target cells downstream from the chemokine receptors. Thus, in another aspect, the invention provides assays to screen putative chemokine modulators for modulating activity. Modulators identified by methods of the invention also are considered aspects of the invention.
[0045] In one embodiment, the invention provides a method for identifying a chemical compound having MDC modulating activity comprising the steps of: (a) providing first and second receptor compositions comprising MDC receptors; (b) providing a control composition comprising detectably-labeled MDC; (c) providing a test composition comprising detectably-labeled MDC and further comprising the chemical compound; (d) contacting the first receptor composition with the control composition under conditions wherein MDC is capable of binding to MDC receptors; (e) contacting the second receptor composition with the test composition under conditions wherein MDC is capable of binding to MDC receptors; (f) washing the first and second receptor compositions to remove detectably-labeled MDC that is unbound to MDC receptors; (g) measuring detectably-labeled MDC in the first and second receptor compositions; and (h) identifying a chemical compound having MDC modulating activity, wherein MDC modulating activity is correlated with a difference in detectably-labeled MDC between the first second receptor compositions.
[0046] As reported herein, the chemokine receptor CCR4 has been demonstrated to be a high affinity receptor for MDC. Thus, in a preferred embodiment of the foregoing method, the first and second receptor compositions comprise the MDC receptor that is CCR4. Since CCR4 is a membrane protein, a preferred embodiment for practicing the method is one wherein the first and second receptor compositions comprise CCR4-containing cell membranes derived from cells that express CCR4 on their surface. The cell membranes may be on intact cells, or may constitute an isolated fraction of cells that express CCR4. Cells that naturally express CCR4 and cells that have been transformed or transfected to express CCR4 recombinantly are contemplated.
[0047] In a related aspect, the invention provides a method for identifying a modulator of binding between MDC and CCR4, comprising the steps of: (a) contacting MDC and CCR4 both in the presence of, and in the absence of, a putative modulator compound; (b) detecting binding between MDC and CCR4; and (c) identifying a putative modulator compound in view of decreased or increased binding between MDC and CCR4 in the presence of the putative modulator, as compared to binding in the absence of the putative modulator. The contacting is performed, for example, by combining MDC with cell membranes that contain CCR4, in a buffered aqueous suspension.
[0048] In one embodiment, the method is performed with labeled MDC. In step (b), binding between MDC and CCR4 is detected by detecting labeled MDC bound to CCR4. In a preferred embodiment, the contacting step comprises contacting a suspension of cell membranes comprising CCR4 with a solution containing MDC. In a highly preferred embodiment, the method further comprises the steps of recovering the cell membranes from the suspension after the contacting step (e.g., via filtration of the suspension); and washing the cell membranes prior to the detecting step to remove unbound MDC.
[0049] In an alternative embodiment, the method is performed with a host cell expressing CCR4 on its surface. In step (b), binding between MDC and CCR4 is detected by measuring the conversion of GTP to GDP in the host cell.
[0050] In yet another alternative embodiment, the method is performed with a host cell that expresses CCR4 on its surface, and binding between MDC and CCR4 expressed in the host cell is detected by measuring cAMP levels in the host cell.
[0051] It will be appreciated that assays for modulators such as those described above are often performed by immobilizing (e.g., on a solid support) one of the binding partners (e.g., MDC or a fragment thereof that is capable of binding CCR4, or CCR4 or a fragment thereof that is capable of binding MDC). In a preferred variation, the non-immobilized binding partner is labeled with a detectable agent. The immobilized binding partner is contacted with the labeled binding partner in the presence and in the absence of a putative modulator compound capable of specifically reacting with MDC or CCR4; binding between the immobilized binding partner and the labelled binding partner is detected; and modulating compounds are identified as those compounds that affect binding between the immobilized binding partner and the labelled binding partner.
[0052] In yet another embodiment, the invention provides a method for identifying a chemical compound having MDC modulating activity, comprising the steps of: (a) providing first and second receptor compositions comprising MDC receptors; (b) contacting the first receptor composition with a control composition comprising detectably-labeled MDC; (c) contacting the second receptor composition with a test composition comprising detectably-labeled MDC and further comprising the chemical compound; (d) washing the first and second receptor compositions to remove detectably-labeled MDC that is unbound to MDC receptors; (e) measuring detectably-labeled MDC in the first and second receptor compositions after the washing; and (f) identifying a chemical compound having MDC modulating activity, wherein MDC modulating activity is correlated with a difference in detectably-labeled MDC between the first and the second receptor compositions.
[0053] In yet another embodiment, MDC binding to its receptor is measured by measurement of the activation of a reporter gene that has been coupled to the receptor using procedures that have been reported in the art for other receptors. See, e.g., Himmler et al., Journal of Receptor Research,13:79-94 (1993).
[0054] The foregoing aspects and numerous additional aspects will be apparent from the drawing and detailed description which follow.
Brief Description of the Drawing
[0055] FIG. 1 is a comparison of the amino acid sequence of human MDC (SEQ ID NO: 2) with the amino acid sequences of other, previously characterized human C-C chemokines: MCP-3 [Van Damme et al., J. Exp. Med.,176:59 (1992)] (SEQ ID NO: 18); MCP-1 [Matsushima et al, J. Exp. Med.,169:1485 (1989)] (SEQ ID NO: 19); MCP-2 (mature form) [Van Damme et al., supra; Chang et al., Int. Immunol.,1:388 (1989)] (SEQ ID NO: 20); RANTES [Schall et al., J. Immunol.,141:1018 (1988)] (SEQ ID NO: 21); MIP-1β [Brown et al., J. Immunol.,142:679 (1989)] (SEQ ID NO: 22); MIP-1α [Nakao et al., Mol. Cell Biol.,10:3646 (1990)] (SEQ ID NO: 23); and I-309 [Miller et al., J. Immunol.,143:2907 (1989)] (SEQ ID NO: 24). A slash “/” marks the site at which putative signal peptides are cleaved. Dashes are inserted to optimize alignment of the sequences.
[0056] FIG. 2 is a graph depicting the chemotactic effect (measured in fluorescence units) of increasing concentrations of MDC on human mononuclear cell migration in a chemotaxis assay. Closed circles show the response of human mononuclear cells derived from the cell line THP-1. The open diamond shows the response to the positive control, zymosan activated serum (ZAS).
[0057] FIG. 3 is a graph depicting the chemotactic effect (measured in fluorescence units) of increasing concentrations of MDC on human polymorphonuclear (pmn) leukocyte migration. Closed circles show response to MDC, and an open diamond shows the response to the positive control, IL-8.
[0058] FIG. 4 is a graph depicting the chemotactic effect (measured in fluorescence units) of increasing concentrations of MDC on macrophage and monocyte migration. Closed circles show the response to MDC of macrophages derived from the cell line THP-1. Open circles show the response to MDC of monocytes derived from the cell line THP-1.
[0059] FIG. 5 is a graph depicting the chemotactic effect (measured in fluorescence units) of increasing concentrations of MDC on guinea pig peritoneal macrophage migration. Closed circles show the response of macrophages to MDC. An open triangle shows the response to the positive control, zymosan activated serum (ZAS).
[0060] FIG. 6 is a graph depicting the chemotactic-inhibitory effect (measured in fluorescence units) of increasing concentrations of MDC on THP-1 monocyte migration induced by MCP-1. Closed circles depict the chemotactic-inhibitory effects of MDC where chemotaxis has been induced by MCP-1. Open circles depict the chemotactic-inhibitory effects of MDC in a control experiment wherein only the basal medium (RPMI with 0.2% BSA (RBSA), no MCP-1) was employed. The zero point on the x axis corresponds to the response of cells to MCP-1 and RBSA in the absence of any MDC.
[0061] FIG. 7 is a graph depicting the effect (measured in counts per minute (cpm)) of increasing concentrations of MDC on fibroblast proliferation. Closed circles depict the proliferative response with purified MDC that was recombinantly produced in CHO cells (Example 10F). Open circles depict the response with chemically synthesized MDC (Example 11).
[0062] FIG. 8 schematically depicts the construction of mammalian expression vector pDC1.
[0063] FIG. 9 depicts the nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NOs: 39 and 40) of a S. cerevisiaealpha factor pre-pro/human MDC cDNA chimeric construct used to express human MDC in yeast.
[0064] FIG. 10 depicts the structure of plasmid pYGL/preproMDC, used to express human MDC in yeast.
Detailed Description
[0065] The present invention is illustrated by the following examples related to a human cDNA, designated MDC cDNA, encoding a novel C-C chemokine designated MDC (for “macrophage-derived chemokine”). More particularly, Example 1 describes the isolation of a partial MDC cDNA from a human macrophage cDNA library. Example 2 describes the isolation of additional cDNAs from the cDNA library using the cDNA from Example 1 as a probe, one of these additional cDNAs containing the entire MDC coding sequence. Additionally, Example 2 presents a composite MDC cDNA nucleotide sequence and presents a characterization of the deduced amino acid sequence of the chemokine (MDC) encoded thereby. In Example 3, experiments are described which reveal the level of MDC gene expression in various human tissues. The greatest MDC gene expression was observed in the thymus, with much weaker expression detectable in spleen and lung tissues. Example 4 describes more particularly the expression of the MDC gene during monocyte maturation into macrophages and during inducement of HL60 cell differentiation to a macrophage-like cell type.
[0066] Since MDC gene expression was detected in thymus and spleen in Example 3, in situ hybridization studies were conducted to localize further the MDC gene expression in these tissues. Moreover, in situ hybridization revealed a correlation between elevated MDC gene expression in intestinal tissue and Crohn's disease. These in situ hybridization experiments are described in Example 5.
[0067] Example 6 describes the recombinant production of MDC as a GST fusion protein in prokaryotic cells, as well as the cleavage of the fusion protein and purification of the recombinant MDC. Example 7 describes the construction of an alternative DNA construct useful for expression of recombinant MDC protein, and describes the production of MDC by a bacterial host transformed with this construct.
[0068] Example 8 provides experimental protocols for purification of the recombinant MDC produced as described in Example 7. Examples 9 and 10 provide experimental protocols for the recombinant production of MDC in yeast and mammalian cells, respectively. In addition, Example 10 provides protocols for purification of recombinant MDC. Example 11 describes production of MDC and MDC polypeptide analogs by peptide synthesis.
[0069] Examples 12-17 provide protocols for the determination of MDC biological activities. For instance, Example 12 provides an assay of MDC effects upon basophils, mast cells, and eosinophils. Example 13 describes assays of chemoattractant and cell-activation properties of MDC on monocytes/macrophages, neutrophils, and granulocytes.
[0070] Examples 14-17 provide protocols for the determination of MDC biological activities in vivo. Example 14 provides an MDC tumor growth-inhibition assay. Examples 15 and 16 provide protocols for assaying MDC activity via intraperitoneal and subcutaneous injection, respectively. Example 17 provides protocols for determining the myelosuppressive activity of MDC.
[0071] Example 18 provides a protocol for generating monoclonal antibodies that are specifically immunoreactive with MDC.
[0072] Example 19 provides a calcium flux assay for determining the ability of MDC to induce cellular activation. Example 20 provides an assay for determining the HIV anti-proliferative effects of MDC. Example 21 demonstrates the anti-proliferative effects of MDC on fibroblasts. Example 22 provides in vitro assays for the effects of MDC upon the proliferation of additional cell types. Example 23 provides an in vivo assay for determining the anti-proliferative effects of MDC on fibroblasts. Example 24 describes the chromosomal localization of the human MDC gene. Example 25 describes procedures which identified the CC chemokine receptor “CCR4” as a high affinity binding partner of MDC. Examples 26 and 27 provide assays for identifying MDC modulators. Example 28 describes the isolation of cDNAs encoding rat and mouse MDC, and characterizes the MDC proteins encoded thereby. Example 29 further characterizes selected MDC analogs.
Example 1
[0073] Isolation of a Partial C-C chemokine cDNA
[0074] A partial cDNA for a new C-C chemokine was isolated as follows. Poly A+RNA was harvested from peripheral blood monocyte-derived macrophages. Double-stranded, blunt-ended cDNA was generated using the Invitrogen Copy Kit (San Diego, Calif.) and BstXI adapters were ligated to the cDNA prior to insertion into the mammalian expression vector, pRc/CMV (Invitrogen) [See, Tjoelker et al., Nature,374:549-552 (1995)]. E. coliXL1-Blue bacteria (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif.) were transformed via electroporation with the plasmid cDNA library and plated onto 986 plates containing 100 μg/ml carbenicillin (approximately 3000 transformants per plate). After overnight growth at 37° C., the bacteria were scraped off of each plate to form 986 bacterial pools. Plasmid DNA was isolated from each of the 986 bacterial pools using the Magic Miniprep DNA Purification System (Promega, Madison, Wis.) according to the manufacturer's directions.
[0075] The purified plasmid DNA pools were used to isolate individual cDNA clones for further characterization, as follows: Plasmid DNA from individual pools was used to transform E. coliXL1-Blue cells, which were plated and grown overnight as described above. Individual transformants were randomly selected and grown overnight in 3 ml of LB media supplemented with carbenicillin for plasmid purification using the Wizard Miniprep Purification system (Promega) with the following alteration: 250 mg of diatomaceous earth (Sigma Chem. Co., St. Louis Mo.) was added to the DNA binding resin provided by the manufacturer. Purified plasmid DNA was sequenced on a Model 373 automated sequencer (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.) using primer JHSP6:
[0076] 5′ GACACTATAGAATAGGGC 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 3).
[0077] This primer hybridizes to plasmid vector pRc/CMV adjacent to the cloning site.
[0078] The nucleotide and deduced amino acid sequences of individual cDNAs were compared to nucleotide and peptide sequence databases to determine which of the clones encoded proteins with similarity to known inflammatory mediators. Sequence comparisons were performed on Dec. 14, 1994, by the BLAST Network Service of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (e-mail: “[email protected]”), using the alignment algorithm of Altschul et al., J. Mol. Biol.,215: 403-410 (1990). The sequence analysis revealed that a portion of one of the isolated macrophage cDNA clones, designated pMP390, contained a gene sequence having approximately 60-70% identity with previously-identified chemokine genes, including the human MCP-3 gene and rat MIP-1β gene.
[0079] The 2.85 kb cDNA insert of pMP390 was subcloned into the vector pBluescript SK−(Stratagene, La Jolla Calif.) to facilitate complete sequencing. Nested deletions beginning from the poly-A tail were created by digestion, using Promega's Erase-a-Base System (Madison Wis.). The deletion plasmids were recircularized, cloned in E. coli, purified, and sequenced using the M13, T3.1, and T7.1 primers depicted below:
[0080] M13: 5′ GTAAAACGACGGCCAGT 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 4)
[0081] T3.1: 5′ AATRAACCCTCACTAAAGGG 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 5)
[0082] T7.1: 5′ GTAATACGACTCACTATAGGGC 3′ (SEQ ID NO: 6)
[0083] The complete sequence of this pMP390 cDNA corresponds to nucleotides 73 to 2923 of SEQ ID NO: 1 (and to deduced amino acids −6 to 69 of SEQ ID NO 2). The sequence that was originally compared to database sequences corresponds to nucleotides 73 to 610 of SEQ ID NO: 1.
Example 2
[0084] Isolation of Additional cDNA Clones Having the Complete MDC Coding Sequence
[0085] Using the pMP390 cDNA clone isolated in Example 1, additional cDNA clones were isolated from the same human macrophage cDNA library, these additional cDNAs containing additional 5′ sequence and encoding the complete amino acid sequence of a macrophage derived chemokine.
[0086] First, forty of the 986 plasmid DNA pools derived from the macrophage cDNA library (Example 1) were screened by PCR to identify pools containing additional cDNA clones of interest. From the pMP390 cDNA sequence obtained in Example 1, synthetic oligonucleotide PCR primers 390-1F (deposited as SEQ ID NO: 7) and 390-2R (SEQ ID NO: 8) were constructed to amplify a 211 base pair sequence of the chemokine gene partially encoded by pMP390:
[0087] 390-1F: 5′TCTATCTAGAGGCCCCTACGGCGCCAACATGGAAG 3′
[0088] 390-2R: 5′ CACCGGATCCTCATTGGCTCAGCTTATTGAGAA 3′
[0089] Primer 390-1F corresponds to nucleotides 91-116 of SEQ ID NO: 1, preceded by the recognition site for the restriction endonucleose Xba I and 4 additional bases to facilitate cleavage by the enzyme; primer 390-2R is complementary to nucleotides 301-279 of SEQ ID NO: 1, fused to the recognition site for the enzyme BamH I, which is flanked by 4 additional bases. The Xba I and BamH I sites were added to facilitate cloning of the resultant fragment.
[0090] The 50 ul PCR reaction mixture for each selected plasmid pool contained 0.2 ug of plasmid DNA; 1.5 mM MgCl2; 50 mM KCl; 10 mM Tris, pH 8.4; 0.2 mM each dNTP; 10 ug/ml each primer; and 0.5 ul Taq polymerase (5 U/ul) (Boehringer Mannheim Biochemicals (BMB), Indianapolis, Ind.). The reactions were incubated for 4 minutes at 94° C., followed by 30 cycles of denaturation for 15 seconds at 94° C., annealing for 15 seconds at 60° C., and extension for 30 seconds at 72° C.
[0091] The PCR reaction products were electrophoresed through 2% agarose gels (Life Technologies, Inc., Gaithersburg, Md.) in 0.5×TBE buffer [Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: a Laboratory Manual. Second Edition, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (1989)], and visualized with Ethidium Bromide. Of the forty plasmid pools screened, six produced an intense band corresponding to the expected 230 base pair PCR fragment (which includes 211 bp of chemokine gene sequence flanked by the Xba I and BamH I restriction sites) suggesting the presence of one or more plasmids containing gene sequences related to pMP390.
[0092] To isolate such related clones, aliquots from three of the six positive plasmid pools were electroporated into E. coliXL1-Blue cells, which were plated and grown overnight as described in Example 1. Colonies were transferred to nitrocellulose membranes and prepared for hybridization following standard protocols (Sambrook et al., supra).
[0093] A radiolabelled MDC probe for screening the filters was prepared as follows: the 2.85 kb DNA fragment containing the MDC cDNA was excised from pMP390 by restriction enzyme digestion, purified by agarose gel electrophoresis in TAE Buffer (Sambrook, et al., supra), electroeluted, extracted with phenol and chloroform, and preciptated with ethanol. The purified fragment (250 ng) was labelled using the Random Primed DNA Labelling Kit (BMB) according the manufacturer's recommendations. The labelled probe was purified by passage through a G-50 Quick Spin column (BMB).
[0094] The filters were incubated at 42° C. for 16 hours with 5×107counts per minute (cpm) of the probe, in 40-50 ml of a solution containing 50% formamide, 5×Denhardt's solution, 5×SSC (1×SSC is 0.15 M NaCl, 15 mM sodium citrate), 50 mM sodium phosphate, pH 6.5, and 0.1 mg/ml sheared salmon sperm DNA (Sigma, St. Louis Mo.). Following hybridization, the filters were washed 3 times in 0.2×SSC and 0.2% SDS at 55° C. for 30 minutes. To visualize hybridization, the washed filters were exposed overnight at −80° C. on Kodak (Rochester, N.Y.) XAR-5 autoradiographic film with Lightning Plus intensifying screens (DuPont, Del).
[0095] PCR was used to screen 50 of the hybridizing bacterial colonies. Fifty PCR reactions containing primers 390-1F and 390-2R were set up as described above, using bacteria from the fifty colonies in place of template DNA. Initially, the reactions were denatured at 94° C. for 8 minutes. Thereafter, 35 cycles of amplification were carried out as described above. A single colony produced the expected 230 basepair product; the plasmid contained in this clone was designated pMP390-12.
[0096] Additional MDC cDNAs of interest were identified by colony hybridization using a probe specific for the 5′ end of the pMP390 insert. This probe was prepared as follows: a DNA fragment containing 211 bases of the coding region of the pMP390 cDNA (nucleotides 91-298 of SEQ. ID NO: 1) and 163 bases of the adjacent 3′ non-coding region was generated by PCR as described above, using 60 ng of the pMP390 cDNA clone as template and synthetic oligonucleotides 390-1F (SEQ ID NO: 7) and 390-4R (SEQ ID NO: 9) as primers.
[0097] 390-4R: 5′ AATGGATCCACAGCACGGAGGTGACCAAG 3′
[0098] Primer 390-4R contains a BamH I restriction site followed by sequence complementary to nucleotides 461 to 442 of SEQ ID NO: 1.
[0099] The PCR product was purified by electrophoresis as described above, and fifty ng of the purified fragment was labelled with the Random Primed DNA Labelling Kit (BMB) and purified by passage through a G-50 Quick Spin column (BMB). Filters were probed with this fragment as described above, and washed three times in 0.4×SSC and 0.2% SDS at 48° C. for 30 minutes. Autoradiography was carried out as described above. Five hybridizing colonies were detected, designated MP390A, MP390B, MP390C, MP390D, and MP390E.
[0100] These five colonies and a colony transformed with pMP390-12 were isolated and grown for plasmid purification, using the Wizard Miniprep DNA Purification System (Promega, Madison, Wis.) with the addition of diatomaceous earth as described in Example 1. Plasmid DNA was sequenced on an Applied Biosystems Model 373 automated sequencer, using synthetic primer 390-3R (SEQ ID NO: 10):
[0101] 390-3R: 5′ AGTCAAGCTTAGGGCACTCTGGGATCGGCAC 3′.
[0102] Primer 390-3R is complementary to bases 266-246 of SEQ ID NO: 1, and contains a Hind III restriction endonuclease site and four additional base pairs at its 5′ terminus. The primer was designed to anneal upstream of primer 390-2R and downstream of nucleotide 216 of SEQ ID NO: 1, the site at which an intron is predicted in the genomic DNA encoding the chemokine of the present invention [See Danoff et al., J. Immunology,152:1182-1189 (1994)].
[0103] Of the six clones, clones pMP390-12 and pMP390B contained the largest additional 5′ coding sequence, each extending an additional 72 nucleotides upstream of the sequence previously obtained from the cDNA clone pMP390. A composite DNA sequence, herein designated MDC cDNA, was generated by alignment of the pMP390 and pMP390-12 cDNA sequences. This 2923 base pair composite cDNA sequence, and the deduced amino acid sequence of the chemokine MDC, are set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 1 and 2, respectively.
[0104] Manual comparison of the deduced MDC amino acid sequence with sequences of known chemokines indicates that the MDC cDNA sequence encodes a novel C-C chemokine ninety-three amino acids in length, sharing 28-34% amino acid identity with other C-C chemokines (FIG. 1 and Table 1).
| TABLE 1 |
|---|
| Percent Identity Among Amino Acid Sequences of MDC |
| and Previously Identified C—C Chemokines |
[0105] Importantly, the four cysteine residues characteristic of the chemokines are conserved in MDC. Five additional residues also are completely conserved in the eight sequences presented in FIG. 1.
[0106] The first 24 amino acids of the 93 amino acid MDC sequence are predominantly hydrophobic and are consistent with von Heijne's rules [Nucleic Acids Res.,14: 4683-90 (1986)] governing signal cleavage. These features and the polypeptide comparison in FIG. 1 collectively suggest that the MDC cDNA encodes a twenty-four amino acid signal peptide that is cleaved to produce a mature form of MDC beginning with the glycine residue at position 1 of SEQ ID NO: 2. This prediction was confirmed by direct sequencing of MDC protein produced recombinantly in mammalian cells, as described below in Example 10. The MDC composite cDNA sequence shown in SEQ ID NO: 1 extends nineteen nucleotides upstream of the predicted initiating methionine codon, and 2.6 kb downstream of the termination codon.
Example 3
[0107] Determination of MDC Gene Expression in Human Tissues
[0108] Northern blot analyses were conducted to determine the tissues in which the MDC gene is expressed.
[0109] The radiolabelled pMP390 5′ fragment described in Example 2 (which corresponds to the region of the MDC cDNA encoding the putative mature form of MDC plus 163 bases of the adjacent 3′ noncoding region) was used to probe Multiple Tissue Northern blots (Clontech, Palo Alto, Calif.) containing RNA from various normal human tissues. The probe was denatured by boiling prior to use, and the hybridizations were conducted according to the manufacturer's specifications. Autoradiographs were exposed 5 days at −80° C. with 2 intensifying screens.
[0110] The greatest MDC gene expression was observed in the thymus, with much weaker expression detectable in spleen and lung tissues. Expression of MDC in tissue from the small intestine was at even lower levels, and no expression was detected in brain, colon, heart, kidney, liver, ovary, pancreas, placenta, prostate, skeletal muscle, testis, or peripheral blood leukocytes.
[0111] As discussed in detail below in Example 25, MDC is a ligand for the CC chemokine receptor CCR4, which receptor also has been reported to be a ligand for the chemokine TARC. See Imai et al., J. Biol Chem.,272: 15036-15042 (1997). Like MDC, TARC and CCR4 also are abundantly expressed in the thymus, with little expression observed in other tissues. More particularly, CCR4 is expressed on T cells, especially CD4+T cells [See Imai et al. (1997), and Power et al., J. Biol Chem.,270: 19495-19500 (1995)], while MDC and TARC are expressed by cells of the dendritic lineage which form a major component of the thymic architecture. See Godiska et al., J. Exp. Med.,185: 1595-1604 (1997), incorporated herein by reference; and Imai et al., J. Biol. Chem.,271: 21514-21521 (1996). These expression patterns suggest a biological activity of MDC, CCR4, and TARC in T cell development, since immature progenitor cells undergo differentiation and expansion (leading to the establishment of the major T cell lineages and the elimination of potentially autoreactive T cells) within the highly specialized microenvironment of the thymus. See von Boehmer, Current Biology,7: 308-310 (1997). The fact that MDC also is expressed at high levels in cultured macrophages suggests an MDC activity in the initiation and/or triggering of the immune response, by facilitating the interaction of T cells with antigen-presenting cells at sites of inflammation.
[0112] Thus, these expression pattern data suggest therapeutic utilities of MDC (or MDC mimetics or agonists) to stimulate beneficial immune responses. For example, MDC, MDC agonists, or MDC mimetics may be administered to augment/enhance T cell activation where T cell activation may be beneficial. The use of MDC as an adjuvant in vaccine development or in tumor immunotherapy is specifically contemplated.
[0113] Conversely, the expression pattern data also indicates a therapeutic utility for modulators of MDC's interaction with CCR4 in T cell-mediated autoimmune diseases, including but not limited to psoriasis, graft versus host disease, and allograft rejection.
Example 4
[0114] MDC Gene Expression During Macrophage Maturation
[0115] Because the cDNAs encoding MDC were isolated from a human macrophage cDNA library, MDC gene expression during differentiation of monocytes into macrophages was examined.
[0116] A.
[0117] Human monocytes from a single donor were cultured on a series of tissue culture plates, and cells from one plate were harvested after 0, 2, 4 or 6 days. See generally Elstad et al., J. Immunol.140:1618-1624; Tjoelker et al., supra. Under these conditions, the monocytes differentiated into macrophages by days 4-6 [Stafforini et al., J. Biol Chem.,265: 9682-9687 (1990)].
[0118] A Northern blot of RNA (10 μg per lane) isolated from the cells harvested at each time point was prepared and probed, using the radiaolabelled pMP390 fragment as described above. No signal was detectable in RNA from freshly isolated monocytes, whereas a very strong signal was generated from cells that had differentiated into macrophages after six days of culture. Cells cultured for four days produced a much weaker signal, whereas the signal generated from cells cultured for two days could be seen only after prolonged exposure of the filter.
[0119] B.
[0120] To confirm the expression of MDC in differentiated human macrophages, culture supernatants were analyzed by western blotting with anti-MDC monoclonal antibodies produced as described below in Example 18. Several plates of human macrophages were differentiated by growth on plastic for eight days in the presence of macrophage colony stimulating factor (0.5 ng/ml, R&D Systems, Minneapolis, Minn.).
[0121] The medium from the differentiated macrophage cell cultures was removed and replaced with similar medium or with medium containing low density lipoprotein (LDL, Sigma), oxidized LDL (oxidized by incubation in 5 μM CuSO4.5H2O according to the method of Malden et al., J. Biol. Chem.,266:13901 (1991)), or dexamethazone (6 nM, Sigma Chemical Co.). Following 3 days of each treatment, the culture medium was removed, brought to pH 6.8 by the addition of HCl, and passed over a Heparin-Sepharose CL-6B column (Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.). The column was washed with 0.2 M NaCl in 20 mM Tris, pH 8, and eluted with 0.6 M NaCl in 20 mM Tris, pH 8. The eluted material was fractionated on an 18% acrylamide SDS-PAGE gel (NOVEX) and electroblotted to PVDF membrane (Millipore, Bedford Mass.). The filter was blocked, washed, and reacted with monoclonal antibodies against MDC using standard techniques (Sambrook et al.). In each of the culture media analyzed, MDC protein was detected at a concentration of approximately 0.5 μg/ml, thus confirming expression of MDC in differentiated human macrophages.
[0122] Expression of MDC also was analyzed in human epithelial cell lines. The colon epithelial cell line T84 (ATCC #CCL-248) was grown in DMEM/F12 medium (GIBCO, Gaithersburg Md.), and the lung epithelial cell line A549 (ATCC #CCL-185) was grown in F12 medium. Screening for the presence of MDC mRNA in the cells and MDC protein in the culture medium was performed as described above for macrophages. No evidence of MDC expression was detectable by either method in these cell lines.
[0123] In addition, samples of the T84 cell line were treated for 1 day with TNFα (5 ng/ml, PeproTech, Rocky Hill, N.J.), TGF-β (1 ng/ml, R&D Systems), or interferon-γ (200 U/ml, PeproTech), each with or without addition of recombinant MDC at 100 ng/ml (derived from CHO cell transfectants; see Ex. 10). Samples of the A549 cell line were treated with 50 ng/ml PMA (Sigma Chemical Co.) for 0, 1, 3, 5, or 7 days. None of these treatments resulted in detectable expression of MDC mRNA in the T84 or A549 cells when screened by Northern blotting as described above.
[0124] C.
[0125] Further examination of MDC gene expression in macrophages was conducted by treating the human cell line HL60 with either 1% DMSO (Sigma Chemical Co.) or 50 ng/ml PMA (Sigma). Treatment with DMSO induces differentiation of HL60 cells into a granulocytic cell type, whereas PMA induces their differentiation into a macrophage lineage [Perussia et al., Blood,58: 836-843 (1981)]. RNA was isolated from untreated cells and from cells treated for one or three days with DMSO or PMA, electrophoresed (10 μg/lane), and blotted. The Northern blot of the RNA was probed with the radiolabelled pMP390 5′ fragment described in Example 3.
[0126] After three days of PMA treatment, the HL-60 cells clearly expressed MDC MRNA, although the level of expression was apparently less than that of macrophages after six days of culture (see above). No expression was seen after one day of treatment or in untreated cells. Further, no detectable expression of MDC was induced by treatment with DMSO for one or three days.
Example 5
[0127] In situ Hybridization
[0128] Because MDC gene expression was detected in the thymus and spleen, in situ hybridization was carried out to localize the source of the message in these tissues. Further, in situ hybridization was used to correlate MDC gene expression to inflammation of intestinal tissue associated with Crohn's disease.
[0129] To generate radiolabelled in situ hybridization probes, a DNA fragment (nucleotides 91 to 301 of SEQ ID NO: 1) containing the MDC coding region was subcloned into the vector pBluescript SK−. T3 and T7 RNA polymerases (BMB) were used according to the manufacturer's directions to incorporate 35S-UTP into RNA transcripts complementary to each strand of the gene.
[0130] Normal human spleen, thymus, and colon tissue samples, as well as colon tissue samples from patients with Crohn's disease, were obtained from the National Disease Research Interchange (Philadelphia, Pa.). The tissue donors were as follows: normal thymus: nineteen year old male Caucasian, death due to motor vehicle accident, tissue removed at autopsy; normal spleen: 51 year old black male, death due to cerebral hemorrhage, tissue removed at autopsy; normal colon: black female, tissue removed during surgery: Crohn's colon #1: female, race not available, 46 years old, ulcerative colitis patient, tissue removed during surgery; Crohn's colon #2: eighteen year old male, race not available, Crohn's disease patient, tissue removed during surgery.
[0131] In addition to the foregoing analyses, inflamed tonsil tissue that had been removed from a patient during tonsillectomy was probed with a non-coding portion of the MDC cDNA corresponding to nucleotides 677 to 1042 of SEQ ID NO: 1. This portion was generated by PCR amplification of the MDC cDNA clone using the primers 390-7F (SEQ ID NO:26) and 390-8R (SEQ ID NO:27):
[0132] 390-7F: 5′-TAT TGG ATC CGT TCT AGC TCC CTG TTC TCC 3′
[0133] 390-8R: 5′-CCA AGA ATT CCT GCA GCC ACT TTC TGG GCT C 3′
[0134] The fragment was cloned into pBluescript SK−vector for generation of RNA probes as described above.
[0135] The tissue samples described in the preceding paragraphs were prepared for in situ hybridization as follows. Tissue samples were imbedded in “OCT” compound (Miles, Inc., Elkhart, Ind.) and sectioned to a thickness of 6 microns using a cryostat 2800E (Leica). The tissue sections were adhered to slides coated with Vectabond (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, Calif.), fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde for 20 min. at 4° C., dehydrated with ethanol, and denatured at 70° C. with 70% formamide and 2×SSC.
[0136] Hybridizations were performed by incubating the slides for 16 hours at 55° C. with the radiolabelled sense or anti-sense strand of the appropriate probe in an aqueous hybridization solution containing 50% formamide, 0.3 M NaCl, 20 mM Tris pH 7.5, 10% dextran sulfate, 1×Denhardt's solution, 100 nM dithiothreitol, and 5 mM EDTA. After hybridization, the slides were incubated for one hour at room temperature in 4×SSC and 10 mM DTT. The slides were then washed at room temperature in 2×SSC; at 60° C. in 1×SSC; and finally at room temperature in 0.1×SSC. Specimens were dehydrated in ethanol and then coated with Kodak NTB2 photographic emulsion, air-dried for 2 hours, exposed for 11 days at 4° C., developed, and counterstained with hematoxylin/eosin.
[0137] Observed hybridization of the anti-sense strand (of either probe) indicated that the MDC gene was expressed in cells throughout the cortex of normal human thymus, with weak signal in the follicles. Expression of MDC in the thymus may indicate a T lymphocyte developmental role of MDC. Expression in normal human spleen was localized to cells of the red pulp, whereas little signal was detected in the white pulp. A high level of expression in inflamed tonsil was localized to the epithelial region, although inflammatory cells appeared to have infiltrated the entire tissue sample.
[0138] Colon samples from patients with Crohn's disease exhibited hybridization in cells of the epithelium, lamina propria, Payer's patches, and smooth muscle. In contrast, normal human colon showed no hybridization above background. The observed pattern of MDC expression in the colons of Crohn's disease patients closely correlates with the expression of a macrophage-specific gene, Platelet Activating Factor Acetylhydrolase (PAF-AH) [Tjoelker et al., supra]. This result, together with the data presented in Example 4, suggest that macrophages express MDC cDNA in vivo during pathogenic inflammation. Moreover, the identification of MDC in Crohn's disease colon tissue samples suggest diagnostic relevance of MDC levels (e.g., in a patient's blood, stool sample, and/or intestinal lesions) to a patient's disease state or clinical prognosis.
Example 6
[0139] Production of Recombinant MDC
[0140] To produce recombinant MDC protein, the sequence encoding the putative mature form of the protein was amplified by PCR and cloned into the vector pGEX-3X (Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.). The pGEX vector is designed to produce a fusion protein comprising glutathione-S-transferase (GST), encoded by the vector, and a protein encoded by a DNA fragment inserted into the vector's cloning site.
[0141] The standard PCR conditions described in Example 2 were again employed to amplify an MDC cDNA fragment using the primers 390-2R and 390-FX2 (SEQ ID NO: 11):
[0142] 5′ TATCGGATCCTGGTTCCGCGTGGCCCCTACGGCGCCAACATGGAA 3′
[0143] Primer 390-FX2 contains a BamH I restriction site, followed by a sequence encoding a thrombin cleavage site [Chang et al., Eur. J. Biochem.,151:217 (1985)] followed by bases 92-115 of SEQ ID NO: 1. The thrombin cleavage site is as follows: leucine-valine-proline-arginine-glycine-proline, in which glycine and proline are the first two residues of the mature form of MDC. Treatment of the recombinant fusion protein with thrombin is expected to cleave the arginine-glycine bond of the fusion protein, releasing the mature chemokine from the GST fusion.
[0144] The PCR product was purified by agarose gel electrophoresis, digested with BamH I endonuclease, and cloned into the BamH I site of pGEX-3X. This pGEX-3X/MDC construct was transformed into E. coliXL-1 Blue cells (Stratagene, La Jolla Calif.), and individual transformants were isolated and grown. Plasmid DNA from individual transformants was purified and partially sequenced using an automated sequencer and primer GEX5 (SEQ ID NO: 12), which hybridizes to the pGEX-3X vector near the BamHI cloning site:
[0145] GEX5: 5′ GAAATCCAGCAAGTATATAGCA 3′
[0146] The sequence obtained with this primer confirmed the presence of the desired MDC insert in the proper orientation.
[0147] Induction of the GST-MDC fusion protein was achieved by growing the transformed XL-1 Blue culture at 37° C. in LB medium (supplemented with carbenicillin) to an optical density at wavelength 600 nm of 0.4, followed by further incubation for 4 hours in the presence of 0.25 to 1.0 mM Isopropyl β-D-Thiogalactopyranoside (Sigma Chemical Co., St. Louis Mo.).
[0148] The fusion protein, produced as an insoluble inclusion body in the bacteria, was purified as follows. Cells were harvested by centrifugation; washed in 0.15 M NaCl, 10 mM Tris, pH 8, 1 mM EDTA; and treated with 0.1 mg/ml lysozyme (Sigma Chemical Co.) for 15 minutes at room temperature. The lysate was cleared by sonication, and cell debris was pelleted by centrifugation for 10 minutes at 12,000×g. The fusion protein-containing pellet was resuspended in 50 mM Tris, pH 8, and 10 mM EDTA, layered over 50% glycerol, and centrifuged for 30 min. at 6000×g. The pellet was resuspended in standard phosphate buffered saline solution (PBS) free of Mg++and Ca++. The fusion protein, which remained insoluble, was approximately 80-90% of the protein mass and migrated in denaturing SDS-polyacrylamide gels with a relative molecular weight of 33 kD. The protein yield, as judged by Coomassie staining, was approximately 100 mg/l of E. coliculture.
[0149] The fusion protein was subjected to thrombin digestion to cleave the GST from the mature MDC protein. The digestion reaction (20-40 ug fusion protein, 20-30 units human thrombin (4000 U/ mg (Sigma) in 0.5 ml PBS) was incubated 16-48 hrs. at room temperature and loaded on a denaturing SDS-PAGE gel to fractionate the reaction products. The gel was soaked in 0.4 M KCl to visualize the GST and MDC protein bands, which migrated as fragments of approximately 26 kD and 7 kD, respectively.
[0150] The identity of the 7 kD SDS-PAGE fragment was confirmed by partial amino acid sequence analysis. First, the protein was excised from the gel, electroeluted in 25 mM Tris base and 20 mM glycine, and collected onto a PVDF membrane in a ProSpin column (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.). Subjecting the sample to automated sequencing (Applied Biosystems Model 473A, Foster City, Calif.) yielded 15 residues of sequence information, which corresponded exactly to the expected N-terminus of the predicted mature form of MDC (SEQ ID NO: 2, amino acid residues 1 to 15).
Example 7
[0151] Construction of a Bacterial MDC Expression Vector
[0152] The portion of the MDC cDNA encoding the predicted mature MDC protein was cloned into a plasmid containing the arabinose promoter and the pelB leader sequence [see Better et al., Science, 240:1041-43 (1988)].
[0153] More particularly, an MDC cDNA was amplified by PCR as described in Example 2, using approximately 0.1 μg of pMP390-12 as template and synthetic oligonucleotide primers 390-2R and 390-Pel (SEQ ID NO: 13):
[0154] 390-Pel: 5′ ATTGCCATGGCCGGCCCCTACGGCGCCAACATGGAA 3′
[0155] Primer 390-Pel contains an Nco I restriction site, followed by two cytosine residues, followed by bases 92 to 115 of SEQ ID NO: 1.
[0156] The expected PCR product of 232 bp was purified by agarose gel electrophoresis, digested with Nco I and BamH I, and cloned along with a portion of the arabinose operon and pelB leader sequence (Better et al., supra) into the vector pUC19 (New England Biolabs, Beverly, Mass.). The resultant construct, designated P2-390, encodes a fusion of the pelB leader (encoded by the vector) to the mature MDC protein. The sequence of this construct was confirmed by automated sequencing using the primers Ara1 (SEQ ID NO:28) and Ara2 (SEQ ID NO:29), which anneal to the vector adjacent to the cloning site.
[0157] Aral: 5′ GCG ACT CTC TAC TGT TTC TC3′
[0158] Ara2: 5′-CAC AGG AAA CAG CTA TGA CC3′
[0159] The plasmid P2-390 was transformed into the E. colistrain MC1061 using standard procedures, and an ampicillin resistant clone was selected for MDC production. The clone was grown in a 3 liter fermenter (Applikon, Foster City, Calif.) and MDC production was induced by the addition of 50% arabinose to a final concentration of 0.1%. After one day of incubation in the presence of arabinose, the cells were harvested. Western blotting revealed that MDC was present within the cells at a level of approximately 4 μg/g of cell paste and was secreted into the culture medium to a level of approximately 1 μg/ml.
Example 8
[0160] Purification of Recombinant MDC from Bacteria and Culture Medium
[0161] Following is an experimental protocol for purification of the recombinant MDC produced as described in Example 7.
[0162] The secreted recombinant MDC protein is purified from the bacterial culture media by, e.g., adapting methods previously described for the purification of recombinantly produced RANTES chemokine [kuna et al., J. Immunol.,149:636-642 (1992)], MGSA chemokine [Horuk et al., J. Biol Chem.268:541-46 (1993)], and IP-10 chemokine (expressed in insect cells) [Sarris et al., J. Exp. Med.,178:1127-1132 (1993)].
Example 9
[0163] Recombinant Production of MDC in Yeast
[0164] Following are protocols for the recombinant expression of MDC in yeast and for the purification of the recombinant MDC. Heterologous expression of human genes using microbial hosts can be an effective method to produce therapeutic proteins both for research and commercial manufacture. Secretion from yeast hosts (see recent review by Romanos, Yeast,8: 423-488 (1992)) such as Saccharomyces cerevisiae(Price et al., Gene,55:287 (1987)) Kluyveromyces lactis(Fleer et al., Bio/Technology,9: 968-975 (1991)), Pichia pastoris,(Cregg et al., Bio/Technology,11: 905-910 (1993)), Schizosaccharomyces pombe(Broker et al., FEBS Lett.,248: 105-110 (1989)), and related organisms provide a particularly useful approach to obtain both high titer production of crude bulk product and rapid recovery and purification. These expression systems typically are comprised of an expression cassette containing a strong transcriptional segment of DNA or promoter to effect high levels of mRNA expression in the host. The mRNA typically encodes a coding region of interest preceded by an in-frame leader sequence, e.g., S. cerevisiaepre-pro alpha factor (Brake et al., Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.,81: 4642-4646 (1984)) or equivalent signal, which directs the mature gene product to the culture medium. As taught below, MDC can be expressed in such a manner.
[0165] In one exemplary protocol, the coding region of the MDC cDNA is amplified from pMP390-12 by PCR, using as primers synthetic oligonucleotides containing the MDC cDNA sequences present in primers 390-1F and 390-2R. A DNA encoding the yeast pre-pro-alpha leader sequence is amplified from yeast genomic DNA in a PCR reaction using one primer containing bases 1-20 of the alpha mating factor gene and another primer complimentary to bases 255-235 of this gene [Kurjan and Herskowitz, Cell,30: 933-943 (1982)]. The pre-pro-alpha leader coding sequence and MDC coding sequence fragments are ligated into a plasmid containing the yeast alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH2) promoter, such that the promoter directs expression of a fusion protein consisting of the pre-pro-alpha factor fused to the mature MDC polypeptide. As taught by Rose and Broach, Meth. Enz.,185: 234-279, D. Goeddel, ed., Academic Press, Inc., San Diego, Calif. (1990), the vector further includes an ADH2 transcription terminator downstream of the cloning site, the yeast “2-micron” replication origin, the yeast leu-2d gene, the yeast REP1 and REP2 genes, the E. colibeta-lactamase gene, and an E. coliorigin of replication. The beta-lactamase and leu-2d genes provide for selection in bacteria and yeast, respectively. The leu-2d gene also facilitates increased copy number of the plasmid in yeast to induce higher levels of expression. The REP1 and REP2 genes encode proteins involved in regulation of the plasmid copy number.
[0166] The DNA construct described in the preceding paragraph is transformed into yeast cells using a known method, e.g., lithium acetate treatment [Stearns et al., Meth. Enz.,supra, pp. 280-297]. The ADH2 promoter is induced upon exhaustion of glucose in the growth media [Price et al., Gene,55:287 (1987)]. The pre-pro-alpha sequence effects secretion of the fusion protein from the cells. Concomitantly, the yeast KEX2 protein cleaves the pre-pro sequence from the mature MDC chemokine [Bitter et. al, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA,81:5330-5334 (1984)].
[0167] Alternatively, MDC is recombinantly expressed in yeast using a commercially available expression system, e.g., the Pichia Expression System (Invitrogen, San Diego, Calif.), following the manufacturer's instructions. This system also relies on the pre-pro-alpha sequence to direct secretion, but transcription of the insert is driven by the alcohol oxidase (AOX1) promoter upon induction by methanol.
[0168] The secreted MDC is purified from the yeast growth medium by, e.g., the methods used to purify MDC from bacterial and mammalian cell supernatants (see Examples 8 and 10).
[0169] MDC was expressed in yeast as follows. Using standard molecular biological methods (Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: a Laboratory Manual,Second Edition, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1989)) such as those described above, the S. cerevisiae alpha factor pre-pro sequence (codons 1-85 in FIG. 9) was fused to the presumptive mature form of MDC (SEQ ID NO: 1, positions 1-69; codons 86-155 in FIG. 9). Expression of the resultant coding region is under control of the K. lactisLAC4 promoter present in the plasmid pYGL/preproMDC (see FIG. 10). This plasmid is a derivative of the K. laclisexpression plasmid developed by Fleer et al., (supra) and used to secrete high titers of human serum albumin. This vector class is derived from the plasmid pKD1, a 2μ like plasmid from in K. drosophilarium(Chen et al., Nucleic Acids Research,14: 447-81 (1986)). These vectors are autonomously replicated and maintained at high copy number and have been shown to confer high levels of protein production when K. lactisstrains containing these plasmids are grown in either galactose or lactose as “inducing” agents and as the sole carbon source. The construct pYGL/preproMDC confers to the host both resistance to G418 (200 mg/L) and the glycolytic enzyme phosphoglucokinase (PGK). Efficient selection for transformed cells containing the plasmid is effected by providing a sole carbon source that requires processing via the glycolytic pathway of intermediary metabolism.
[0170] Plasmid pYGL/preproMDC was transformed into the pgkodeficient host strain FBO5 (Delta Biotechnology Limited) by selecting for G418 resistance in YEPPglycerol/ethanol medium (0.5% yeast extract, 1% peptone, 1 M KPO4, pH 7.0, containing 3% glycerol and 2% ethanol). Following clonal isolation, the transformed seed was grown in shake flask production medium YEPPgal (0.5% yeast extract, 1% peptone, 1 M KPO4, pH 7.0, containing 2% galactose as sole carbon source). SDS-PAGE analysis of the culture medium indicated that a protein species of the molecular weight expected of that for mature MDC was present. This protein migrated comparably to synthetic MDC (Gryphon Sciences Corporation). Titration data using dilutions of purified synthetic MDC and culture supernatants in Coomassie blue stained SDS-PAGE gels suggested that MDC was present in the range of 4-10 mg/L.
[0171] Western analysis using an anti-MDC monoclonal antibody did not reveal the presence of MDC-related degradation products, even after further culturing of the seed 24 hours past the completion of growth. This observation suggested that the seed is capable of producing and stably accumulating MDC, indicating that high cell fermentation methods would be effective to increase titer.
[0172] The MDC production seed was used to inoculate a fermentor maintained at 26° C. containing a batch medium of:
| Batch medium composition (1200 ml): |
|---|
[0173] One hour following inoculation, a feed was initiated at a rate of 12 ml/hour and maintained for four days.
| Feed medium composition (1500 ml): |
|---|
[0174] Samples were collected and analyzed throughout the run. MDC accumulated during the first three days of the fermentation to a final titer of approximately 50 mg/L as determined from purification recovery experiments. The primary protein species present is MDC. Significant levels of degradation were not observed by SDS-PAGE analysis. A sample of the harvest supernatant was partially purified using ion exchange chromatography. Following dialysis into phosphate buffered saline, the yeast-produced MDC exhibited a single molecular mass of 8088 daltons, as compared with the theoretical value of 8086, well within the expected error of the measurement.
[0175] Yeast-produced MDC was further analyzed for biological activity by calcium flux assay and found to exhibit activity comparable to the activity of synthetic MDC and CHO-produced MDC. Using the assay described below in Example 25, yeast-produced MDC was also successful in competing with synthetic MDC-SEAP for binding to CCR4 recombinantly expressed on a mammalian cell surface.
Example 10
[0176] Recombinant Production of MDC in Mammalian Cells
[0177] MDC was recombinantly produced in mammalian cells according to the following procedures.
[0178] A. Synthesis of Expression Vector 390HXE
[0179] A truncated version of the MDC cDNA was synthesized by PCR as described in Example 2, using pMP390-12 as template and the synthetic oligonucleotides 390RcH and 390RcX as primers.
[0180] 390RcH: 5′GACCAAGCTTGAGACATACAGGACAGAGCA (SEQ ID NO: 14)
[0181] 390RcX: 5′TGGATCTAGAAGTTGGCACAGGCTTCTGG (SEQ. ID NO: 15)
[0182] Primer 390RcH contains a Hind III restriction site followed by bases 1 to 20 of SEQ ID NO: 1; primer 390RcX contains an xba I restriction site followed by the sequence complimentary to bases 403 to 385 of SEQ ID NO: 1.
[0183] The expected 423 bp PCR product was purified by agarose gel electrophoresis and cloned into Hind III/xba I-digested pRc/CMV ((In Vitrogen, San Diego Calif.) a vector which allows for direct expression in mammalian cells). The resulting plasmid, designated 390HXE, contained bases 1 to 403 of SEQ ID NO: 1. The sequence of the insert was confirmed by automated sequencing using the primers DC03 (SEQ ID NO: 16) and JHSP6.
[0184] DC03: 5′ CGA AAT TAA TAC GAC TCA CT 3′
[0185] Primer DC03 anneals to the pRc/CMV vector sequence adjacent to the cloning site.
[0186] B. Synthesis of Expression Vector 390HmX
[0187] Another MDC cDNA construct was generated by PCR, using pMP390-12 as template and the primers 390RcH and 390mycRX (SEQ ID NO: 17).
[0188] ti 390mycRX: 5′ TGGATCTAGATCAATTCAAGTCCTCCTCGCTGATCAGCTTCTGCTCTTGGCTCAGCTTATTGAGAAT 3′
[0189] Primer 390mycRX contains an Xba I restriction site, a sequence complementary to the sequence encoding a “myc” epitope [Fowlkes et al., BioTechniques,13:422-427 (1992)], and a sequence complementary to bases 298 to 278 of SEQ ID NO: 1. This reaction amplified the expected 354 bp fragment containing bases 1 to 298 of SEQ ID NO: 1 fused to a “myc” epitope at the MDC carboxy-terminus. This epitope can be used to facilitate immunoprecipitation, affinity purification, and detection of the MDC-myc fusion protein by Western blotting. The fragment was cloned into pRc/CMV to generate the plasmid 390HmX. The sequence of the insert was confirmed by automated sequencing using the primer DC03.
[0190] C. Expression of MDC in 293T and NS0 Cells
[0191] Two transfection protocols were used to express the two MDC cDNA constructs described above in subparts A. and B.: transient transfection into the human embryonic kidney cell line 293T and stable transfection into the mouse myeloma cell line NS0(ECACC 85110503).
[0192] Transient transfection of 293T cells was carried out by the calcium phosphate precipitation protocol of Chen and Okayama, BioTechniques,6:632-638 (1988) and Mol Cel Biol.,87:2745-2752 (1987). Cells and supernatants were harvested four days after transfection. A Northern blot was prepared from 4 μg of total RNA from each cell lysate and probed with a radiolabelled MDC fragment prepared by PCR. The template for the labelling reaction was the PCR fragment previously generated by amplifying pMP390 with the primers 390-1F and 390-4R (see Example 2). Approximately 30 ng of this fragment was employed in a PCR reaction containing the following: 1.5 mM MgCl2, 50 mM KCl, 10 mM Tris, pH 8.4, 0.2 mM dATP, 0.2 mM dTTP, 0.2 mM dGTP, 1 μM dCTP, 50 μCi α32P-dCTP (DuPont/New England Nuclear, Boston Mass.), 2.5 U Taq polymerase, and 10 μg/ml each of primers 390-1F and 390-2R. The reaction was denatured by heating for 4 minutes at 94° C., followed by 15 cycles of amplification as described in Example 2. The probe was purified by passage over a G-25 Quick Spin column (BMB). Conditions for hybridization were described in Example 2. Filters were subsequently washed in 0.5×SSC and 0.2% SDS at 42° C. for 30 minutes. Autoradiography was carried out at −80° C. with one intensifying screen for sixteen hours. The MDC DNA constructs were very highly expressed in the transfected cells and not detectable in the non-transfected cells.
[0193] For stable transfections, NS0 cells were grown to 80% confluency in D-MEM (Gibco), collected by centrifugation, and washed with PBS. Twenty μg of plasmid DNA was linearized with Sca I restriction endonuclease (BMB), added to the cells, and incubated on ice for 15 minutes in a 0.4 cm gap cuvette (BioRad, Hercules Calif.). The cells were electroporated with two pulses of 3 microfarad at 1.5 kilovolts. Cells were diluted into 20 ml D-MEM, incubated at 37° C. in 5% CO2for 24 hours, and selected by plating into 96-well plates at various dilutions in D-MEM containing 800 μg/ml geneticin. Wells containing single drug-resistant colonies were expanded in selective media. Total RNA was analyzed by Northern blotting as described in the preceding paragraph. Message for MDC was seen only in transfected cell lines.
[0194] MDC is purified from mammalian culture supernatants by, e.g., adapting methods described for the purification of recombinant TCA3 chemokine [Wilson et al., J. Immunol,145:2745-2750 (1990], or as described below in subpart F.
[0195] D. Expression of MDC in CHO Cells
[0196] PCR was used to amplify bases 1 to 403 of the MDC cDNA clone using primers 390RcH and 390RcX (SEQ. ID NOs: 14 and 15), as described above in subpart A. The fragment was cloned into the HindIII and XbaI sites of the expression vector pDC1, a pUC19 derivative that contains the cytomegalovirus (CMV) promoter to drive expression of the insert. More specifically, vector pDC1, depicted in FIG. 8, was derived from pRc/CMV and pSV2-dhfr (ATCC vector #37146). Vector pDC1is similar to the mammalian expression vector pRc/CMV (Invitrogen, San Diego) except that pDC1 carries the mouse dihydrofolate reductase (dhfr) gene as a selectable marker, in place of the neomycin phosphotransferase gene. Transcription of the target gene in pDC1 is under the control of the strong CMV promoter. See Stenberg et al., J. Virology,49:190-199 (1984). Additionally, a polyadenylation sequence from the bovine growth hormone gene [Goodwin and Rottman, J. Biol. Chem.,267:16330-16334 (1992)] is provided on the 3′ side of the target gene. The dhfr expression cassette [Subramani et al., Mol Cell. Biol1:854-864 (1981)] allows selection for pDC1 in cells lacking a functional dhfr gene.
[0197] XL-1 Blue bacteria (Stratagene) were transformed with the pDC1/MDC plasmid using standard techniques of CaCl2incubation and heat shock (Sambrook et al.). Transformants were grown in LB medium containing 100 μg/ml carbenicillin. Plasmid DNA from individual transformed clones was isolated using the Promega Wizard Maxiprep system Madison, Wis.) and its sequence was confirmed by automated sequencing using the primers 390-IF and 390-2R. The plasmid was linearized by restriction digestion with PvuI endonuclease (Boehringer Mannheim), which cuts once within the vector sequence.
[0198] The Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line used for production of MDC was DG-44, which was derived by deleting the dhfr gene. See Urlaub et al., Cell,33:405 (1983). For electroporation, 107of these CHO cells were washed in PBS, resuspended in 1 ml PBS, mixed with 25 μg of linearized plasmid, and transferred to a 0.4 cm cuvette. The suspension was electroporated with a Biorad Gene Pulser (Richmond, Calif.) at 290 volts, 960 μFarad. Transfectants were selected by growth in α−medium (Cat. No. 12000, Gibco, Gaithersburg, Md.) containing 10% dialyzed fetal bovine serum (FBS) (Hyclone, Logan, Utah) and lacking hypoxanthine and thymidine. Cells from several hundred transfected colonies were pooled and re-plated in α−medium containing 20 nM methotrexate (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.). Colonies surviving this round of selection were isolated and expanded in α−medium containing 20 nM methotrexate.
[0199] E. Purification of MDC for Protein Sequencing
[0200] Transfected CHO clones were grown on plastic tissue culture dishes to approximately 90% confluence in α−medium, at which time the medium was replaced with P5 medium containing 0.2% to 1.0% FBS. P5 medium consists of the components listed in Table 2, below (purchased as a premixed powder form Hyclone, Logan Utah), supplemented with the following additional components:
[0201] (1) 3 g/l sodium bicarbonate (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.);
[0202] (2) 2 μg/l sodium selenite (Sigma);
[0203] (3) 1% soy bean hydrolysate (Quest International, Naarden, The Netherlands);
[0204] (4) 1× ferrous sulfate/EDTA solution (Sigma);
[0205] (5) 1.45 ml/l EX-CYTEVLE solution (Bayer, Kankakee, Ill.);
[0206] (6) 10 μg/ml recombinant insulin (Nucellin, Eli Lily, Indianapolis, Ind.);
[0207] (7) 0.1% pluronic F-68 (Sigma);
[0208] (8) 30 μg/ml glycine (Sigma);
[0209] (9) 50 μM ethanolamine (Sigma); and
[0210] (10) 1 mM sodium pyruvate (Sigma).
| TABLE 2 | ||
|---|---|---|
| Component | Powder #5 gm/L | |
[0211] After two additional days in culture, an aliquot of each supernatant was mixed with an equal volume of acetone. The precipitated proteins were pelleted by centrifugation, fractionated on an 18% Tris Glycine gel (NOVEX), and blotted to a PVDF membrane (Millipore, Bedford, Mass.).
[0212] MDC bound to the membrane was detected by a crude preparation of monoclonal antibody to MDC (prepared as described in Example 18). Cells from the clone secreting the highest level of MDC protein (approx. 1 μg/ml) were removed from the plate by treatment with a solution of 0.5% trypsin and 5.3 mM EDTA (GIBCO) and used to start a suspension culture in α−medium plus 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS). Over the course of 8 days, 5 volumes of P5 medium were added to the culture. Proteins were precipitated from the culture supernatant by addition of polyethylene glycol (MW 8000, Union Carbide, Danbury, Conn.) to 20% (weight/volume), fractionated on an 18% Tris glycine gel, and electroblotted to a PVDF membrane (Millipore, Bedford, Mass.) in CAPS buffer (3-[Cyclohexylamino]-1-propanesulfonic acid, pH 10.4) (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.). A strip of the filter was removed for detection of MDC by western blotting with the supernatant from a hybridoma cell line producing anti-MDC monoclonal antibodies (See Example 18). The reactive band, which migrated with an apparent molecular weight of 6.4 kD, was excised from the remaining portion of the filter.
[0213] Using an automated sequencer (Applied Biosystems, Model 473A, Foster City, Calif.), the sequence of the N-terminus of the protein was determined to be: GPYGANMEDS. This sequence is identical to that of residues 1 to 10 of SEQ ID NO. 2, corresponding to the N-terminus of the predicted mature form of MDC.
[0214] F. Purification of MDC for Biological Assays
[0215] For growth of larger cultures, MDC-expressing CHO cells were grown to 80% confluence on tissue culture plates in α−medium. The cells were removed from the plates by treatment with trypsin and EDTA and resuspended at a density of 3×105cells/ml in P5 medium plus 1% FBS in a spinner flask at 37° C. Additional P5/1% FBS medium was added as needed to keep the cell density in the range of 1×106to 3×106.
[0216] After 11 days in culture, the cells were removed from the medium by filtration. The pH of the culture medium was adjusted to 6.8, and it was passed over a heparin-Sepherose CL-6B column (Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.). After washing with 0.2 M NaCl in potassium phosphate buffer, pH 7, the column was eluted with a linear gradient of 0.2 to 0.7 M NaCl. Fractions were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and Coomassie stained to determine which of them contained MDC. MDC eluted from the column at approximately 0.6 M NaCl.
[0217] The fractions containing MDC were pooled and concentrated by ultrafiltration in stirred-cell chamber (Amicon, Beverly, Mass.) using a filter with a MW cutoff of 3 kD. Octylglucoside (10 mM final concentration, Boehringer Mannheim Biochemicals) was added to the concentrated MDC, which subsequently was passed through a Sephacryl HR100 column (Pharmacia, Piscataway, N.J.). Fractions were analyzed by SDS-PAGE for the presence of MDC. The final yield of MDC protein was approximately 0.1 mg/liter of culture supernatant, and the purity was estimated to be greater than 95%, as judged by Coomassie staining.
Example 11
[0218] Production of MDC and MDC Analogs by Peptide Synthesis
[0219] MDC and MDC polypeptide analogs are prepared by chemical peptide synthesis using techniques that have been used successfully for the production of other chemokines such as IL-8 [Clark-Lewis et al., J. Biol Chem.,266:23128-34 (1991)] and MCP-1. Such methods are advantageous because they are rapid, reliable for short sequences such as chemokines, and enable the selective introduction of novel, unnatural amino acids and other chemical modifications.
[0220] For example, MDC and MDC analogs were chemically synthesized using optimized stepwise solid-phase methods [Schnolzer et al., Int. J. Pept. Protein Res.,40:180 (1992)] based on t-butyloxycarbonyl (Boc) chemistries of Meffifield [J. Am. Chem. Soc.,85:2149-2154 (1963)] on an Applied Biosystems 430A Peptide Synthesizer (Foster City, Calif.). The proteins were purified by reverse-phase HPLC and characterized by standard methods, including electrospray mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance.
[0221] The chemically synthesized MDC corresponded to the mature form of recombinant MDC, consisting of residues 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO. 2. Several methods were used to compare the chemically synthesized MDC to the recombinant MDC produced by CHO cell transfectants as described in Example 10. The migration of chemically synthesized MDC was identical to that of the recombinant MDC in denaturing SDS-PAGE (18% Tris glycine gel, NOVEX). In addition, the proteins reacted similarly in western blot analyses using monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies raised against bacterially produced MDC as described below in Example 18. The chemically synthesized MDC also appeared to behave in the same manner as the recombinant MDC in immunoprecipitation assays with the anti-MDC monoclonal antibodies. These studies indicate that the denatured and the non-denatured structures of chemically synthesized MDC are similar to those of recombinant MDC.
[0222] The following MDC analogs also have been chemically synthesized:
[0223] 1. “MDC (n+1)” (SEQ ID NO: 30) consists of Leucine followed by residues 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO. 2. This analog has alternatively been referred to herein as “MDC(0-69).”
[0224] 2. “MDC (9-69)” consists of residues 9 to 69 of SEQ ID NO. 2.
[0225] 3. “MDC-yl” (SEQ ID NO: 31) consists of residues 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO. 2, with the following substitution: Residues 59-60 (Trp-Val) were replaced with the sequence Tyr-Leu. A related analog “MDC-wvas” consists of residues 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO. 2, with the following substitution: Residues 59-60 (Trp-Val) were replaced with the sequence Ala-Ser.
[0226] 4. “MDC-eyfy” (SEQ ID NO: 32) consists of residues 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO. 2, with the following substitution: Residues 28-31 (His-Phe-Tyr-Trp) were replaced with the sequence Glu-Tyr-Phe-Tyr, derived from the amino acid sequence of the chemokine RANTES (residues 26-29 of SEQ ID NO: 21).
[0227] The analogs “MDC (n+1)”, “MDC (9-69)”, and “MDC-yl” are expected to be antagonists of MDC activity, inhibiting MDC activity by competitively binding to the same receptor that recognizes MDC. Alternatively, they may effect inhibition by forming heterodimers with the native MDC. Possible activities of the analog “MDC-eyfy” include inhibition of MDC as described for the previous analogs. In contrast, “MDC-eyfy” may behave similar to native MDC. Other activities of this analog may include functions typical of the chemokine RANTES, such as chemotaxis of T lymphocytes, monocytes, or eosinophils.
[0228] Additionally, the following single-amino acid alterations (alone or in combination) are specifically contemplated: (1) substitution of a non-basic amino acid for the basic arginine and/or lysine amino acids at positions 24 and 27, respectively, of SEQ ID NO: 2; (2) substitution of a charged or polar amino acid (e.g., serine, lysine, arginine, histidine, aspartate, glutamate, asparagine, glutamine or cysteine) for the tyrosine amino acid at position 30 of SEQ ID NO: 2, the tryptophan amino acid at position 59 of SEQ ID NO: 2, and/or the valine amino acid at position 60 of SEQ ID NO: 2; and (3) substitution of a basic or small, non-charged amino acid (e.g., lysine, arginine, histidine, glycine, alanine) for the glutamic acid amino acid at position 50 of SEQ ID NO: 2. Specific analogs having these amino acid alterations are encompassed by the following formula (SEQ ID NO: 25):
| Met Ala Arg Leu Gln Thr Ala Leu Leu Val Val Leu Val Leu Leu Ala | |
| −24 −20 −15 −10 | |
| Val Ala Leu Gln Ala Thr Glu Ala Gly Pro Tyr Gly Ala Asn Met Glu | |
| −5 1 5 | |
| Asp Ser Val Cys Cys Arg Asp Tyr Val Arg Tyr Arg Leu Pro Leu Xaa | |
| 10 15 20 | |
| Val Val Xaa His Phe Xaa Trp Thr Ser Asp Ser Cys Pro Arg Pro Gly | |
| 25 30 35 40 | |
| Val Val Leu Leu Thr Phe Arg Asp Lys Xaa Ile Cys Ala Asp Pro Arg | |
| 45 50 55 | |
| Val Pro Xaa Xaa Lys Met Ile Leu Asn Lys Leu Ser Gln | |
| 60 65 |
[0229] wherein the amino acid at position 24 is selected from the group consisting of arginine, glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, proline, serine, threonine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, aspartate, glutamate, asparagine, glutamine, cysteine, and methionine; wherein the amino acid at position 27 is independently selected from the group consisting of lysine, glycine, alanine, valine, leucine, isoleucine, proline, serine, threonine, phenylalanine, tyrosine, tryptophan, aspartate, glutamate, asparagine, glutamine, cysteine, and methionine; wherein the amino acid at position 30 is independently selected from the group consisting of tyrosine, serine, lysine, arginine, histidine, aspartate, glutamate, asparagine, glutamine, and cysteine; wherein the amino acid at position 50 is independently selected from the group consisting of glutamic acid, lysine, arginine, histidine, glycine, and alanine; wherein the amino acid at position 59 is independently selected from the group consisting of tryptophan, serine, lysine, arginine, histidine, aspartate, glutamate, asparagine, glutamine, and cysteine; and wherein the amino acid at position 60 is independently selected from the group consisting of valine, serine, lysine, arginine, histidine, aspartate, glutamate, asparagine, glutamine, and cysteine. Such MDC polypeptide analogs are specifically contemplated to modulate the binding characteristics of MDC to chemokine receptors and/or other molecules (e.g., heparin, glycosaminoglycans, erythrocyte chemokine receptors) that are considered to be important in presenting MDC to its receptor.
[0230] Recombinant techniques such as those described in the preceding examples also are contemplated for preparing MDC polypeptide analogs. More particularly, polynucleotides encoding MDC are modified to encode polypeptide analogs of interest using well-known techniques, e.g., site-directed mutagenesis and the polymerase chain reaction. See generally Sambrook et al., supra, Chapter 15. The modified polynucleotides are expressed recombinantly, and the recombinant MDC polypeptide analogs are purified, as described in the preceding examples.
[0231] The chemoattractant and/or cell-activation properties of MDC or MDC polypeptide analogs on one or more types of cells involved in the inflammatory process, (e.g., T lymphocytes, monocytes, macrophages, basophils, eosinophils, neutrophils, mast cells, endothelial cells, epithelial cells, fibroblasts, or others) are assayed by art-recognized techniques that have been used for numerous other chemokines. Native MDC, recombinant MDC or MDC polypeptide analogs, or synthetic MDC or MDC polypeptide analogs purified and isolated as described in one or more of the preceding examples are assayed for activity as described in the following examples with respect to MDC.
Example 12
[0232] Assay of MDC Effects upon Basophils, Mast Cells, and Eosinophils
[0233] The effect of MDC upon basophils, mast cells, and eosinophils is assayed, e.g., by methods described by Weber et al., J. Immunol,154:4166-4172 (1995) for the assay of MCP-1/2/3 activities. In these methods, changes in free cytosolic calcium and release of proinflammatory mediators (such as histamine and leukotriene) are measured. Blocking chemokine-mediated activation of these cell types has implications in the treatment of late-phase allergic reactions, in which secretion of proinflammatory mediators plays a significant role [Weber et al., supra].
[0234] In one signaling assay synthetic MDC (0.01-10 nM) caused dose-dependent chemotaxis of purified human eosinophils (maximum chemotaxis approximately four-fold greater than in controls). The relative chemotactic activity of MDC, in relation to other known chemotactic factors of eosinophils, was as follows: MDC≈eotaxin<RANTES<MCP-4≦eotaxin-2. In contrast, the MDC analog MDC(9-69) displayed no chemotactic activity in the same assay. This data demonstrates a biological activity and utility for MDC in stimulating the chemotaxis of eosinophils, and further demonstrates a utility of MDC modulators for modulating this chemotactic activity.
[0235] It was further determined that the eosinophil-chemotactic activity of MDC appears to operate in a manner independent of the chemokine receptor CCR3. CCR3-transfected HEK cells labeled with Fura-2 demonstrated a rapid rise in intracellular free calcium following stimulation with 10-50 nM eotaxin, eotaxin-2, or MCP-4, but not with 10-100 nM MDC. Similarly, purified eosinophils cultured for 72 hours in 10 ng/ml IL-5 and labeled with Fura-2 demonstrated a rapid rise in intracellular free calcium following stimulation with 10-50 nM eotaxin, eotaxin-2, or MCP-4, whereas no such rise was observed following stimulation with MDC (up to 100 nM).
Example 13
[0236] Assay of Chemoattractant and Cell-Activation Properties of MDC upon Human
[0237] Monocytes/Macrophages and Human Neutrophils
[0238] The effects of MDC upon human monocytes/macrophages or human neutrophils is evaluated, e.g., by methods described by Devi et al., J. Immunol.,153:5376-5383 (1995) for evaluating murine TCA3-induced activation of neutrophils and macrophages. Indices of activation measured in such studies include increased adhesion to fibrinogen due to integrin activation, chemotaxis, induction of reactive nitrogen intermediates, respiratory burst (superoxide and hydrogen peroxide production), and exocytosis of lysozyme and elastase in the presence of cytochalasin B. As discussed by Devi et al., these activities correlate to several stages of the leukocyte response to inflammation. This leukocyte response, reviewed by Springer, Cell,76:301-314 (1994), involves adherence of leukocytes to endothelial cells of blood vessels, migration through the endothelial layer, chemotaxis toward a source of chemokines, and site-specific release of inflammatory mediators. The involvement of MDC at any one of these stages provides an important target for clinical intervention, for modulating the inflammatory response.
[0239] In one art-recognized chemotaxis assay, a modified Boyden chamber assay, leukocytes to be tested are fluorescently labeled with calcein by incubating for 20 minutes at room temperature. The labeled cells are washed twice with serum-free RPMI, resuspended in RPMI containing 2 mg/ml of BSA, and then added quantitatively to the upper wells of the chambers, which are separated from the lower wells by a polycarbonate filter (Neuroprobe Inc. Cabin John, Md.). MDC diluted in the same medium as the leukocytes is added to the lower wells at various concentrations. Chambers are incubated for 2 hours at 37° C. At the end of the assay, cells that have not migrated through the membrane are removed by rinsing the filter with PBS and scraping with a rubber policeman. Cells that have migrated through the filter are quantitated by reading fluorescence per well in a fluorescent plate reader (Cytofluor, Millipore Inc., Boston, Mass.).
[0240] A series of experiments were performed using art-recognized procedures to determine the chemotactic properties of MDC. Initially, the response of human mononuclear cells to MDC was determined. The effect of MDC on the chemotactic response of polymorphonuclear leukocytes (granulocytes) also was examined.
[0241] It has been established that MCP-1, which is a C-C chemokine, causes both recruitment and activation of monocytes but appears to have limited ability to induce the migration of macrophages. The failure of MCP-1 to attract macrophages appears to be correlated to the differentiation process: as monocytic cells differentiate, there is a progressive decrease in cell response to MCP-1 [Denholm and Stankus, Cytokine,7: 436-440 (1995)]. The biological activities of MCP-1 appear to correlate with the expression of this chemokine, with MCP-1 mRNA being found in monocytes but decreasing as these cells differentiate.
[0242] The pattern of expression of MDC appears to be the reverse of that described for MCP-1, with the amount of mRNA for MDC increasing as monocytes differentiate to macrophages. To determine whether this expression pattern correlates to the biological response to MDC, the effects of MDC on the migration of monocytes and macrophages were compared.
[0243] A number of different leukocyte cells types were analyzed in chemotaxis and chemotaxis inhibition assays. Human mononuclear and polymorphonuclear leukocytes were isolated from peripheral blood using methods known in the art [Denholm et al., Amer. J. Pathol.,135:571-580 (1989)]. Second, the human monocytic cell line, THP-1 (obtained from the ATCC, Rockville, Md., and maintained in culture in RPMI with 10% FBS and with penicillin/streptomycin) was employed. THP-1 cells can be cultured as monocytes or can be induced to differentiate to macrophages by treatment with phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) [Denholm and Stankus, Cytokine,7:436-440 (1995)]. In some experiments monocytic THP-1 cells were employed, and in others monocytic THP-1 cells were differentiated to macrophages by incubation with phorbol myristate acetate (PMA). Third, guinea pig peritoneal macrophages were obtained essentially as described in Yoshimura, J. Immunol.,150:5025-5032 (1993). Briefly, animals were given an intraperitoneal injection of 3% sterile thioglycolate (DIFCO) two days prior to cell harvest. Macrophages were obtained from the peritoneal cavity by lavage with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) with 1 mM EDTA and 0.1% glucose. Cells were washed once by centrifugation and then utilized in chemotaxis assays as described below.
[0244] Assays of chemotactic activity were carried out, using the cell preparations described above, essentially as described by Denholm and Stankus, Cytometry,19:366-369 (1995), using 96-well chambers (Neuroprobe Inc., Cabin John, Md.) and cells labeled with the fluorescent dye, calcein (Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg.). Polycarbonate filters used in this assay were PVP-free (Neuroprobe Inc.); filter pore sizes used for different cell types were: 5 μm for monocytes and THP-1 cells, 3 μm for polymorphonuclear leukocytes, and 8 μm for guinea pig macrophages.
[0245] Fifty thousand calcein labeled cells were resuspended in RPMI medium containing 2 mg/ml BSA and placed in the upper wells. MDC or other test substances were diluted in RPMI with BSA (e.g., final MDC concentrations of 25, 50, 100, 250 ng/ml) and placed in the lower wells. Following incubation at 37° C. for 2 hours, unmigrated cells remaining above the filter were removed by wiping; the filter was then air-dried. Controls in these assays were: RPMI with BSA as the negative control, and 50 ng/ml of MCP-1 and 1% zymosan activated serum (ZAS, prepared as described [Denholm and Lewis, Amer. J. Pathol.,126:464-474, (1987)]) were used as positive controls. Migration of cells was quantitated on a fluorescent plate reader (Cytofluor, Millipore Inc. Bedford, Mass.) and the number of cells migrated expressed as fluorescent units.
[0246] In assays of inhibitory activity, cells in the upper wells of the chambers were suspended in varying concentrations (0.005, 0.05, 0.5, 5.0, and 50 ng/ml) of MDC. The lower wells of the chamber were filled with either medium alone or the chemotactic factors, MCP-1 or zymosan activated serum (ZAS). Inhibition was assessed by comparing the number of cells that migrated to MCP-1 or ZAS; in the absence of MDC, to the number of cells that migrated with increasing concentrations of MDC. Preparation of cells and quantitation of assays was performed exactly as described above for the chemotaxis assays. The number of cells migrated was expressed as fluorescent units.
[0247] As indicated in FIG. 2, MDC did not induce THP-1-derived mononuclear cell migration, but rather appeared to inhibit mononuclear cell migration, at concentrations between 10 and 100 ng/ml. Other C-C chemokines, such as MCP-1 and RANTES, typically induce maximal monocyte chemotaxis within this concentration range.
[0248] As shown in FIG. 3, MDC, at concentrations of 0.001 to 100 ng/ml had no net effect on granulocyte migration. In respect to this lack of effect on granulocyte chemotaxis, MDC is similar to other previously described C-C chemokines.
[0249] The response of both macrophage and monocyte THP-1 cells to MDC is shown in FIG. 4. Macrophages (closed circles) migrated to MDC in a dose dependent manner, with optimal activity at 50 ng/ml. The decrease in macrophage chemotactic response to MDC at higher concentrations (100 ng/ml) reflects a desensitization of cells which is typical of most chemotactic factors at high concentrations [Falk and Leonard, Infect. Immunol,32:464-468 (1981)]. Monocytic THP-1 cells (open circles) however, did not migrate to MDC.
[0250] The chemotactic activity of MDC for macrophages was further verified in experiments utilizing elicited guinea pig peritoneal macrophages. MDC induced a dose dependent migration of guinea pig macrophages (FIG. 5), at concentrations between 100 and 500 ng/ml. The concentrations necessary to induce the migration of guinea pig macrophages was approximately ten-fold of that for human cells (FIG. 4). Similar differences in concentrations necessary for peak biological activity of human chemokines in other species have been reported for MCP-1 by Yashimura, J. Immunol,150:5025-5032 (1993).
[0251] The results of these experiments suggest that the biological activities of MDC are linked to the differentiation of monocytes to macrophages. In contrast to MCP-1 [Yoshimura, J. Immunol.,150:5025-5032 (1993)], MDC induces macrophage but not monocyte chemotaxis.
[0252] The ability of MDC to attract macrophages indicates that this chemokine might act to induce the focal accumulation of tissue macrophages. The accumulation of tissue macrophages in specific areas is important in the formation of granulomas, in which lung macrophages act to surround and enclose foreign particulates or relatively nondestructible bacterial pathogens such as Mycobacterium sp. [Adams, Am.J. Pathol.,84:164-191 (1976)].
[0253] In certain conditions such as arthritis, the accumulation of macrophages is understood to be detrimental and destructive. The ability of MDC to promote macrophage chemotaxis indicates a therapeutic utility for MDC inhibitors of the invention, to prevent, reduce, or eliminate macrophage accumulation in tissues.
[0254] The results of the chemotaxis assays with human mononuclear cells, presented in FIG. 2, suggested that MDC might inhibit cell migration. In the absence of MDC, monocytic THP-1 cells migrate to MCP-1, as shown in FIG. 6 (MDC of 0 ng/ml). However, when cells are exposed to MDC, the chemotactic response to MCP-1 (closed circles) is decreased. MDC, at concentrations of 0.005-0.5 ng/ml, inhibited monocyte chemotactic response to MCP-1. Although MDC inhibited the chemotactic response of monocytes to MCP-1, there was no significant effect of MDC on chemokinesis, or random migration, as reflected by the numbers of cells migrating to medium alone (open circles, RPMI with BSA), either in the presence of absence of MDC.
[0255] The inhibitory activity of MDC on monocyte chemotaxis indicates therapeutic utility for MDC in the treatment of several chronic inflammatory conditions (atherosclerosis, arthritis, pulmonary fibrosis) in which monocyte chemotaxis appears to play an important pathogenic role. Enhancing the activity of MDC in such diseases might result in the decreased migration of monocytes into tissues, thereby lessening the severity of disease symptoms.
Example 14
[0256] MDC In Vivo Tumor Growth Inhibition Assay
[0257] Tumor growth-inhibition properties of MDC are assayed, e.g., by modifying the protocol described by Laning et al., J. Immunol,153:4625-4635 (1994) for assaying the tumor growth-inhibitory properties of murine TCA3. An MDC-encoding cDNA is transfected by electroporation into the myeloma-derived cell line J558 (American Type Culture Collection, Rockville, Md.). Transfectants are screened for MDC production by standard techniques such as ELISA (enzyme-linked immunoadsorbant assay) using a monoclonal antibody generated against MDC as detailed in Example 18. A bolus of 10 million cells from an MDC-producing clone is injected subcutaneously into the lower right quadrant of BALB/c mice. For comparison, 10 million non-transfected cells are injected into control mice. The rate and frequency of tumor formation in the two groups is compared to determine efficacy of MDC in inhibiting tumor growth. The nature of the cellular infiltrate subsequently associated with the tumor cells is identified by histologic means. In addition, recombinant MDC (20 ng) is mixed with non-transfected J558 cells and injected (20 ng/day) into tumors derived from such cells, to assay the effect of MDC administered exogenously to tumor cells.
Example 15
[0258] Intraperitoneal Injection Assay
[0259] The cells which respond to MDC in vivo are determined through injection of 1-1000 ng of purified MDC into the intraperitoneal cavity of mice or other mammals (e.g., rabbits or guinea pigs), as described by Luo et al., J. Immunol.,153:4616-4624 (1994). Following injection, leukocytes are isolated from peripheral blood and from the peritoneal cavity and identified by staining with the Diff Quick kit (Baxter, McGraw, Ill.). The profile of leukocytes is measured at various times to assess the kinetics of appearance of different cell types. In separate experiments, neutralizing antibodies directed against MDC (Example 18) are injected along with MDC to confirm that the infiltration of leukocytes is due to the activity of MDC.
Example 16
[0260] In vivo Activity Assay—Subcutaneous Injection
[0261] The chemoattractant properties of MDC are assayed in vivo by adapting the protocol described by Meurer et al., J. Exp. Med.,178:1913-1921 (1993). Recombinant MDC (10-500 pmol/site) is injected intradermally into a suitable mammal, e.g., dogs or rabbits. At times of 4 to 24 hours, cell infiltration at the site of injection is assessed by histologic methods. The presence of MDC is confirmed by immunocytochemistry using antibodies directed against MDC. The nature of the cellular infiltrate is identified by staining with Baxter's Diff Quick kit.
Example 17
[0262] Myelosuppression Activity Assays
[0263] The myelosuppressive activity of MDC is assayed by injection of MDC into mice or another mammal (e.g. rabbits, guinea pigs), e.g., as described by Maze et al., J. Immunol,149:1004-1009 (1992) for the measurement of the myelosuppressive action of MIP-1α. A single dose of 0.2 to 10 ug of recombinant MDC is intravenously injected into C3H/HeJ mice (Jackson Laboratories, Bar Harbor Me.). The myelosuppressive effect of the chemokine is determined by measuring the cycling rates of mycloid progenitor cells in the femoral bone marrow and spleen. The suppression of growth and division of progenitor cells has clinical implications in the treatment of patients receiving chemotherapy or radiation therapy. The myeloprotective effect of such chemokine treatment has been demonstrated in pre-clinical models by Dunlop et al., Blood,79:2221 (1992).
[0264] An in vitro assay also is employed to measure the effect of MDC on myelosuppression, in the same manner as described previously for derivatives of the chemokines interleukin-8 (IL-8) and platelet factor 4 (PF-4). See Daly et al., J. Biol. Chem.,270:23282 (1995). Briefly, low density (less than 1.077 g/cm) normal human bone marrow cells are plated in 0.3% agar culture medium with 10% fetal bovine serum (HyClone, Logan, Utah) with 100 units/ml recombinant human GM-CSF (R&D Systems, Minneapolis, Minn.) plus 50 ng/ml recombinant human Steel factor (Immunex Corp., Seattle, Wash.) in the absence (control) and presence of MDC for assessment of granulocyte-macrophage precursors. For assessment of granulocyte erythroid myeloid megakaryocyte colony forming units (CFU-GEMM) and erythroid burst forming units (BFU-E), cells are grown in 0.9% methylcellulose culture medium in the presence of recombinant human erythropoietin (1-2 units/ml) in combination with 50 ng/ml Steel factor. Plates are scored for colonies after incubation at 37° C. in lowered (5%) O2for 14 days. The combination of GM-CSF and Steel factor or erythropoietin and Steel factor allow detection of large colonies (usually>1000 cells/colony) which come from early, more immature subsets of granulocyte myeloid colony forming units (CFU-GM), CFU-GEMM, and BFU-E.
Example 18
[0265] Antibodies to Human MDC
[0266] A. Monoclonal Antibodies
[0267] Recombinant MDC, produced by cleavage of a GST-MDC fusion protein as described in Example 6, was used to immunize a mouse for generation of monoclonal antibodies. In addition, a separate mouse was immunized with a chemically synthesized peptide corresponding to the N-terminus of the mature form of MDC (residues 1 to 12 of SEQ ID NO. 2). The peptide was synthesized on an Applied Biosystem Model 473A Peptide Synthesizer (Foster City, Calif.), and conjugated to Keyhole Lympet Hemocyanine (Pierce), according to the manufacturer's recommendations. For the initial injection to produce “Fusion 191” hybridomas, approximately 10 μg of MDC protein or conjugated peptide was emulsified with Freund's Complete Adjuvant and injected subcutaneously. At intervals of two to three weeks, additional aliquots of MDC protein were emulsified with Freund's Incomplete Adjuvant and injected subcutaneously. Prior to the final prefusion boost, a sample of serum was taken from the immunized mice. These sera were assayed by western blot to confirm their reactivity with MDC protein. For a prefusion boost, the mouse was injected with MDC in PBS, and four days later the mouse was sacrificed and its spleen removed.
[0268] For the production of “Fusion 252” hybridomas, a mouse was immunized with the MDC(0-69) chemically synthesized peptide (See Example 11). On Day 0, the mouse was pre-bled and injected subcutaneously at two sites with 10 ug of MDC(0-69) in 200 ul complete Freund's adjuvant. On Day 22, the mouse was boosted with 30 ug of MDC(0-69) in 150 ul of incomplete Freund's adjuvant. On Day 40, the mouse was boosted with 20 ug MDC(0-69) in 100 ul of incomplete Freund's adjuvant. On day 54, blood was drawn and screened for anti-MDC antibodies via western blot, and reactivity was observed against MDC. On days 127 through 130, the mouse was injected on each of four consecutive days with 10 ug of MDC(0-69) in a volume of 200 ul PBS. On day 131, the mouse was sacrificed and the spleen was removed for a fusion.
[0269] The spleens were placed in 10 ml serum-free RPMI 1640, and single cell suspensions were formed by grinding the spleens between the frosted ends of two glass microscope slides submerged in serum-free RPMI 1640, supplemented with 2 mM L-glutamine, 1 mM sodium pyruvate, 100 units/ml penicillin, and 100 μg/ml streptomycin (RPMI) (Gibco, Canada). The cell suspensions were filtered through a sterile 70-mesh Nitex cell strainer (Becton Dickinson, Parsippany, N.J.), and were washed twice by centrifuging at 200 g for 5 minutes and resuspending the pellet in 10 ml serum-free RPMI. Thymocytes taken from three naive Balb/c mice were prepared in a similar manner and used as a Feeder Layer. NS-1 myeloma cells, kept in log phase in RPMI with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS) (Hyclone Laboratories, Inc., Logan, Utah) for three days prior to fusion, were centrifuged at 200 g for 5 minutes, and the pellet was washed twice as described above.
[0270] Spleen cells (2×108) were combined with 4×107NS-1 cells and centrifuged, and the supernatant was aspirated. The cell pellet was dislodged by tapping the tube, and 2 ml of 37° C. PEG 1500 (50% in 75 mM Hepes, pH 8.0) (Boehringer Mannheim) was added with stirring over the course of 1 minute, followed by the addition of 14 ml of serum-free RPMI over 7 minutes. An additional 16 ml RPMI was added and the cells were centrifuged at 200 g for 10 minutes. After discarding the supernatant, the pellet was resuspended in 200 ml RPMI containing 15% FBS, 100 μM sodium hypoxanthine, 0.4 μM aminopterin, 16 μM thymidine (HAT) (Gibco), 25 units/ml IL-6 (Boehringer Mannheim) and 1.5×106thymocytes/ml and plated into 10 Corning flat-bottom 96-well tissue culture plates (Corning, Corning N.Y.).
[0271] On days 2, 4, and 6, after the fusion, 100 μl of medium was removed from the wells of the fusion plates and replaced with fresh medium. On day 8, Fusion 191 was screened by ELISA, testing for the presence of mouse IgG binding to MDC as follows. Immulon 4 plates (Dynatech, Cambridge, Mass.) were coated for 2 hours at 37° C. with 100 ng/well of MDC diluted in 25 mM Tris, pH 7.5. The coating solution was aspirated and 200 ul/well of blocking solution [0.5% fish skin gelatin (Sigma) diluted in CMF-PBS] was added and incubated for 30 min. at 37° C. The blocking solution was aspirated and 50 μl culture supernatant was added. After incubation at 37° C. for 30 minutes, and washing three times with PBS containing 0.05% Tween 20 (PBST), 50 μl of horseradish peroxidase conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG(fc) (Jackson ImmunoResearch, West Grove, Pa.) diluted 1:7000 in PBST was added. Plates were incubated as above, washed four times with PBST, and 100 μL substrate, consisting of 1 mg/ml o-phenylene diamine (Sigma) and 0.1 μl/ml 30% H2O2in 100 mM Citrate, pH 4.5, was added. The color reaction was stopped after 5 minutes with the addition of 50 μl of 15% H2SO4. A490was read on a plate reader (Dynatech). Fusion 252 was screened in a similar manner, except ELISA plates were coated with 50 ng/well of MDC.
[0272] Selected fusion wells were cloned twice by dilution into 96-well plates and visually scored for the number of colonies/well after 5 days. The monoclonal antibodies produced by hybridomas were isotyped using the Isostrip system (Boehringer Mannheim, Indianapolis, Ind.).
[0273] Anti-MDC antibodies were characterized further by western blotting against recombinant MDC produced as described above in E. colior mammalian CHO cells. To prepare the blot, approximately 3 μl of sedimented cells (transformed E. coliproducing MDC; transfected CHO cells producing MDC; untransformed E. coli(control); and untransfected CHO cells (control)) were dissolved in standard sample preparation buffer containing SDS (sodium dodecyl sulfate) and DTT (dithiothristol) (Sambrook et al.). After boiling, the lysates were fractionated via denaturing SDS-PAGE (18% acrylamide, Tris Glycine gel, NOVEX) and electroblotted to PVDF membranes (Millipore, Bedford, Mass.). MDC monoclonal antibodies were diluted to 0.7 μg/ml in PBS for use in the western blotting, following standard techniques (Sambrook et al.). As an additional control, the monoclonal antibodies were further tested for cross-reactivity on western blots of whole tissue lysates of human skin, tonsil, and thymus.
[0274] One anti-MDC monoclonal antibody, designated monoclonal antibody 191D, reacted strongly with recombinant MDC produced by both bacteria and mammalian cells. Further, this antibody displayed very little background reactivity in preliminary screening against bacteria, the CHO mammalian cell line, or the whole human tissues tested. In addition, this antibody showed the ability to immunoprecipitate recombinant CHO-derived MDC, following standard immunoprecipitation protocols (Sambrook et al.).
[0275] Some background reactivity was observed in subsequent western analyses using the anti-MDC monoclonal antibody 191D. Further anti-MDC monoclonal antibodies designated 252Y and 252Z (derived from Fusion 252), used at a concentration of 4 ug/ml, showed less background and strong reactivity with synthetic MDC at a concentration of 0.5 ng. No band was seen on the western blot with human tissue lysates of either colon, skin or tonsil, and background reactivity was minimal. The hybridomas that produce monoclonals 252Y and 252Z have been designated “hybridoma 252Y” and “hybridoma 252Z,” respectively.
[0276] The hybridoma cell line which produces monoclonal antibody 191D (designated hybridoma 191D) has been deposited with the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC), 10801 University Blvd., Manassas Va. 20110-2209. (USA) pursuant to the provisions of the Budapest Treaty (ATCC Deposit date: Jun. 04, 1996; ATCC Accession No. HB-12122). The hybridoma cell lines that produce monoclonal antibodies 252Y and 252Z were also deposit with the ATCC pursuant to the provision of the Budapsest Treaty (ATCC deposit date: Nov. 19, 1997; ATCC Accession Nos. HB-12433 and HB-12433, respectively). Availability of the deposited material is not to be construed as a license to practice the invention in contravention of the rights granted under the authority of any government in accordance with its patent laws.
[0277] B. Polyclonal Antibodies
[0278] Polyclonal antibodies against MDC were raised in rabbits following standard protocols (Sambrook et al.). Recombinant MDC produced as a GST fusion protein as described above was diluted in PBS, emulsified with Freund's Complete Adjuvant, and injected subcutaneously into rabbits. At intervals of three and six weeks, additional MDC diluted in PBS was emulsified with Freund's Incomplete Adjuvant and injected subcutaneously into the same rabbits. Ten days after the third immunization, serum was withdrawn from the rabbits and diluted ten-fold in Tris-buffered saline with 0.5% Tween 20 (TBS-T, Sambrook et al.) for characterization via western blotting against recombinant MDC as described above.
[0279] C. MDC Detection Assay
[0280] Monoclonal antibodies 252Y and 252Z were employed in an MDC detection assay as follows: Aliquots of the antibodies 252Y and 252Z were biotinylated using NHS-LC-Biotin (Pierce) according to manufacturer's instructions. Immulon 4 ELISA plates were coated with one monoclonal antibody (252Y or 252Z, unbiotinylated) overnight at 4° C. The next day, the plates were blocked with 0.5% fish skin for 30 minutes at 37° C. Known quantities of MDC were loaded onto the plate for 30 minutes at 37° C. The plates were washed and coated with the other monoclonal antibody (biotinylated) for 30 minutes at 37° C. The plates were washed and loaded with streptavidin-HRP for 30 minutes at 37° C. The plates were then developed and read on a Dynatech MR5000 plate reader. Preliminary results indicate that, by using the antibody pair 252Y and 252Z, MDC is detectable in the concentration range of low nanograms to high picograms per milliliter.
Example 19
[0281] Calcium Flux Assay
[0282] Changes in intracellular calcium concentrations, indicative of cellular activation by chemokines, were monitored in several cell lines by an art-recognized calcium flux assay. Cells were incubated in 1 ml complete media containing 1 μM Fura-2/AM (Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg.) for 30 minutes at room temperature, washed once, and resuspended in D-PBS at ˜106cells/ml.
[0283] Two ml of suspended cells were placed in a continuously stirred cuvette at 37° C. in a fluorimeter (AMINCO-Bowman Series 2, Rochester, N.Y.). The concentration of intracellular calcium was indicated by fluorescence, which was monitored at 510 nm emission wavelength while switching between excitation wavelengths of 340 nm and 380 nm every 0.5 seconds. The ratio of the emissions from the 340 nm relative to the 380 mn excitation wavelengths corresponds to the level of intracellular calcium.
[0284] Cell lines measured by this assay included the following: the human embryonic kidney cell line HEK-293 stably transfected with the putative chemokine receptor gene V28 [Raport et al., Gene,163:295-299 (1995)]; HEK-293 cells stably transfected with the chemokine receptor gene CCR5 [Samson et al., Biochemistry,35:3362-3367 (1996); see also co-owned, co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/575,967, filed Dec. 20, 1995, incorporated herein by reference, disclosing chemokine receptor materials and methods, including CCR5 (identified therein as “88C”)], the human monocytic cell line THP-1, the human lung epithelial cell line A-549; and the human fibroblast cell line IMR-90. None of these cell lines fluxed calcium in response to the recombinant MDC protein. As positive controls, the HEK-293 transfectants responded strongly to thrombin, indicating that the assay was valid. In addition, the THP-1 cells responded strongly to the commercially available chemokines MCP-1 and MCP-3 (Peprotech, Rocky Hill, N.J.) at a final concentration of 25 ng/ml. No additional stimuli were tested on the A-549 or IMR-90 cell lines.
Example 20
[0285] Inhibition of HIV Proliferation
[0286] Several CC chemokines have been implicated in suppressing the proliferation of Human Immunodeficiency Virus (HIV), the causative agent of human Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome (AIDS). See Cocchi et al., Science,270:1811 (1995). The HIV antiproliferative activity of MDC is measured by means such as those described by Cocchi et al., in which a CD4+T cell line is acutely infected with an HIV strain and cultured in the presence of various concentrations of MDC. After three days, a fresh dilution of MDC in the culture medium is added to the cells. At 5 to 7 days following infection, the level of HIV is measured by testing the culture supernatants for the presence of HIV p24 antigen by a commercial ELISA test (Coulter, Miami, Fla.).
[0287] Antibodies against MDC are tested for their ability to neutralize the suppressive activity produced by human lymphocytes (Cocchi, supra). In addition, the efficacy of chemically synthesized MDC analogs (Ex. 11) or analogs produced by recombinant methods is also tested in assays of HIV inhibition.
Example 21
[0288] Effects of MDC on Fibroblast Proliferation
[0289] In addition to their ability to attract and activate leukocytes, some chemokines, such as IL-8, have been shown to be capable of affecting the proliferation of non-leukocytic cells [see Tuschil, J. Invest. Dermatol.,99:294-298 (1992)]. Fibroblasts throughout the body are important to the structural integrity of most tissues. The proliferation of fibroblasts is essential to wound healing and response to injury but can be deleterious as well, as in the case of chronic inflammatory diseases, such as pulmonary fibrosis [Phan, in: Immunology of Inflammation,Elsevier (1983), pp. 121-162].
[0290] In vitro cell proliferation assays were utilized to assess the effects of MDC on the proliferation of fibroblasts. Human fibroblasts (CRL-1635) were obtained from ATCC and maintained in culture in DMEM with 10% FBS and 1% antibiotics. Proliferation assays were performed and quantitated as previously described in the art by Denholm and Phan, Amer. J. Pathol.,134:355-363 (1989). Briefly, on day 1, 2.5×103cells/well were plated into 96 well plates in DMEM with 10% FBS. Day 2: twenty-four hours after plating, medium on cells was changed to serum-free DMEM. Day 3: medium was removed from cells and replaced with MDC diluted in DMEM containing 0.4% FBS. Day 5: one microCurie of 3H-thymidine was added per well and incubation continued for an additional 5 hours. Cells were harvested onto glass fiber filters. Cell proliferation was expressed as cpm of 3H-thymidine incorporated into fibroblasts. Controls for this assay included the basal medium for this assay, DMEM with 0.4% FBS as the negative control, and DMEM with 10% FBS as the positive control.
[0291] As shown in FIG. 7, MDC treatment decreased the proliferation of fibroblasts in a dose dependent manner. Similar inhibition of fibroblast proliferation was observed with both MDC purified from CHO cells (closed circles) and chemically synthesized MDC (open circles). The fibroblast-antiproliferative effect of MDC indicates a therapeutic utility for MDC in the treatment of diseases such as pulmonary fibrosis and tumors, in which enhanced or uncontrolled cell proliferation is a major feature.
Example 22
[0292] Cell Proliferation Assays
[0293] The effects of MDC upon the proliferation of epithelial cells, T cells, fibroblasts, endothelial cells, macrophages, and tumor cells are assayed by methods known in the art, such as those described in Denholm et al, Amer. J. Pathol.,134:355-363 (1989), and “In Vitro Assays of Lymphocyte Functions,” in: Current Protocols Inmunology,Sections 3-4, Wiley and Sons (1992), for the assay of growth factor activities. In these methods, enhancement or inhibition of cell growth and the release of growth factors are measured.
[0294] MDC effects on the proliferation of epithelial cells and endothelial cells are assayed using the same procedures as those described above for fibroblasts (Example 21).
[0295] The effects on the proliferation of T cells are determined using peripheral blood lymphocytes. Mononuclear cells are isolated from peripheral blood as described in Denholm et al., Amer. J. Pathol.,135:571-580 (1989); cells are resuspended in RPMI with 10% FBS and incubated overnight in plastic tissue culture flasks. Lymphocytes remain in suspension in these cultures and are obtained by centrifugation of culture medium. One hundred thousand lymphocytes are plated into each well of a 96 well plate and incubated for three days in medium (RPMI plus 10% FBS) containing 1 μg/ml PHA with or without 50, 125, 250 or 500 ng/ml of MDC. One microCurie of 3H-thymidine is added during the last 18 hours of incubation. Cells are harvested and proliferations expressed as described for fibroblasts in Example 21.
[0296] The effects of MDC on macrophage proliferation are determined using elicited guinea pig peritoneal macrophages, obtained as described above in Example 13. Macrophages are plated into 96 well plates at a density of one hundred thousand cells per well in RPMI with 10% FBS, and incubated 2 hours to allow cells to adhere. Medium is then removed and replaced with fresh medium with or without 50, 125, 250 or 500 ng/ml of MDC. Cells with MDC are incubated three days, and proliferation is determined as described above for lymphocytes.
[0297] Chemokine-mediated control of the proliferation of these cell types has therapeutic implications in enhancing tissue repair following injury, and in limiting the proliferation of these cells in chronic inflammatory reactions such as psoriasis, fibrosis, and atherosclerosis, and in neoplastic conditions.
Example 23
[0298] In Vivo Fibroblast Proliferation Assay
[0299] The anti-proliferative effects of MDC upon fibroblasts are determined in wvo by the methods known in the art, such as those reported by Phan and Fantone, Amer. J. Pathol.,50:587-591 (1984), which utilize a rat model of pulmonary fibrosis in which the disease is induced by bleomycin. This model is well-characterized and allows for the assessment of fibroblast proliferation and collagen synthesis during all stages of this disease.
[0300] Briefly, rats are divided into four treatment groups: 1) controls, given intratracheal injections of normal saline; 2) saline-injected rats which also receive a daily intraperitoneal injection of 500 ng of MDC in saline; 3) bleomycin-treated, given an intratracheal injection of 1.5 mg/kg bleomycin (Calbiochem, Palo Alto, Calif.); and 4) bleomycin-treated rats which also are given a daily intraperitoneal injection of 500 ng of MDC.
[0301] Three rats per group are sacrificed at 4, 7, 14, 21, and 28 days after the initial intratracheal injections. Lungs are removed and samples of each lobe taken for histological examination and assays of collagen content.
Example 24
[0302] MDC Chromosomal Localization
[0303] A 20 kb genomic fragment containing the human MDC gene was labeled with digoxigenin by nick translation and used as a probe for fluorescence in situ hybridization of human chromosomes (Genome Systems, Inc., St. Louis, Mo.). The labeled probe was hybridized to normal metaphase chromosomes derived from PHA-stimulated peripheral blood lymphocytes. Reactions were carried out in the presence of sheared human DNA in 50% formamide, 10% dextran sulfate, 30 mM sodium chloride, 3 mM sodium citrate, and 0.1% sodium dodecyl sulphate. Hybridization signals were detected by treating slides with fluoresceinated anti-digoxigenin antibodies, followed by counter-staining with 4,6-diamidino-2-phenylindole. An initial hybridization experiment localized the gene to the q terminus of a group E chromosome.
[0304] A genomic probe that specifically hybridizes to the short arm of chromosome 16 was used to demonstrate co-hybridization of chromosome 16 with the MDC probe. A total of 80 metaphase cells were analyzed with 61 exhibiting specific labeling. The MDC probe hybridized to a region immediately adjacent to the heterochromatic/euchromatic boundary, corresponding to band 16q13. The gene encoding TARC also is localized in this region. See Nomiyama et al., Genomics,40: 211-213 (1997).
[0305] These chromosomal mapping data indicate a utility of MDC-encoding polynucleotides as a chromosomal marker. Contiguous fragments of SEQ ID NO: 1 of at least 15 nucleotides, and more preferably at least 20, 25, 50, 75, 100, 150, 200, 500, or more nucleotides, and the complements of such fragments, are specifically contemplated as probes of the invention. Moreover, probes having partial degeneracy from SEQ ID NO: 1 are contemplated as being useful as well. Probes having preferably at least 90%, and more preferably 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or more similarity to SEQ ID NO: 1 are preferred as probes of the invention.
Example 25
[0306] MDC is a High-affinity Ligand for CCR4
[0307] The chemokine receptor designated CCR4 has been characterized previously [Power et al., J. Biol Chem.,270: 19495-19500 (1995)], and shown to bind the CC chemokine TARC (Thymus and Activation-Regulated Chemokine, Genbank Accession No. D43767). See Imai et al., J. Biol Chem.,272: 15036-15042 (1997); and Imai et al., J. Biol. Chem.,271: 21514-21521 (1996). The cDNA and deduced amino acid sequences of human CCR4 are set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 33 and 34, and are deposited with Genbank (Accession No. X85740). The following experiments were performed that demonstrate that MDC is a high affinity ligand for CCR4.
[0308] Preparation of CCR4-transfected Cells
[0309] The murine pre-B cell line L1.2 [See, e.g., Gallatin et al., Nature,304:30-34 (1983)] maintained in RPMI 1640 media supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum, was selected for transformation with the CCR4 expression vector described in Imai et al., J. Biol. Chem.,272: 15036-15042 (1997), incorporated herein by reference. L1.2 cells were stably transfected as described previously by electroporation with 10 μg linearized plasmid at 260 V, 960 microfarads using a Gene Pulser (BioRad). See Imai et al., J. Biol Chem.,272: 15036-15042 (1997). It will be apparent that other cell lines in the art are suitable for CCR4 transfection for the following assays. For example, 293 cell lines have been transfected with CCR4 cDNA and employed effectively in calcium Flux assays.
[0310] Preparation of Recombinant Chemokines
[0311] The mature sequences of both MDC and TARC were chemically synthesized by Gryphon Sciences (South San Francisco Calif.) using t-butyl-oxycarbonyl chemistries on a peptide synthesizer (430A; Applied Biosystems). Lyophilized protein was dissolved at 10 mg/ml in 4 mM HCl and immediately diluted to 0.1 mg/ml in phosphate-buffered saline plus 0.1% bovine serum albumin (BSA) for storage at −80° C.
[0312] Recombinant MDC also was expressed as a fusion protein with the secreted form of placental alline phosphatase (SEAP) in the expression vector pcDNA3 (Clontech, Palo Alto Calif.). A similar TARC-SEAP fusion protein is described in Imai et al. (1997). Briefly, the coding region of MDC, followed by a sequence encoding a five amino acid linker (Ser-Arg-Ser-Ser-Gly), was fused in-frame to a sequence encoding mature SEAP, followed by a sequence encoding a (His)6tag. The MDC-SEAP expression plasmid was transfected into COS cells by the DEAE Dextran method. See Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual,Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1989). The transfected cells were cultured in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium supplemented with 10% fetal calf serum. Twenty-four hours after transfection, the serum levels were reduced from 10% to 1%. After 3-4 days, the culture supernatants were collected, centrifuged, filtered through a 0.45 micron membrane, and stored at 4° C. The concentration of MDC-SEAP in the filtered supernatant was determined by comparison with the reported specific activity of secreted placental alline phosphatase [Berger et al., Gene,66: 1-10 (1988)], and confirmed using known concentrations of TARC-SEAP [Imai et al., (1997)] as an internal reference standard.
[0313] CCR4 Binding Assays
[0314] The MDC-SEAP was used as a probe to examine MDC binding to CCR4-transfected L1.2 cells. For displacement and saturation experiments, transfected L1.2 cells (approx. 3×105) were incubated for one hour at 16° C. in the presence of 0.5 nM MDC-SEAP in the presence or absence of various concentrations of unlabeled chemokines in 200 μl binding buffer (RPMI 1640 media containing 25 mM HEPES, pH 7.4, 1% BSA, and 0.02% sodium azide). Following incubation, the cells were washed four times in binding buffer and lysed in 50 μl of 10 mM Tris-HCl, pH 8.0, and 1% Triton X-100. Samples were heated at 65° C. for 15 minutes to inactivate cellular phosphatases, centrifuged, and stored at −20° C. until assayed.
[0315] Alkaline phosphatase activity in 10 μl of sample was determined by a chemiluminescence assay using the Great Escape Detection kit (Clontech, Palo Alto, Calif.) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The saturation binding curve was fitted (Table Curve™) using the Hill equation y=a(xc)/(xc+bc), where y is the amount of ligand bound, a is the maximum amount of ligand bound, x is the concentration of ligand, b is the concentration of ligand at which 50% of receptor sites are occupied (KD), and c is the Hill coefficient. Binding competition curves were fitted (TableCurve™) using a three-parameter logistic model described by the equation y=a/[1+(x/b)c], where y is the amount of labeled ligand bound, a is the maximum amount of labeled ligand bound, x is the concentration of the competitive chemokine, b is the IC50, and c is a parameter that determines the slope of the curve at the IC50.
[0316] These binding assays demonstrated that MDC-SEAP bound to CCR4 expressing cells. This binding was to a single high affinity site with a Kdof 0.18 nM, as demonstrated by Scatchard analysis. Binding of MDC-SEAP was competitively inhibited with increasing concentrations of unlabeled MDC or TARC. The IC50for MDC was 0.65 nM, while the IC50for TARC was 2.1 nM. These data suggest that both MDC and TARC recognize a common binding site on CCR4, and that MDC has more than three-fold higher affinity than TARC for CCR4.
[0317] To examine the specificity of MDC binding to CCR4, six additional chemokines (MCP-1, MCP-3, MCP-4, RANTES, MIP-1α, and MIP-1β) were tested for competition of MDC-SEAP binding. A 200-fold molar excess of each chemokine was tested for competition with a constant quantity of MDC-SEAP (0.5 nM). The additional chemokines did not compete for binding of MDC-SEAP to CCR4. In contrast, unlabeled MDC and TARC both blocked binding of MDC-SEAP to CCR4 transfectants.
[0318] Calcium Mobilization Assay
[0319] Imai et al. (1997) showed that TARC signals through CCR4 by inducing calcium mobilization. To determine the ability of MDC to cause signaling through chemokine receptors, we examined calcium mobilization in L1.2 cells recombinantly expressing CCR1, CCR2B, CCR3, CCR4, CCR5, CCR6, or CCR7.
[0320] Transfected L1.2 cells were suspended at a concentration of 3×106cells/ml in Hank's balanced salt solution supplemented with 1 mg/ml BSA and 10 mM HEPES, pH 7.4. Cells were incubated with 1 μM fura-PE3AM (Texas Fluorescence Labs) at room temperature for 1 hour in the dark. After washing twice, cells were resuspended at a concentration of 2.5×106cells/ml. To measure intracellular calcium, 2 ml of cells were placed in a quartz cuvette in a Perkin-Elmer LS 50B spectrofluorimeter. Fluorescence was monitored at 340 nm (excitation wavelength 1), 380 nm (excitation wavelength 2), and 510 nm (emission wavelength) every 200 ms.
[0321] In these experiments, MDC did not cause calcium flux in L1.2 cells transfected with CCR1, CCR2B, CCR3, CCR5, CCR6, or CCR7, whereas each of these transfected cell lines responded to its known cognate ligand. In contrast, L1.2 cells transfected with CCR4 produced a strong calcium flux when stimulated with 10 nM MDC. Similar to other G protein-coupled receptors, CCR4 was refractory to subsequent stimulation with the same concentration of MDC. Ten nanomolar MDC also completely desensitized CCR4 transfectants to subsequent 10 nM TARC treatment. However, pre-treatment of CCR4-transfected L1.2 cells with TARC did not desensitize the receptor to subsequent stimulation with MDC. The signal produced by initial TARC stimulation was of lower intensity than both the primary MDC signal and the MDC signal secondary to TARC stimulation. These results further confirm that MDC is a ligand for CCR4.
[0322] Chemotaxis Assay
[0323] We next examined the ability of MDC and TARC to induce migration of CCR4-transfected L1.2 cells. Approximately 106CCR4-transfected L1.2 cells, resuspended in 0.1 ml RPMI 1640 media with 0.5% BSA, were loaded in the upper wells of a transwell chamber (3 μm pore size, Costar). Untransfected L1.2 cells were used as a control. Test chemokines were added to the lower wells at a concentration of 0-100 nM in a volume of 0.6 ml. After 4 hours at 37° C., cells in the lower chamber were collected and counted by FACS.
[0324] Both MDC and TARC induced migration of CCR4-transfected L1.2 cells. Both chemokines produced classic bell-shaped migration responses with maximal migration at about 10 nM. The migration observed with MDC was significantly higher than that for TARC, with MDC inducing migration of greater than 7% of input cells versus less than 3% migration for TARC. Untransfected L1.2 cells failed to migrate when treated with MDC. These chemotaxis results further confirm that both MDC and TARC are functional ligands for CCR4.
Conclusion
[0325] Collectively, the foregoing experiments provide compelling evidence that MDC acts as a high affinity ligand for the chemokine receptor CCR4.
Example 26
[0326] MDC Modulator Assays
[0327] Modulators of MDC activity may be useful for the treatment of diseases or symptoms of diseases wherein MDC plays a role. Such modulators may be either agonists or antagonists of MDC binding. The following receptor binding assays provide procedures for identifying such MDC modulators.
[0328] MDC is labeled with a detectable label such as 125I, 3H, 14C, biotin, or Europium. A preparation of cell membranes containing MDC receptors is prepared from natural cells that respond to MDC, such as human macrophages, phorbol ester-stimulated THP-1 cells, human fibroblasts, human fibroblast cell lines, or guinea pig macrophages. (Alternatively, a recombinant receptor preparation is made from cells transfected with an MDC receptor cDNA, such as a mammalian cell line transfected with a cDNA encoding CCR4 and expressing CCR4 on its surface.) The membrane preparation is exposed to 125I-labeled MDC, for example, and incubated under suitable conditions (e.g., ten minutes at 37° C.). The membranes, with any bound 125I-MDC, are then collected on a filter by vacuum filtration and washed to remove unbound 125I-MDC. The radioactivity associated with the bound MDC is then quantitated by subjecting the filters to liquid scintillation spectrophotometry.
[0329] The specificity of MDC binding may be confirmed by repeating the foregoing assay in the presence of increasing quantities of unlabeled MDC, and measuring the level of competition for binding to the receptor. These binding assays also can be employed to identify modulators of MDC receptor binding.
[0330] The foregoing receptor binding assay also may be performed with the following modification: in addition to labeled MDC, a potential MDC modulator is exposed to the membrane preparation. In this assay variation, an increased level (quantity) of membrane-associated label indicates the potential modulator is an activator of MDC binding; a decreased level (quantity) of membrane-associated label indicates the potential modulator is an inhibitor of MDC receptor binding. This assay can be utilized to identify specific activators and inhibitors of MDC binding from large libraries of chemical compounds or natural products. Rapid screening of multiple modulator candidate compounds simultaneously is specifically contemplated.
Example 27
[0331] Assay to Identify Modulators of the MDC/CCR4 Interaction
[0332] The discovery that CCR4 acts as an MDC receptor prompted the development of the following additional assays to identify modulators of the interaction between MDC and CCR4. Such assays are intended as aspects of the present invention.
[0333] A. Direct Assay
[0334] In one embodiment, the invention comprehends a direct assay for modulation (potentiation or inhibition) of MDC-receptor binding. In one direct assay, membrane preparations presenting the chemokine receptor CCR4 in a functional conformation are exposed to either MDC alone or MDC in combination with potential modulators.
[0335] For suitable membrane preparations, tissue culture cells, such as 293 or K-562 cells (ATCC CRL-1573 and CCL-243, respectively), are transfected with an expression vehicle encoding the MDC receptor CCR4. Cells that express the receptor are selected and cultured, and a membrane preparation is made from the transfected cells expressing the chemokine receptor. By way of example, suitable membrane preparations are made by homogenizing cells in TEM buffer (25 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.4, 1 mM EDTA, 6 mM MgCl2, 10 μM PMSF, 1 μg/ml leupeptin). The homogenate is centrifuged at 800×g for 10 minutes. The resulting pellet is homogenized again in TEM and re-pelleted. The combined supernatents are then centriguged at 100,000×g for one hour. The pellets containing the membrane preparations are resuspended in TEM at 1.5 mg/ml.
[0336] Membrane preparations are exposed to labelled MDC (e.g., MDC labelled with I125or other isotope, MDC prepared as an MDC-secreted alkaline phosphatase fusion protein, or MDC labelled in some other manner) either in the presence (experimental) or absence (control) of one or more compounds to be tested for the ability to modulate MDC-receptor binding activity. To practice the assay in standard 96-well plates, an exemplary reaction would include 2 μg of the membrane preparation, 0.06 nM of radio-labeled MDC, and 0.01 to 100 μM of one or more test compounds, in a reaction buffer comprising 50 mM HEPES, pH 7.4, 1 mM CaCl2, 5 mM MgCl2, and 0.1% BSA. The reactions are then incubated under suitable conditions (e.g., for 1-120 minutes, or more preferably 10-60 minutes, at a temperature from about room temperature to about 37° C.).
[0337] After incubation, the membranes, with any bound MDC and test compounds, are collected on a filter by vacuum filtration and washed to remove any unbound ligand and test compound. Thereafter, the amount of labelled MDC associated with the washed membrane preparation is quantified. In an embodiment wherein the label is a radioisotope, then bound MDC preferably is quantified by subjecting the filters to liquid scintillation spectrophotometry. In an embodiment wherein an MDC-alkaine phosphatase fusion protein is employed, alkine phosphatase activity is measured using, for example, the “Great Escape” detection kit (Clontech, Palo Alto, Calif.) according to the manufacturer's instructions. The amount of label (e.g., scintillation counts or alkaline phosphatase activity) associated with the membranes is proportional to the amount of labelled MDC bound thereto. If the quantity of bound, labelled MDC observed in an experimental reaction is greater than the amount observed in the corresponding control, then the experimental reaction is scored as containing one or more putative agonists (i.e., activators, potentiators) of MDC receptor binding. If the quantity of bound, labelled MDC observed in an experimental reaction is less than the amount observed in the corresponding control, then the experimental reaction is scored as containing one or more putative antagonists (inhibitors) of MDC receptor binding.
[0338] The specificity of modulator binding may be confirmed by repeating the foregoing assay in the presence of increasing quantities of unlabeled test compound and noting the level of competition for binding to the receptor. The assay may also be repeated using labelled modulator compounds, to determine whether the modulator compound operates by binding with the MDC receptor.
[0339] B. Indirect GDP Assay
[0340] In another embodiment, the invention comprehends indirect assays for identifying modulations of MDC receptor binding that exploit the coupling of chemokine receptors to G proteins. As reviewed in Linder et al., Sci. Am.,267: 56-65 (1992), during signal transduction, an activated receptor interacts with and activates a G protein. The G protein is activated by exchanging GDP for GTP. Subsequent hydrolysis of the G protein-bound GTP deactivates the G protein. Therefore, one can indirectly assay for G protein activity by monitoring the release of 32Pifrom [γ-32P]-GTP.
[0341] For example, approximately 5×107HEK-293 cells that have been transformed or transfected (e.g., with a CCR4 expression vector) to express CCR4 are grown in MEM+10% FCS. The growth medium is supplemented with 5 mCi/ml [32P]-sodium phosphate for 2 hours to uniformly label nucleotide pools. The cells are subsequently washed in a low-phosphate isotonic buffer.
[0342] An experimental aliquot of washed cells is exposed to MDC in the presence of one or more test compounds, while a control aliquot of cells is exposed to MDC, but without exposure to the test compound. Following an incubation period (e.g., 10 minutes, 37° C.), cells are pelleted and lysed, and nucleotide compounds are fractionated using, e.g., thin layer chromatography (TLC) developed with 1 M LiCl. Labeled GTP and GDP are identified in the TLC by developing known GTP and GDP standards in parallel. The labeled GTP and GDP are then quantified by autoradiographic techniques that are standard in the art.
[0343] In this assay, the extent of MDC interaction with its receptor is proportional to the levels of 32P-labeled GDP that are observed, thereby permitting the identification of modulators of MDC-CCR4 binding. An intensified signal resulting from a relative increase in GTP hydrolysis, producing 32P-labeled GDP, indicates a relative increase in receptor activity. The intensified signal therefore identifies the potential modulator as an activator of MDC-CCR4 activity, or possibly as an MDC mimetic. Conversely, a diminished relative signal for 32P-labeled GDP, indicative of decreased receptor activity, identifies the potential modulator as an inhibitor of MDC receptor binding or an inhibitor of MDC-induced CCR4 signal transduction.
[0344] C. cAMP Assay
[0345] The activities of G protein effector molecules (e.g., adenylyl cyclase, phospholipase C, ion channels, and phosphodiesterases) are also amenable to assay. Assays for the activities of these effector molecules have been previously described. For example, adenylyl cyclase, which catalyzes the synthesis of cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP), is activated by G proteins. Therefore, MDC binding and activation of CCR4 that activates a G protein, which in turn activates adenylyl cyclase, can be detected by monitoring cAMP levels in a host cell that recombinantly expresses CCR4.
[0346] Host cells that recombinantly express CCR4 are preferred for use in the assay. The host cells are incubated in the presence of either MDC alone or MDC plus one or more test compounds as described above. The cells are lysed, and the concentration of cAMP is measured by a suitable assay, such as a commercial enzyme immunoassay. For example, the BioTrak Kit (Amersham, Inc., Arlington Heights, Ill.) provides reagents for a suitable competitive immunoassay for cAMP.
[0347] An elevated level of intracellular cAMP in a test reaction relative to a control reaction is attributed to the presence of one or more test compounds that increase or mimic MDC-induced CCR4 activity, thereby identifying a potential activator compound. A relative reduction in the concentration of cAMP would indirectly identify an inhibitor of MDC-induced CCR4 activity.
[0348] It will be apparent to those in the art that the foregoing assays may be performed using MDC analogs described herein. Moreover, variations of the foregoing assays will be apparent to those in the art. Any variations that utilize both MDC and CCR4, and especially those variations which utilize MDC and cells that recombinantly express CCR4, are intended as aspects of the invention.
[0349] While the use of human MDC and CCR4 comprises a highly preferred embodiment, it will be apparent that the source organism for MDC and CCR4 is not a limiting factor, and the foregoing assays may be practiced effectively with MDC and/or with CCR4 that are derived from non-human organisms. By way of example, rat and mouse MDC are taught herein; and a Mus musculschemoidne receptor 4 sequence has been reported in the art. See Hoogewerf et al., Biochem. Biophys. Res. Comm.,218(1): 337-343, and GenBank Accession No. X90862. Moreover, the methods used herein to obtain rat and mouse MDC are employable to obtain MDC or CCR4 from other organisms.
[0350] Moreover, evidence exists that there is at least one additional receptor that recognizes MDC. For example, MDC stimulates migration of dendritic cells and IL-2 activated natural killer cells. Godiska et al., J. Exp. Med.,185: 1595-1604 (1997), incorporated herein by reference. This migration is not likely to be mediated by CCR4, since CCR4 appears to be expressed primarily on T cells, but not on monocytes or NK cells. See Imai et al. (1997). Consistent with this, CCR4 clones were represented very rarely in a human macrophage cDNA library (less than one in a million clones). Variations of the assays reported herein that utilize MDC with other MDC receptors also are intended as aspects of the invention.
[0351] Additionally, it will be apparent that the protocols described in preceding examples for assaying MDC biological activities (in vivo or with respect to specific cell types in vitro) are useful as assays for MDC modulators. In a highly preferred embodiment, a compound is first identified as a candidate MDC modulator using any of the assays described in Examples 26 and 27. Compounds that modulate MDC-receptor activity in one or more of these initial assays are further screened in any of the protocols described in preceding examples, to determine the ability of the compounds to modulate the MDC biological activities to which those examples specifically relate.
Example 28
[0352] Isolation of cDNA Encoding Rat and Mouse MDC Proteins
[0353] Knowledge of the human MDC gene sequence described herein was used as described below to isolate and clone putative rat and mouse MDC cDNAs, which are intended as aspects of the invention.
[0354] To clone a rat MDC cDNA, a labeled probe was prepared using standard random primer extension techniques. A fragment of the human MDC cDNA was generated by PCR, which fragment includes the MDC coding region plus approximately 300 bases of 3′ untranslated sequence. This fragment was labeled with 32P-deoxyribonucleotides using the Random Primed DNA Labeling kit (Boehringer Mannhein, Indianapolis, Ind.). The labeled MDC probe was used to screen approximately 106 bacteriophage lambda clones from a commercially-available rat thymus cDNA library (Stratagene, La Jolla, Calif., Cat. No. 936502). Three positive clones were obtained. Sequencing of one of the positive clones, designated RT3, provided an approximately 958 base pair sequence (SEQ ID NO: 37) that included an MDC open reading frame (SEQ ID NO: 38) and about 0.5 kb of 3′ untranslated sequence. The open reading frame included sequence encoding the putative mature MDC protein (SEQ ID NO: 38, residues 1 to 69) plus 13 amino acids of the putative signal peptide sequence; it lacked the initiator methionine codon and sequence encoding the amino terminus of the signal peptide. A complete rat MDC cDNA or genomic clone is obtainable using all or a portion of the RT3 sequence as a labelled probe to re-probe the Stratagene rat cDNA library, and/or other rat cDNA libraries, and/or a rat genomic DNA library.
[0355] To clone a mouse MDC cDNA, approximately 106bacteriophage lambda clones of a commercially-available mouse thymus cDNA library (Stratagene, Cat. No. 935303) were screened with a radiolabeled fragment of the above-described rat MDC cDNA. The probe was generated using overlapping primers in a primer extension reaction. The primer extension reaction comprised: partially overlapping primers corresponding to nucleotides 41 to 164 of SEQ ID NO: 37 (and to nucleotides 92-215 of SEQ ID NO: 1); 32P-labeled deoxyribonucleotides; and the Klenow fragment of E.coliDNA polymerase. Twelve positive clones were isolated.
[0356] One positive clone, designated MT3, was sequenced and found to contain a 1.8 kb cDNA insert that included the entire putative murine MDC coding region and about 1507 bases of 3′ untranslated sequence. The cDNA and deduced amino acid sequences for this murine MDC clone are set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 35 and 36, respectively. The mouse MDC has a putative 24 amino acid signal sequence followed by a 68 amino acid MDC sequence.
[0357] Comparisons of the human, rat, and mouse MDC protein and DNA (coding region) sequences reveal the following levels of similarity:
[0358] Human vs. rat protein: 65% identity;
[0359] Human vs. rat DNA: 74% identity;
[0360] Human vs. mouse protein: 64% identity;
[0361] Human vs. mouse DNA: 72% identity;
[0362] Rat vs. mouse protein: 88% identity;
[0363] Rat vs. mouse DNA: 92% identity.
[0364] The four cysteines characteristic of C-C chemokines are conserved in all three MDC proteins.
[0365] It is contemplated that the encoded rat and mouse MDC polypeptides corresponding to SEQ ID NOs: 38 and 36 are processed into mature mouse MDC proteins, in a manner analogous to the processing of the human MDC precursor, by cleavage of a signal peptide. The signal peptides for both human and murine MDC are 24 amino acids. The exact length of the rat MDC signal peptide will be readily apparent upon isolation of a full length rat MDC cDNA. It will be appreciated that these proteins can be synthesized recombinantly or synthetically and assayed for MDC biological activities as described herein for human MDC. Likewise, it will be appreciated that any analogs described herein for human MDC can be similarly prepared for these other mammalian MDC proteins.
[0366] The foregoing results demonstrate the utility of polynucleotides of the invention for identifying and isolating polynucleotides encoding other vertebrate MDC proteins, especially other mammalian or avian MDC proteins. Such identified and isolated polynucleotides, in turn, can be expressed (using procedures similar to those described in preceding examples) to produce recombinant polypeptides corresponding to other vertebrate forms of MDC, which proteins would be useful in the same manners that human MDC is useful, including therapeutic veterinary applications. Polynucleotides encoding vertebrate (and especially mammalian or avian) MDC proteins, the proteins themselves, and analogs thereof are all contemplated to be aspects of the present invention.
Example 29
[0367] Receptor Binding and Stimulation Assays
[0368] Using procedures essentially as described in Example 25, selected MDC analogs described in Example 11 were screened for the ability to bind CCR4 and/or induce calcium (Ca++) flux and chemotaxis in L1.2 cells transfected with CCR4.
[0369] The analog MDC(n+1) bound CCR4 with similar affinity to MDC, but induced calcium flux and chemotaxis in L1.2CCR4 cells with a slightly lower potency than MDC. For example, in chemotaxis, the peak activity for MDC(n+1) was observed at 100 ng/ml rather than 10 ng/ml, and the maximum number of cells migrating was 5000, compared to 9000 for MDC.
[0370] MDC(9-69) also bound CCR4 with similar affinity to that of MDC. However, MDC(9-69) did not induce calcium flux in L1.2/CCR4 cells, and it was much less potent in chemotaxis. The fact that MDC(9-69) binds CCR4 but does not signal through CCR4 indicates a utility of MDC(9-69) as an MDC inhibitor.
[0371] The analog “MDC-wvas” bound CCR4 with˜500-fold less affinity than MDC, induced only a very small calcium flux, and did not induce any chemotaxis. The analog “MDC-eyfy” acted similar to MDC in CCR4-binding, chemotaxis, and calcium flux assays.
[0372] The biological functions of MDC, elucidated as described above, suggest several clinical applications.
[0373] Chemokines in general attract and activate monocytes and macrophages (Baggiolini et al., supra), and MDC in particular attracts macrophages and inhibits monocyte chemotaxis. Thus, MDC expression in a pathogenic inflammatory setting may exacerbate disease states by recruiting additional macrophages or other leukocytes to the disease site, by activating the leukocytes that are already there, or by inducing leukocytes to remain at the site. Thus, inhibiting the chemoattractant activity of MDC may be expected to alleviate deleterious inflammatory processes. Significantly, the potential benefits of such an approach have been directly demonstrated in experiments involving IL-8, a C-X-C chemokine that attracts and activates neutrophils. Antibodies directed against IL-8 have a profound ability to inhibit inflammatory disease mediated by neutrophils [Harada et al., J. Leukoc. Biol.,56:559 (1994)]. Inhibition of MDC is expected to have a similar effect in diseases in which macrophages are presumed to play a role, e.g., Crohn's disease, rheumatoid arthritis, or atherosclerosis.
[0374] Alternatively, augmenting the effect of MDC may have a beneficial role in such diseases, as chemokines have also been shown to have a positive effect in wound healing and angiogenesis. Thus, exogenous MDC or MDC agonists may be beneficial in promoting recovery from such diseases.
[0375] In addition, the myelosuppressive effect demonstrated for the C-C chemokine MIP-L1α (Maze et al., supra) suggests that MDC may have a similar activity. Such activity, provided by MDC or MDC agonists, may yield substantial benefits for patients receiving chemotherapy or radiation therapy, reducing the deleterious effects of the therapy on the patient's myeloid progenitor cells.
[0376] MDC or MDC agonists may also prove to be clinically important in the treatment of tumors, as suggested by the ability of the C-C chemokine TCA3 to inhibit tumor formation in mice (see Laning et al., supra). MDC may act directly or indirectly to inhibit tumor formation, e.g., by attracting and activating various non-specific effector cells to the tumor site or by stimulating a specific anti-tumor immunity. The fibroblast-antiproliferative effect of MDC indicates a therapeutic utility for MDC in the treatment of diseases such as pulmonary fibrosis and tumors, in which enhanced or uncontrolled cell proliferation is a major feature.
[0377] While the present invention has been described in terms of specific embodiments, it is understood that variations and modifications will occur to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, only such limitations as appear in the appended claims should be placed on the invention.
Claims
Post-issuance certificates present
The text shown below may not reflect later post-issuance changes.
What is claimed is:
1. A method for identifying a chemical compound having Macrophage Derived Chemokine (MDC) modulating activity comprising the steps of:
(a) providing first and second receptor compositions comprising chemokine receptor CCR4;
(b) providing a control composition comprising detectably-labeled MDC;
(c) providing a test composition comprising detectably-labeled MDC and further comprising said chemical compound;
(d) contacting the first receptor composition with the control composition under conditions wherein MDC is capable of binding to CCR4;
(e) contacting the second receptor composition with the test composition under conditions wherein MDC is capable of binding to CCR4;
(f) washing the first and second receptor compositions to remove detectably-labeled MDC that is unbound to CCR4;
(g) measuring detectably-labeled MDC in said first and second receptor compositions; and
(h) identifying a chemical compound having MDC modulating activity, wherein MDC modulating activity is correlated with a difference in detectably-labeled MDC between said first and said second receptor compositions.
2. A method according to claim 1 wherein said first and second receptor compositions comprise CCR4-containing cell membranes derived from cells that express CCR4 on their surface.
3. A method according to claim 2, wherein the first and second receptor compositions comprise cell membranes of cells recombinantly modified to express increased amounts of the chemokine receptor CCR4.
4. A method according to claim 1, wherein the first and second receptor compositions comprise purified human CCR4 polypeptide.
5. A method according to claim 1, wherein the MDC in the control composition of step (b) and the test composition of step (c) is human MDC comprising amino acids 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO: 2.
6. A method for identifying a modulator of binding between Macrophage Derived Chemokine (MDC) and CCR4, comprising the steps of:
a) contacting MDC and CCR4 in the presence and in the absence of a putative modulator compound;
b) detecting binding between MDC and CCR4; and
c) identifying a putative modulator compound in view of decreased or increased binding between MDC and CCR4 in the presence of the putative modulator, as compared to binding in the absence of the putative modulator.
7. A method according to claim 6 wherein the MDC of step (a) comprises a label, and wherein in step (b) binding between MDC and CCR4 is detected by detecting labeled MDC bound to CCR4.
8. A method according to claim 7 wherein said contacting step comprises contacting a suspension of cell membranes comprising CCR4 with MDC.
9. A method according to claim 8 wherein said method further comprises the steps of recovering said cell membranes from said suspension after said contacting step; and washing said cell membranes prior to said detecting step to remove unbound MDC.
10. A method according to claim 8, wherein the suspension comprises cell membranes of cells recombinantly modified to express increased amounts of the chemokine receptor CCR4.
11. A method according to claim 6 wherein said contacting step (a) comprises contacting MDC and a cell that expresses CCR4 on its surface, and wherein in step (b) binding between MDC and CCR4 is detected by measuring the conversion of GTP to GDP in said host cell.
12. A method according to claim 11, wherein the cell is recombinantly modified to express increased amounts of the chemokine receptor CCR4.
13. A method according to claim 6 wherein said contacting step (a) comprises contacting MDC and a cell that expresses CCR4 on its surface, and wherein in step (b), binding between MDC and CCR4 expressed in said cell is detected by measuring cAMP levels in said cell.
14. A method according to claim 13, wherein the cell is recombinantly modified to express increased amounts of the chemokine receptor CCR4.
15. A method according to claim 6, wherein the CCR4 comprises purified human CCR4 polypeptide.
16. A method according to claim 6, wherein the MDC comprises a polypeptide encoded by a polynucleotide that hybridizes to the non-coding strand complementary to SEQ ID NO: 1, under the following hybridization conditions: hybridization at 42° C. in a hybridization solution comprising 5×SSC, 20 mM NaPO4, pH 6.8, and 50% formamide; and washing at 42° C. in 0.2×SSC.
17. A method according to claim 6, wherein the MDC polypeptide comprises human MDC comprising amino acids 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO: 2.
18. A method for identifying a modulator of binding between Macrophage Derived Chemokine (MDC) and chemokine receptor CCR4, comprising the steps of:
a) contacting MDC to a composition comprising CCR4 in the presence and in the absence of a putative modulator compound;
b) detecting binding between the MDC and CCR4 in said composition; and
c) identifying a putative modulator compound in view of decreased or increased binding between the MDC and CCR4 in the presence of the putative modulator, as compared to binding in the absence of the putative modulator.
19. A method according to claim 18 wherein the composition comprises CCR4-containing cell membranes derived from cells that express the chemokine receptor CCR4 on their surface, and wherein the contacting step comprises contacting MDC to the cell membranes.
20. A method according to claim 19 wherein said method further comprises the steps of recovering said cell membranes after said contacting step; and washing said cell membranes to remove unbound MDC prior to said detecting step.
21. A method according to claim 19, wherein the composition comprises CCR4-containing cell membranes of cells recombinantly modified to express increased amounts of the chemokine receptor CCR4.
22. A method according to claim 18 wherein said composition comprises a cell expressing the MDC receptor on its surface.
23. A method according to claim 22 wherein the cell is an eosinophil.
24. A method according to claim 23, wherein the vertebrate MDC polypeptide comprises human MDC comprising amino acids 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO: 2.
25. A method according to claim 22 wherein the cell is a macrophage.
26. A method according to claim 25, wherein the vertebrate MDC polypeptide comprises human MDC comprising amino acids 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO: 2.
27. A method according to claim 22 wherein the cell is a cell transformed or transfected with a polynucleotide encoding CCR4 and wherein the cell expresses CCR4 encoded by the polynucleotide on its surface.
28. A method according to claim 22 wherein in step (b), binding between MDC and CCR4 is detected by measuring an MDC-induced change to said cell.
29. A method according to claim 28 wherein the MDC-induced change is selected from the group consisting of a change in intracellular calcium ion concentration, a conversion of GTP to GDP, a change in cAMP concentration, and cellular chemotaxis.
30. A method according to claim 22, wherein the cell is recombinantly modified to express increased amounts of the chemokine receptor CCR4.
31. A method according to claim 18 that is performed with labeled MDC, wherein in step (b) binding between MDC and CCR4 is detected by detecting labeled MDC bound to CCR4.
32. A method according to claim 18, wherein the MDC comprises a polypeptide encoded by a polynucleotide that hybridizes to the non-coding strand complementary to SEQ ID NO: 1, under the following hybridization conditions: hybridization at 42° C. in a hybridization solution comprising 5×SSC, 20 mM NaPO4, pH 6.8, and 50% formamide; and washing at 42° C. in 0.2×SSC.
33. A method according to claim 18, wherein the vertebrate MDC polypeptide comprises human MDC comprising amino acids 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO: 2.
34. A method according to claim 18, wherein the CCR4 comprises purified human CCR4 polypeptide.
35. A method for identifying a modulator of binding between Macrophage Derived Chemokine (MDC) and chemokine receptor CCR4, comprising the steps of:
(a) contacting a CCR4 composition and a vertebrate Macrophage Derived Chemokine (MDC) polypeptide or fragment or analog thereof that binds chemokine receptor CCR4, in the presence and in the absence of a putative modulator compound, wherein said receptor composition comprises cell membranes of cells recombinantly modified to express increased amounts of the chemokine receptor CCR4;
(b) detecting binding between the receptor composition and the polypeptide; and
(c) identifying a putative modulator compound in view of decreased or increased binding between the receptor composition and the polypeptide in the presence of the putative modulator, as compared to binding in the absence of the putative modulator.
36. A method according to claim 35 wherein the vertebrate MDC polypeptide comprises a polypeptide encoded by a polynucleotide that hybridizes to the non-coding strand complementary to SEQ ID NO: 1, under the following hybridization conditions: hybridization at 42° C. in a hybridization solution comprising 5×SSC, 20 mM NaPO4, pH 6.8, and 50% formamide; and washing at 42° C. in 0.2×SSC.
37. A method according to claim 35, wherein the vertebrate MDC polypeptide comprises human MDC comprising amino acids 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO: 2.
38. A method according to claim any one of claims 35, 36, and 37, wherein said contacting step comprises contacting said cell membranes with said polypeptide, and wherein said method further comprises steps of recovering said cell membranes after said contacting step; and washing said cell membranes prior to said detecting step to remove unbound polypeptide.
39. A method according to any one of claims 35, 36, and 37, wherein said polypeptide comprises a detectable label, and wherein in step (b) binding between the receptor composition and the polypeptide is detected by detecting labeled polypeptide bound to the receptor composition.
40. A method according to any one of claims 35, 36, and 37, wherein the receptor composition comprises a whole cell expressing CCR4 on its surface, and wherein, in step (b), binding between the receptor composition and the polypeptide is detected by measuring a binding-induced physiological change in said cell.
41. A method according claim 40 wherein the binding-induced physiological change is selected from the group consisting of:
(a) the conversion of GTP to GDP in said host cell; and
(b) a change in the concentration of cAMP in said host cell.
42. A method for identifying a modulator of binding between Macrophage Derived Chemokine (MDC) and an MDC receptor expressed by eosinophils, comprising the steps of:
a) contacting a composition comprising eosinophil cell membranes and a vertebrate Macrophage Derived Chemokine (MDC) polypeptide in the presence and in the absence of a putative modulator compound;
b) detecting binding between the composition and the polypeptide; and
c) identifying a putative modulator compound in view of decreased or increased binding between the composition and the polypeptide in the presence of the putative modulator, as compared to binding in the absence of the putative modulator.
43. A method according to claim 42 wherein the vertebrate MDC polypeptide comprises a polypeptide encoded by a polynucleotide that hybridizes to the non-coding strand complementary to SEQ ID NO: 1, under the following hybridization conditions: hybridization at 42° C. in a hybridization solution comprising 5×SSC, 20 mM NaPO4, pH 6.8, and 50% formamide; and washing at 42° C. in 0.2×SSC.
44. A method according to claim 42, wherein the vertebrate MDC polypeptide comprises human MDC comprising amino acids 1 to 69 of SEQ ID NO: 2.
45. A method according to any one of claims 42, 43, and 44, wherein said polypeptide comprises a detectable label, and wherein in step (b) binding between the composition and the polypeptide is detected by detecting labeled polypeptide bound to the composition.
Patent Citations (25)
| Patent | Date | Inventor | Cited By |
|---|---|---|---|
| US4965392(A) | 1990-10-01 | Fritzberg et al. | Applicant |
| US5037630(A) | 1991-08-01 | Fritzberg et al. | Applicant |
| US5179078(A) | 1993-01-01 | Rollins et al. | Applicant |
| US5241049(A) | 1993-08-01 | Goodman et al. | Applicant |
| US5278287(A) | 1994-01-01 | Rollins et al. | Applicant |
| US5413778(A) | 1995-05-01 | Kunkel et al. | Applicant |
| US5705360(A) | 1998-01-01 | Rollins et al. | Applicant |
| EP310136 | 1989-04-01 | Applicant | |
| EP860446 | 1998-08-01 | Applicant | |
| WO89/01046 | 1989-02-01 | Applicant | |
| WO91/09955 | 1991-07-01 | Applicant | |
| WO92/20808 | 1992-11-01 | Applicant | |
| WO94/12650 | 1994-06-01 | Applicant | |
| WO95/17092 | 1995-06-01 | Applicant | |
| WO96/23068 | 1996-08-01 | Applicant | |
| WO96/39521 | 1996-12-01 | Applicant | |
| WO96/40923 | 1996-12-01 | Applicant | |
| WO97/11969 | 1997-04-01 | Applicant | |
| WO97/29192 | 1997-08-01 | Applicant | |
| WO97/44055 | 1997-11-01 | Applicant | |
| WO97/44462 | 1997-11-01 | Applicant | |
| WO98/11226 | 1998-03-01 | Applicant | |
| WO95/13295 | 1998-05-01 | Applicant | |
| WO98/24907 | 1998-06-01 | Applicant | |
| WO98/24908 | 1998-06-01 | Applicant |
Non-Patent Literature (269)
- Adams, D.O., “The Granulomatous Inflammatory Response,” Am. J. Pathol., 84(1):164-191 (Jul., 1976).Applicant
- Adema, G.J. et al., “A dendritic-cell-derived C-C chemokine that preferentially attracts naive T cells,” Nature, 387:713-717 (Jun. 12, 1997).Applicant
- Ahuja et al., “Molecular Evolution of the Human Interleukin-8 Receptor Gene Cluster,” Nature Genetics, 2:31-36 (Sep., 1992).Applicant
- Altschul et al., “Basic Local Alignment Search Tool,” J. Mol. Biol., 215: 403-410 (1990).Applicant
- Aujame, L. et al., “High affinity human antibodies by phage display,” Human Antibodies, 8(4):155-168 (1997).Applicant
- Baba, M. et al., “Identification of CCR6, the Specific Receptor for a Novel Lymphocyte-directed CC Chemokine LARC,” J. Biological Chemistry, 272(23):14893-14898 (Jun. 6, 1997).Applicant
- Baggiolini, M. et al., “Human Chemokines: An Update,” Annu. Rev. Immunol., 15:675-705 (1997).Applicant
- Baggioloni et al., “Interleukin-8 and Related Chemotactic Cytokines-CXC and CC Chemokines,” Advances in Immunology, 55:97-179 (1994).Applicant
- Bai et al., “IL-10 Suppresses Experimental Autoimmune Neuritis and Down-regulates TH1-Type Immune Responses,” Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol., 83(2):117-126 (1997).Applicant
- Barker et al., “Effects of TH1 and TH2 cytokines on CD8+ cell response against human immunodeficiency virus: Implications for long-term survival,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA, 92(94):11135-11139 (1995).Applicant
- Bartholome-DeBelder et al., “Overexpression, solubilization and refolding of a genetically engineered derivative of the penicillin-binding protein 3 of Escherichia coli K12,” Mol. Microbiol., 2:519 (1988).Applicant
- Bertoletti et al., “Different Cytokine Profiles of Intrahepatic T Cells in Chronic Hepatitis B and Hepatitis C Virus Infections,” Gastroenterol., 112(1):193-199 (1997).Applicant
- Baumer et al., “Th1/Th2 Cell Distribution in Pulmonary Sarcoidosis,” Am. J. Respir. Cell Mol. Biol., 16(2):171-177 (1997).Applicant
- Becker et al., “Constitutive and stimulated MCP-1, GROα, β, and γ expression in human airway epithelium and bronchoalveolar macrophages,” Am. J. Physiol., 266:L278-L288 (1994).Applicant
- Ben-Baruch, A. et al., “Monocyte Chemotactic Protein-3 (MCP3) Interacts with Multiple Leukocyte Receptors,” J. Biological Chemistry, 270(38):22123-22128 (Sep. 22, 1995).Applicant
- Berger et al., “Distinct antigen-induced cytokine pattern upon stimulation with antibody-complexed antigen consistent with a Th1→Th2-shift,” Res. Virol., 147(2-3):103-108 (1996).Applicant
- Berger, J. et al., “Secreted placental alkaline phosphatase: a powerful new quantitative indicator of gene expression in eukaryotic cells,” Gene, 66:1-10 (1988).Applicant
- Better et al., “Escherichia coli Secretion of an Active Chimeric Antibody Fragment,” Science, 240:1041-1043 (May 20, 1988).Applicant
- Bitter et al., “Hepatitis B Vaccine Produced in Yeast,” J. Med. Virol., 25(2):123-140 (1988).Applicant
- Bitter et al., “Secretion of Foreign Proteins from Saccharomyces cerevisiae directed by α-factor gene fusions,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA, 81:5330-5334 (Sep., 1984).Applicant
- Bleul, C.C et al., “The lymphocyte chemoattractant SDF-1 is a ligand for LESTR/fusin and blocks HIV-1 entry,” Nature, 382:829-833 (Aug. 29, 1996).Applicant
- Bonecchi, R. et al., “Differential Expression of Chemokine Receptors and Chemotactic Responsiveness of Type 1 T Helper Cells (Th1s) and Th2s,” J. Exp. Med., 187(1):129-134 (Jan. 5, 1998).Applicant
- Bowie et al., “Deciphering the Message in Protein Sequences: Tolerance to Amino Acid Substitutions,” Science, 247:1306-1310 (1990).Applicant
- Brake, A.J. et al., “α-Factor-directed synthesis and secretion of mature foreign proteins in Saccharomyces cerevisiae,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci.,USA, 81:4642-4646 (Aug. 1984).Applicant
- Bröker, M. et al., “New expression vectors for the fission yeast Schizosaccharomyces pombe,” FEBS Lett., 248(1,2):105-110 (May 1989).Applicant
- Brown, A.F., “Anaphylactic shock: mechanisms and treatment,” J. Accid. Emerg. Med., 12(2):89-100 (1995).Applicant
- Brown et al., “A Family of Small Inducible Proteins Secreted by Leukocytes are Members of a New Superfamily that Includes Leukocyte and Fibroblast-Derived Inflammatory Agents, Growth Factors, and Indicators of Various Activation Processes,” J. Immunol., 142(2):679-687 (Jan. 15, 1989).Applicant
- Brüggemann, M. et al., “Strategies for expressing human antibody repertoires in transgenic mice,” Immunol. Today, 17(8):391-397 (1996).Applicant
- Brüggemann, M. et al., “Production of human antibody repertoires in transgenic mice,” Current Opinion Biotechnology, 8:455-458 (1997).Applicant
- Capecchi, M.R., “Altering the Genome by Homologous Recombination,” Science, 244:1288-1292 (Jun. 16, 1989).Applicant
- Hsueh, W. et al., “Platelet-activating factor, tumor necrosis factor, hypoxia and necrotizing enterocolitis,” Acta Pediat. Suppl., 396:11-17 (1994).Applicant
- Cenci et al., “T Helper Cell Type 1 (Th1)-and Th2-like Responses Are Present in Mice with Gastric Candidiasis by Protective Immunity Is Associated with Th1 Development,” J. Infect. Dis., 171(5):1279-1288 (1995).Applicant
- Chang et al., “Cloning and expression of a γ-interferon-inducible gene in monocytes: a new member of a cytokine gene family,” International Immunology, 1(4):388-397 (1989).Applicant
- Chang, M-S et al., “Molecular Cloning and Functional Characterization of a Novel CC Chemokine, Stimulated T Cell Chemotactic Protein (STCP-1) That Specifically Acts on Activated T Lymphocytes,” J. Biological Chemistry, 272(40):25229-25237 (Oct. 1, 1997).Applicant
- Chang, “Thrombin Specificity: Requirement For Apolar Amino Acids Adjacent to the Thrombin Cleavage Site of Polypeptide Substrate,” Eur. J. Biochem., 151:217-224 (1985).Applicant
- Charo et al., “Molecular cloning and functional expression of two monocyte chemmoattractant protein 1 receptors reveals alternative splicing of the carboxyl-terminal tails,” Proc. Nat'l Acad. Sci., USA, 91:2752-2756 (Mar., 1994).Applicant
- Chemokines, In R&D Systems 1995 catalog, R&D Systems, Minneapolis, MN, pp. 79-85.Applicant
- Chen et al., “Calcium Phosphate-Medicated Gene Transfer: A Highly Efficient Transfection System for Stably Transforming Cells with Plasmid DNA,” BioTechniques, 6(7):632-638 (1988).Applicant
- Chen et al., “High-Efficiency Transformation of Mammalian Cells by Plasmid DNA,” Mol. Cell. Biol., 7(8):2745-2752 (Aug., 1987).Applicant
- Chen, X.J. et al., “Sequence organization of the circular plasmid pKD1 from the yeast Kluyveromyces drosophilarum,” Nucleic Acids Research, 14(11):4471-4481 (1986).Applicant
- Cheung et al., “Modulation of Lymphocyte Motility by Macrophages,” Cell. Immunol., 109(2):295-305 (1987).Applicant
- Clark-Lewis et al., “Structure-Activity Relationships of Interleukin-8 Determined Using Chemically Synthesized Analogs,” J. Biol. Chem., 266(34):23128-23134 (Dec. 5, 1991).Applicant
- Co, M.S. et al., “Humanized antibodies for therapy,” Nature, 351:501-502 (Jun. 6, 1991).Applicant
- Cocchi et al., “Identification of RANTES, MIP-1α, and MIP-1β as the Major HIV-Suppressive Factors Produced by CD8+ T Cells,” Science, 270:1811-1815 (Dec. 15, 1995).Applicant
- Combadiere et al., “Cloning and Functional Expression of a Human Eosinophil CC Chemokine Receptor,” J. Biol. Chem., 270(27):16491-16494 (Jul. 14, 1995).Applicant
- Cregg, J.M. et al., “Recent Advances in the Expression of Foreign Genes in Pichia pastoris,” Bio/Technology, 11:905-910 (Aug. 11, 1993).Applicant
- Daly et al., “High Activity Suppression of Myeloid Progenitor Proliferation by Chimeric Mutants of Interleukin 8 and Platelet Factor 4,” J. Biol. Chem., 270(40):23282-23292 (Oct. 6, 1995).Applicant
- Danoff et al., “Cloning, Genomic Organization, and Chromosomal Localization of the Scya5 Gene Encoding the Murine Chemokine RANTES,” J. Immunol., 152:1182-1189 (1994).Applicant
- Daugherty, B.L. et al., “Cloning, Expression, and Characterization of the Human Eosinophil Eotaxin Receptor,” J. Exp. Med., 183:2349-2354 (May 1996).Applicant
- Davis, C.B. et al., “Signal Transduction Due to HIV-1 Envelope Interactions with Chemokine Receptors CXCR4 or CCR5,” J. Exp. Med., 186:1793-1798 (1997).Applicant
- Dean, M. et al. “Genetic Restriction of HIV-1 Infection and Progression to AIDS by a Deletion Allele of the CKR5 Structural Gene,” Science, 273:1856-1863 (Sep. 27, 1996).Applicant
- Decker et al., “Surgical stress induces a shift in the type-1/type-2 T-helper cell balance, suggesting down-regulation of cell-mediated and up-regulation of antibody-mediated immunity commensurate to the trauma,” Surgery, 119(3):316-325 (1996).Applicant
- Denholm et al., “Secretion of Monocyte Chemotactic Activity by Alveolar Macrophages,” Amer. J. Pathol., 135(3):571-580 (Sep., 1989).Applicant
- Denholm et al., “Monocyte Chemoattractants in Pigeon Aortic Atherosclerosis,” Amer. J. Pathol., 126:464-475 (1987).Applicant
- Denholm et al., “Differential Effects of Two Fluorescent Probes on Macrophage Migration as Assessed by Manual and Automated Methods,” Cytometry, 19:366-369 (1995).Applicant
- Denholm et al., “Changes in the Expression of MCP-1 Receptors on Monocyte THP-1 Cells Following Differentiation to Macrophages with Phorbol Myristate Acetate,” Cytokine, 7(5):436-440 (Jul., 1995).Applicant
- Denholm et al., “The Effects of Bleomycin on Alveolar Macrophage Growth Factor Secretion,” Amer. J. Pathol., 134(2):355-363 (Feb., 1989).Applicant
- Denizot et al., “PAF-Acether and Acetylhydrolase in Stool of Patients with Crohn's Disease,” Digestive Diseases and Sciences, 37(3):432-437 (1992).Applicant
- De Pitá et al., “T-helper 2 involvement in the pathogenesis of bullous pemphigoid: role of soluble CD30 (sCD30),” Arch. Dermatol. Res., 289(12):667-670 (1997).Applicant
- Devergne et al., Production of the Rantes Chemokine by Macrophages and Endothelial Cells in Delayed-Type Hypersensitivity Reactions, Challenges Mod. Med., 8:59-62 (1994).Applicant
- Devi et al., “Biologic Activities of the beta-chemokine TCA3 on neutrophils and macrophages,” J. Immunol., 154(10):5376-5383 (1995).Applicant
- Dijkstra et al., “Multiple sclerosis: some possible therapeutic opportunities,” Trends in Pharm. Rev., 14(4):124-128 (1993).Applicant
- Driscoll, K.E., “Macrophage Inflammatory Proteins: Biology and Role in Pulmonary Inflammation,” Exp. Lung Res., 20(6):473-490 (1994).Applicant
- Dunlop et al., “Demonstration of Stem Cell Inhibition and Myeloprotective Effects of SCI/rhMIP1α In Vivo,” Blood, 79(9):2221-2225 (May 1, 1992).Applicant
- Elghazali et al., “Elevated plasma levels of IgE in Plasmodium falciparum-primed individuals reflect an increased ratio of IL-4 to interferon-gamma (IFN-γ)-producing cells,” Clin. Exp. Immunol., 109(1):84-89 (1997).Applicant
- Elstad et al., “Synthesis and Release of Platelet-Activating Factor by Stimulated Human Mononuclear Phagocytes,” J. Immunol., 140(5):1618-1624 (Mar. 1, 1988).Applicant
- Falk et al., “Specificity and Reversibility of Chemotactic Deactivation of Human Monocytes,” Infection and Immunity, 32(2):464-468 (May, 1981).Applicant
- Federsppiel, B. et al., “Molecular Cloning of the cDNA and Chromosomal Localization of the Gene for a Putative Seven-Transmembrane Segment (7-TMS) Receptor Isolated from Human Spleen,” Genomics, 16:707-712 (1993).Applicant
- Fidel et al., “Vaginal-Associated Immunity in Women with Recurrent Vulvovaginal Candidiasis: Evidence for Vaginal Th1-Type Responses following Intravaginal Challenge with Candida Antigen,” J. Infect. Dis., 176(3):728-739 (1995).Applicant
- Fleer, R. et al., “Stable Multicopy Vectors For High-Level Secretion Of Recombinant Human Serum Albumin By Kluyveromyces Yeasts,” Bio/Technology, 9:968-975 (Oct. 1991).Applicant
- Foote et al., “Antibody Framework Residues Affecting the Conformation of the Hypervariable Loops,” J. Mol. Biol., 224:487-499 (1992).Applicant
- Fowlkes et al., “Multipurpose Vectors for Peptide Expression on the M13 Viral Surface,” BioTechniques, 13(3):422-427 (1992).Applicant
- Farzan, M. et al., “HIV-1 Entry and Macrophage Inflammatory Protein-1β-mediated Signaling Are Independent Functions of the Chemokine Receptor CCR5*,” J. Biol. Chem., 272:6854-6857 (1997).Applicant
- Frömmel et al., “An Estimate on the Effect of Point Mutation and Natural Selection on the Rate of Amino Acid Replacement in Proteins,” J. Mol. Evol., 21:233-257 (1985).Applicant
- Furukawa et al., “The Mechanism of Rabbit Platelet Aggregation Induced by 2,5-Di-(tert-butyl)-1,4-benzohydroquinone, an Inhibitor of Endoplasmic Reticulum Ca2-ATPase,” Jpn. J. Pharmacol., 75(3):295-298 (1997).Applicant
- Gallatin, W.M. et al., “A cell-surface molecule involved in organ-specific homing of lymphocytes,” Nature, 304:30-34 (1983).Applicant
- Gao et al., “Structure and Functional Expression of the Human Macrophage Inflammatory Protein 1α/Rantes Receptor,” J. Exp. Med., 177:1421-1427 (May, 1993).Applicant
- Garlisi et al., “T Cells Are Necessary For Th2 Cytokine Production and Eosinophil Accumulation in Airways of Antigen-Challenged Allergic Mice,” Clin. Immunol. Immunopathol., 75:75-83 (1995).Applicant
- Genbank D43767, “Molecular cloning of a novel T cell-directed CC chemokine expressed in thymus by signal sequence trap using Epstein-Barr virus vector,” deposited by Imai, T et al., dated Sep. 11, 1996.Applicant
- Genbank X85740, “Molecular cloning and functional expression of a novel CC chemokine receptor cDNA from a human basophilic call line,” deposited by Power, C.A. et al., dated Jun. 4, 1996.Applicant
- Genbank X90862, “Molecular cloning of murine CC CKR-4 and high affinity binding of chemokine to murine and human CC CKR-4,” deposited by Hoogewerf, A.J. et al., dated Jan. 26, 1996.Applicant
- Gerard et al., “Human Chemotaxis Receptor Genes Cluster at 19q13.3-13.4 Characterization of the Human C5a Receptor Gene,” Biochemistry, 32:1243-1250 (1993).Applicant
- Godiska, R. et al., “Human Macrophage-derived Chemokine (MDC), a Novel Chemoattractant for Monocytes, Monocyte-derived Dendritic Cells, and Natural Killer Cells,” J. Exp. Med., 185(9):1595-1604 (May 5, 1997).Applicant
- Goeddel, D.V. (Ed.), “Gene Expression Technology,” in Methods in Enzymology, vol. 185, pp. 1-283, Academic Press, San Diego, CA (1990).Applicant
- Goodwin et al., “The 3′-Flanking Sequence of the Bovine Growth Hormone Gene Contains Novel Elements Required for Efficient and Accurate Polyadenyclation,” J. Biol. Chem., 267(33):16330-16334 (Aug. 15, 1992).Applicant
- Gray, “Inflammatory Bowel Disease,” in Scientific American Medicine, Dale & Federman, (Eds.), New York, Scientific American , Inc., vol. 1, Chapter 4, Part IV, pp. 10-16 (1991).Applicant
- Greiner et al., “Low-Grade B Cell Lymphomas of Mucosa-Associated Lymphoid Tissue (MALT-Type) Require CD40-Mediated Signaling and Th2-Type Cytokines for in Vitro Growth and Differentiation,” Am. J. Pathol., 150(5):1583-1593 (1997).Applicant
- Grino et al.,“BN 52021: A Platelet Activating Factor Antagonist for Preventing Post-Transplant Renal Failure,” Annals of Internal Medicine, 121(5):345-347 (1994).Applicant
- Groves, M., (Ed.) in Parental Technology Manual, Second Edition, Interpharm Press, Inc., Prairie View, IL, pp. 6-7 (1988).Applicant
- Handley et al., “Platelet Activating Factor and Inflammation in Atherogenesis: Targets for Drug Development,” Drug Dev. Res., 7:361-375 (1986).Applicant
- Harada et al., “Essential Involvement of Interleukin-8 (IL-8) in acute inflammation,” J. Leukocyte Biology, 56:559-564 (Nov., 1994).Applicant
- Hayashi et al., “Production and function of monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 and other β-chemokine in murine glial cells,” J. Neuroimmunol., 60(1-2):143-150 (1995).Applicant
- Herault et al., “Effect of SR121566A, a Patent GP llb-llla Antagonist on Platelet-mediated Thrombin Generation In Vitro and In Vivo,” Thromb. Haemost 79(2):383-388 (1988).Applicant
- Hieshima, K. et al., “A Novel Human CC Chemokine PARC That Is Most Homologous to Macrophage-Inflammatory Protein-1α/LD78α and Chemotactic for T Lymphocytes, but Not for Monocytes,” J. Immunology, 159:1140-1149 (1997).Applicant
- Himmler, A. et al., “Functional Testing of Human Dopamine D1 and D5 Receptors Expressed in Stable cAMP-Responsive Luciferase Reporter Cell Lines,” Journal of Receptor Research, 13:79-94 (1993).Applicant
- Hoffman et al., “Detection of platelet-activating factor in amniotic fluid of complicated pregnancies,” Am. J. Obstet Gynecol., 162(2):525-528 (1990).Applicant
- Holmes et al., Structure and Functional Expression of a Human Interleukin-8 Receptor, Science, 253:1278-1280 (Sep. 13, 1991).Applicant
- Holt, P.G., “Immunoregulation of the allergic reaction in the respiratory tract,” Eur. Respir. J. Suppl., 22:85s-89s (1996).Applicant
- Hoogenboom, H.R., “Designing and optimizing library selection strategies for generating high-affinity antibodies,” TIBTECH, 15:62-70 (1997).Applicant
- Hoogewerf, A.J. et al., “Molecular Cloning of Murine CC CKR-4 and High Affinity Binding of Chemokines to Murine and Human CC CKR-4,” Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 218(1):337-343.Applicant
- Horuk et al., “Purification, Receptor, Binding Analysis, and Biological Characterization of Human Melanoma Growth Stimulating Activity (MGSA),” J. Biol. Chem., 268(1):541-546 (Jan. 5, 1993).Applicant
- Howard et al., “Chemokines: progress toward identifying molecular targets for therapeutic agents,” TIBTECH, 14(2):46-51 (1996).Applicant
- Hsieh et al., “Increased plasma platelet-activating factor in children with acute asthmatic attacks and decreased in vivo and in vitro production of platelet-activating factor after immunotherapy,” J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 91:650-657 (1993).Applicant
- Huang et al., “Th2 Responses Induce Humorally Mediated Injury in Experimental Anti-Glomerular Basement Membrane Glomerulonephritis,” J. Am. Soc. Neprol., 8(7):1101-1108 (1997).Applicant
- Hussell et al., “CD8+ T cells control Th2-driven pathology during pulmonary respiratory syncytial virus infection,” Eur. J./Immunol., 27(12):3341-3349 (1997).Applicant
- Imai, T. et al., “Molecular Cloning of a Novel T Cell-directed CC Chemokine Expressed in Thymus by Signal Sequence Trap Using Epstein-Barr Virus Vector,” Journal of Biological Chemistry, 271(35):21514-21521 (Aug. 30, 1996).Applicant
- Imai, T. et al., “Identification and Molecular Characterization of Fractalkine Receptpor CX3 CR1, which Mediates Both Leukocyte Migration and Adhesion,” Cell, 91:521-530 (Nov. 14, 1997).Applicant
- Imai, T. et al., “Macrophage derived chemokine (MDC) is a functional ligand for the CC chemokine receptor CCR4,” J. Biological Chemistry,273(3):1764-68 (1998).Applicant
- Imai, T. et al., “The T Cell-directed CC Chemokine TARC Is a Highly Specific Biological Ligand for CC Chemokine Receptor 4,” Journal of Biological Chemistry, 272(23):15036-15036 (Jun. 6, 1997).Applicant
- “In Vitro Assays of Lymphocyte Functions,” in Current Protocols Immunology, Sections 3-4, Wiley and Sons (1992).Applicant
- Jason et al., “Evidence for a Shift from a Type I Lymphocyte Pattern with HIV Disease Progression,” J. Acquir. Immune Defic. Syndrome Retrovirol., 10(4):471-476 (1995).Applicant
- Jeske et al., “Effect of Glycoprotein Iib/IIIa Antagonists on the HIT Serum Induced Activation of Platelets,” Thromb. Res., 88(3):271-281 (1997).Applicant
- Johansen et al., “Vaccination Promotes TH1-like Inflammation and Survival in Chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa Pneumonia. A new Phophylactic Principle,” Behring Inst. Mitt., 98:269-273 (1997).Applicant
- Jones, P.T. et al., “Replacing the complementarity-determining regions in a human antibody with those from a mouse,” Nature, 321:522-525 (1986).Applicant
- Kald et al., “Release of Platelet-Activating Factor in Acute Experimental Pancreatitis,” Pancreas, 8(4):440-442 (1993).Applicant
- Karban et al., “TH1/TH2 Cytokine Profile In Celiac Disease,” Isr. J. Med. Sci., 33(3):209-214 (1997).Applicant
- Kelly, M.D. et al., “Cutting Edge: Dichotomous Effects of β-Chemokines on HIV Replication in Monocytes and Monocyte-Derived Macrophages,” J. Immunol., 160:3091-3095 (1998).Applicant
- Kelner, G.S. et al., “Lymphotactin: A Cytokine That Represents a New Class of Chemokine,” Science, 266:1395-1399 (Nov. 25, 1994).Applicant
- Kelvin et al., “Chemokines and Serpentines: The Molecular Biology of Chemokine Receptors,” J. Leukocyte Biology, 54:604-612 (Dec., 1993).Applicant
- Kenney et al., “Splenic Cytokine Responses in Indian Kala-Azar before and after Treatment,” J. Infect. Dis., 177:815-819 (1998).Applicant
- Kettleborough et al., “Humanization of a mouse monoclonal antibody by CDR-grafting: the importance of framework residues on loop conformation,” Protein Engin., 4:773-783 (1991).Applicant
- Khar et al., “AK-5 tumor-induced modulation of host immune function: Upregulation of Th-1-type cytokine response mediated early tumor regression,” Cytokines Mol. Ther., 2(1):39-46 (1996).Applicant
- Kitching et al., “Interleukin-4 deficiency enhances Th1 response and crescentic glomerulonephritis in mice,” Kidney Int., 53(1):112-118 (1998).Applicant
- Krishnan et al., “T Helper 1 Response Against Leishmania major in Pregnant C57BL/6 Mice Increases Implantation Failure and Fetal Resorptions,” J. Immunol., 156(2):653-662 (1996).Applicant
- Krueger et al., “Protein Inclusion Body Formation and Purification,” BioPharm., pp. 40-45 (Mar., 1989).Applicant
- Kuby J., (Ed.), Immunology, W.H. Freeman and Co., New York, New York, pp. 304-306, 420-425, 488-490, 495-497, and 499-500 (1992).Applicant
- Kuna et al., “RANTES, a Monocyte and T Lymphocyte Chemotactic Cytokine Releases Histamine from Human Basophils,” J. Immunology, 149(2):636-642 (Jul. 15, 1992).Applicant
- Kunkel et al., “Th1 and Th2 Responses Regulate Experimental Lung Granuloma Development,” Sarcoidosis Vasc. Diffuse Lung Dis., 13:120-128 (1996).Applicant
- Kurjan et al., “Structure of a Yeast Pheromone Gene (MFα): A Putative α-Factor Precursor Contains Four Tandem Copies of Mature α-Factor,” Cell, 30:933-943 (Oct., 1982).Applicant
- Laning et al., “Inhibition of In Vivo Tumor Growth by the α Chemokine, TCA3,” J. Immunology, 153:4625-4635 (1994).Applicant
- Li et al., “In Vivo Alterations in Cytokine Production following Interleukin-12 (IL-12) and Anti-IL-4 Antibody Treatment of CB6F1 Mice with Chronic Cutaneous Leishmaniasis,” Infect. Immunol., 64:5248-5254 (1996).Applicant
- Lin et al., “An Efficient Method to Purify Active Eukaryotic Proteins from the Inclusion Bodies in Escherichia coli,” BioTechniques, 11(6):748-752 (1991).Applicant
- Linder, M.E. et al., “G Proteins,” Scientific American, 267:56-65 (Jul. 1992).Applicant
- Lindsberg et al., “Evidence for Platelet-Activating Factor as a Novel Mediator in Experimental Stroke in Rabbits,” Ann. Neurol., 30(2):117-129 (1991).Applicant
- Lindsberg et al., “Platelet-activating Factor in Stroke and Brain Injury,” Stroke, 21:1452-1457 (1990).Applicant
- Luo et al., Biologic Activities of the murine β-Chemokine TCA3, J. Immunology, 153:4616-4624 (1994).Applicant
- Luster, A.D. et al., “The IP-10 Chemokine Binds to a Specific Cell Surface Heparan Sulfate Site Shared with Platelet Factor 4 and Inhibits Endothelial Cell Proliferation,” J. Exp. Med., 182:219-231 (Jul. 1995).Applicant
- Maggi et al., CD8+ T lymphocytes producing Th2-type cytokines (Tc2) in HIV-infected individuals, J. Biol. Regul. Homeost. Agents, 9(3):78-81 (1995).Applicant
- Maggi E. et al., “Ability of HIV to Promote a TH1 to TH0 Shift and to Replicate Preferentially in TH2 and TH0 Cells,” Science, 265:244-248 (1994).Applicant
- Major et al., “Oxidized LDL Selectively Potentiates LPS-Induced Chemokine mRNA Expression in Murine Peritoneal Macrophages,” Thirty-first National Meeting of the Society for Leukocyte Biology on Host Defense Against Infections and Cancer, Marco Island, Florida, USA, Sep. 13-16, 1995. Journal of Leukocyte Biology, 0(Supplement):14 (1995) (Abstract 47).Applicant
- Maki et al., “Platelet-activating factor acetylhydrolase activity in maternal, fetal, and newborn rabbit plasma during pregnancy and lactation,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA, 85:728-732 (1988).Applicant
- Malden et al., “The Influence of Oxidatively Modified Low Density Lipoproteins on Expression of Platelet-derived Growth Factor by Human Monocyte-derived Macrophages,” J. Biol. Chem., 266(21):13901-13907 (Jul. 25, 1991).Applicant
- Marston et al., “Solubilization of Protein Aggregates,” Methods in Enzymology, M.P. Deutcher (Ed.), Academic Press, New York, 182:264-276 (1990).Applicant
- Matsumoto et al., “Platelet-Activating Factor in Bronchoalveolar Lavage Fluid of Patients with Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome,” Clin. Exp. Pharmocol. Physiol., 19:509-515 (1992).Applicant
- Matsushima et al., “Purification and Characterization of a Novel Monocyte Chemotactic and Activating Factor Produced by a Human Myelomonocytic Cell Line,” J. Exp. Med., 169:1485-1490 (Apr., 1989).Applicant
- Matsuzaki et al., “PAF acetylhydrolase activities in human systemic lupus erythematosus and lupus-prone mice,” Clinica Chimica Acta, 210:139-144 (1992).Applicant
- Maze et al., “Myelosuppressive Effects in Vivo of Purified Recombinant Murine Macrophage Inflammatory Protein-1α,” J. Immunol., 149(3):1004-1009 (Aug. 1, 1992).Applicant
- McCune et al., “The Hematophtology of HIV-1 Disease: Experimental Analysis In Vivo,” in Human Hematopoiesis in SCID Mice, M Roncarlo et al., (Eds.), Landes Publishing Co., New York New York, pp. 129-156 (1995).Applicant
- McCune et al., “The SCID-hu Mouse: A Small Animal Model for HIV Infection and Antiviral Testing,” in Progress in Immunol., vol. VII, Melchers et al.(Eds.), Springer-Verlag Berlin-Heidelberg, pp. 1046-1049 (1989).Applicant
- Merrifield, R.B., “Solid Phase Peptide Synthesis. I. The Synthesis of a Tetrapeptide,” J. Am. Chem. Soc., 85:2149-2154 (Jul. 20, 1963).Applicant
- Meurer et al., “Formation of Eosinophilic and Monocytic Intradermal Inflammatory Sites in the Dog by Injection of Human RANTES but not Human Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein 1, Human Macrophage Inflammatory Protein 1α, or Human Interleukin 8,” J. Exp. Med., 178:1913-1921 (Dec., 1993).Applicant
- Mezzano et al., “Detection of Platelet-Activating Factor in Plasma of Patients with Streptococcal Nephritis1,” J. Am. Soc. Nephrol., 4:235-242 (1993).Applicant
- Miller et al., “A Novel Polypeptide Secreted by Activated Human T Lymphocytes,” J. Immunology, 143(9):2907-2916 (Nov. 1, 1989).Applicant
- Miossec, P., “Th1Th2 Cytokine Balance in Arthritis,” Arthritis Rheum, 40(12):2105-2115 (1997).Applicant
- Miwa et al., “Characterization of Serum Platelet-activating Factor (PAF) Acetylhydrolase,” J. Clin. Invest., 82:1983-1991 (1988).Applicant
- Moore, J.P., “Coreceptors: Implications for HIV Pathogenesis and Therapy,” Science, 276:51-52 (Apr. 4, 1997).Applicant
- Morrison et al., “Genetically Engineered Antibody Molecules,” Adv. Immunol., 44:65-92 (1989).Applicant
- Moser et al., “Chronic Pseudomonas aeruginosa lung infection is more severe in Th2 responding BALB/c mice compared to Th1 responding C3H/HeN mice,” APMIS, 105(11):838-842 (1997).Applicant
- Mosmann et al., “The expanding universe of T-cell subsets: Th1, Th2 and more,” Immunol. Today, 17:138-146 (1996).Applicant
- Mëller, F. et al., “Enhanced Interleukin-10 Production in Response to Mycobacterium avium Productsin Mononuclear Cells from Patients with Human Immunodeficiency Virus Infection,” Journal Infectious Diseases, 177:586-594 (1998).Applicant
- Murphy et al., “Cloning of Complimentary DNA Encoding a Functional Human Interleukin-8 Receptor,” Science, 253:1280-1283 (Sep. 13, 1991).Applicant
- Myers et al., “Expression and Purification of Active Recombinant Platelet Factor 4 from a Cleavable Fusion Protein,” Prot. Express. Purif., 2:136-143 (1991).Applicant
- Nagira et al., “Molecular Cloning of a Novel Human CC Chemokine Secondary Lymphoid-Tissue Chemokine That Is a Potent Chemoattractant for Lymphocytes and Mapped to Chromosome 9p13*,” J. Biol. Chem., 272:19518-19524 (1997).Applicant
- Nakao et al., “Structures of Human Genes Coding for Cytokine LD78 and Their Expression,” Mol. Cell. Biol., 10(7):3646-3658 (Jul. 1990).Applicant
- Nakogawa et al., “Cytokine-Induced Neutrophil Chemoattractant (CINC)-2 α, a Novel Member of Rat GRO/CINCs, Is a Predominant Chemokine Produced by Lipopolysaccharide-Stimulated Rat Macrophages in Culture,” Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 220(3):945-948 (1996).Applicant
- Napolitano, M. et al., “Molecular Cloning of TER1, a Chemokine Receptor-Like Gene Expressed by Lymphoid Tissues,” Journal of Immunology, 157:2759-2763 (1996).Applicant
- Neote et al., Molecular Cloning, Functional Expression, and Signaling Characteristics of a C-C Chemokine Receptor, Cell, 72:415-425 (Feb. 12, 1993).Applicant
- Ngo et al., “Computational Complexity, Protein Structure Prediction, and the Levinthal Paradox,” The Protein Folding Problem and Tertiary Structure Prediction, K. Merz, Jr. and S. Le Grand, Editors, Birkhäuser Boston, pp. 433 and 492-495 (1994).Applicant
- Nomiyama, H. et al., “Asignment of the Human CC Chemokine Gene TARC (SCYA17) to Chromosome 16q13,” Genomics, 40:211-213 (1997).Applicant
- Nomura, H. et al. “Molecular cloning of cDNAs encoding a LD78 receptor and putative leukocyte chemotactic peptide receptors,” International Immunology, 5(10):1239-1249 (1993).Applicant
- Overlin E. et al., “The CXC chemokine SDF-1 is the ligand for LESTR/fusin and prevents infection by T-cell-line-adapted HIV-1,” Nature, 382:833-835 (Aug. 29, 1996).Applicant
- Okada et al., “Pharmacokinetics of Once-a-Month Injectable Microspheres of Leuprolide Acetate,1” Pharm. Res., 8:787-791 (1991).Applicant
- Oravecz et al., “Regulation of the Receptor Specificity and Function of the Chemokine RANTES (Regulated on Activation, Normal T Cell Expressed and Secreted) by Dipeptidyl Peptidase IV (CD26)-mediated Cleavage,” J. Exp. Med., 186:1865-1872 (1997).Applicant
- Padlan, E.A., “A Possible Procedure For Reducing The Immunogenicity Of Antibody Variable Domains While Preserving Their Ligand-Binding Properties,” Molecular Immunology, 28(4/5):489-498 (1991).Applicant
- Paganelli et al., “Th2-type cytokines, hypereosinophilia, and interleukin-5 in HIV disease,” Allergy, 52(1):110-111 (1997).Applicant
- Pal, R. et al., “Inhibition of HIV-1 Infection by the β-Chemokine MDC,” Science, 278:695-698 (Oct. 24, 1997).Applicant
- Pellegrini et al., “Disregulation in TH1 and TH2 subsets of CD4+ T cells in peripheral blood of colorectal cancer patients and involvement in cancer establishment and progression,” Cancer Immunol., Immunother., 42(1):1-8 (1996).Applicant
- Peri et al., “A new monoclonal antibody (5D3-F7) which recognizes human monocyte-chemotactic protein-1 but not related chemokines. Development of a sandwich ELISA and in situ detection of producing cells,” J. Immunological Methods, 174:249-257 (1994).Applicant
- Perussia et al., “Terminal Differentiation Surface Antigens of Myelomonocytic Cells are Expressed in Human Promyelocytic Leukemia Cells (HL60) treated with Chemical Inducers,” Blood, 58(4):836-843 (0ct., 1981).Applicant
- Pettoello-Mantovani et al., “thy/liv-SCID-hu Mice: A System for Investigating the In Vivo Effects of Multidrug Therapy on Plasma Viremia and Human Immunodeficiency Virus Replication in Lymphoid Tissues,” J. Infect. Diseases, 177:337 (1998).Applicant
- Phan S.H., “Fibrotic Mechanisms in Lung Diseases,” in Immunology of Inflammation, Chapter 4, Elsevier, pp. 121-162 (1983).Applicant
- Phan et al., “Inhibition of bleomycin-induced pulmonary fibrosis by lipopolysaccharide,” Lab. Invest., 50(5):587-591 (May, 1984).Applicant
- Picker et al., “Physiological and Molecular Mechanisms of Lymphocyte Homing,” Annu. Rev. Immunol., 10:561-591 (1992).Applicant
- Ponath, P.D. et al., “Molecular Cloning and Characterization of a Human Eotaxin Receptor Expressed Selectivity on Eosinophils,” J. Exp. Med., 183:2437-2448 (Jun. 1996).Applicant
- Ponath et al., “Cloning of the Human Eosinophil Chemoattractant, Eotaxin,” J. Clin. Invest., 97:604-612 (1996).Applicant
- Pope et al., “Resistance of Naive Mice to Murine Hepatitis Virus Strain 3 Requires Development of a Th1, but not a Th2, Response, Wheras Pre-Existing Antibody Partially Protects Against Primary Infection1,” J. Immunol., 156(9):3342-3349 (1996).Applicant
- Power et al., “Molecular Cloning and Functional Expression of a Novel CC Chemokine Receptor cDNA from a Human Basophil Cell Line,” J. Biol. Chem., 270(33):19495-19500 (Aug. 18, 1995).Applicant
- Price et al., “Expression, purification, characterization, of recombinant murine granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor and bovine interleukin-2 from yeast,” Gene, 55:287-293 (1987).Applicant
- Proost et al., “Amino-terminal Truncation of Chemokines by CD26/Dipeptidyl-peptidase IV,” J. Biol. Chem., 273(13):7222-7227 (1998).Applicant
- Proudfoot et al., “Extension of Recombinant Human RANTES by the Retention of the Initiating Methionine Produces a Potent Antagonist*,” J. Biol. Chem., 271:2599-2603 (1996).Applicant
- Rabinovichi et al., “Platelet Activating Factor Mediates Interleukin-2-induced Lung Injury in the Rat,” J. Clin. Invest., 89:1669-1673 (1992).Applicant
- Rabnovichi et al., “ARDS-like lung injury produced by endotoxin in platelet-activating factor-primed rats,” J. Appl. Physiol., 74(4):1791-1802 (1993).Applicant
- Rader, C. et al., “Phage display of combinatorial antibody libraries,” Current Opinion Biotechnology, 8:503-508 (1997).Applicant
- Raport et al., “The Orphan G-Protein-Coupled Receptor-Encoding Gene V28 is Closely Related to Genes for Chemokine Receptors and is Expressed in Lymphoid and Neural Tissues,” Gene, 163:295-299 (1995).Applicant
- Raport, C.J., et al., “Molecular Cloning and Functional Characterization of a Novel Human CC Chemokine Receptor (CCR5) for RANTES, MIP-1β, and MIP-1α,” J. Biological Chemistry, 271(29):17161-17166 (Jul. 19, 1996).Applicant
- Reeves, J.D. et al., “CD4-Independent Infection by HIV-2 (ROD/B): Use of the 7-Transmembrane Receptors CXCR-4, CCR-3 and V28 for Entry,” Virology, 231:130-134 (1997).Applicant
- Reichmann, L. et al., “Reshaping human antibodies for therapy,” Nature, 332:323-327 (Mar. 24, 1988).Applicant
- Ribeiro et al., “Partial characerization of the RNA from LPS-stimulated macrophages that induces the release of chemotactic cytokines by resident macrophages,” Mol. Cell. Biochem., 148(2):105-113 (1995).Applicant
- Rodriquez-Roisin et al., “Platelet-activating Factor Causes Ventilation-Perfusion Mismatch in Humans,” J. Clin. Invest., 93:188-194 (1994).Applicant
- Roederer et al., “HIV Does Not Replicate in Naive CD4T Cells Stimulated with CD3/CD28,” J. Clin. Invest., 99(7):1555-1564 (1997).Applicant
- Romagnani, S. et al., “An Alternative View of the Th1/Th2 Switch Hypothesis in HIV Infection,” AIDS Res. Hum. Retroviruses, 10: iii-ix (1994).Applicant
- Romanos, M.A. et al., “Foreign Gene Expression in Yeast: a Review,” Yeast, 8(6):423-488 (Jun. 1992).Applicant
- Rook et al., “Gulf War syndrome: is it due to a systemic shift in cytokine balance towards a Th2 profile?,” Lancet, 349(9068):1831-1833 (1997).Applicant
- Roos, R.S. et al., “Identification of CCR8, the Receptor for the Human CC Chemokine I-309,” The Journal of Biological Chemistry, 272(28):17251-17254 (1997).Applicant
- Rose et al., “Propagation and Expression of Cloned Genes in Yeast: 2-μm Circle-Based Vectors,” Methods in Enzymology, 185:234-279 (1990).Applicant
- Ryan et al., “Bordetella pertussis Respiratory Infection in Children Is Associated with Preferential Activation of Type 1 T Helper Cells,” J. Infect. Dis., 175(5):1246-1250 (1997).Applicant
- Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, New York, pp. 1.74-1.84, 1.90-1.104, 6.1-6.35, and Chapter 15 (1989).Applicant
- Samson, M. et al., “Molecular cloning and chromosomal mapping of a novel human gene, ChemR1, expressed in T lymphocytes and polymorphonuclear cells and encoding a putative chemokine receptor,” Eur. J. Immunol., 26:3021-3028 (1996).Applicant
- Samson et al., “Molecular Cloning and Functional Expression of a New Human CC-Chemokine Receptor Gene,” Biochemistry, 35:3362-3367 (1996).Applicant
- Sanders, L.M. (Ed.), “Controlled Delivery Systems for Peptides,” in Peptides and Protein Drug Delivery, Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York, pp. 785-806 (1991).Applicant
- Sarris et al., “Human interferon-inducible Protein 10: Expression and Purification of recombinant protein demonstrate inhibition of early human hematopoietic Progenitors,” J. Exp. Med., 178:1127-1132 (Sep., 1993).Applicant
- Satoh et al., “Platelet-Activating Factor Acetylhydrolase in Plasma Lipoproteins From Patients With Ischemic Stroke,” Stroke, 23:1090-1092 (1992).Applicant
- Schall, T. J. et al., “Chemokines, leukocyte trafficking, and inflammation,” Current Opinion in Immunology, 6:865-873 (1994).Applicant
- Schall et al., “A Human T Cell Specific Molecules a Member of a New Gene Family,” J. Immunology, 141(3):1018-1025 (Aug. 1, 1988).Applicant
- Schnölzer et al., “In situ neutralization in Boc-chemistry solid phase peptide synthesis,” Int. J. Pep. Pro. Res., 40:180-193 (1992).Applicant
- Nakamura T. et al., “Roles of IL-4 and IFN-γ in Stabilizing the T Helper Cell Type 1 and 2 Phenotype,” J. Immunol., 158(6):2548-2653 (1997).Applicant
- Sheppard et al., “Further Evidence for Positive Control of the L-Arabinose System by Gene araC,” J. Mol. Biol., 25:443-454 (1967).Applicant
- Simmons G. et al., “Potent Inhibition of HIV-1 Infectivity in Macrophages and Lymphocytes by a Novel CCR5 Antagonist,” Science, 276(5310): 276-279 (Apr. 11, 1997).Applicant
- Smith, M.W. et al., “Contrasting Genetic Influence of CCR2 and CCR5 Variants on HIV-1 Infection and Disease Progression,” Science, 277:959-965 (Aug. 15, 1997).Applicant
- Spaccapelo et al., “TGF-β Is Important in Determining the In Vivo Patterns of Susceptibility or Resistance in Mice Infected with Candid albicans1,” J. Immunol., 155(3):1349-1360 (1995).Applicant
- Springer, “Traffic Signals for Lymphocyte Recirculation and leukocyte Emigration: The Multistep Paradigm,” Cell, 76:301-314 (Jan. 28, 1994).Applicant
- Spruance et al., “Th1/Th2-like immunity ad resistance to herpes simplex labialis,” Antiviral Res., 28(1):39-55 (1995).Applicant
- Stafforini et al., “Human Macrophages Secrete Platelet-activating Factor Acetylhydrolase,” J. Biol. Chem., 265(17):9682-9687 (Jun. 15, 1990).Applicant
- Stanciu et al., “Increased levels of IL-4 in CD8+ T cells in atopic asthma,” J. Allergy Clin. Immunol., 100(3):373-378 (1997).Applicant
- Staton, G.W. Jr. et al., “II Asthma,” 14 Resp. Scientific American, Inc., pp. 1-20 (Mar. 1997).Applicant
- Stearns et al., “Manipulating Yeast Genome Using Plasmid Vectors,” Method in Enzymology, 185:280-297 (1990).Applicant
- Steinman, R.M., “The Dendritic Cell System and Its Role In Immunogenicity1,” Annu. Rev. Immunol., 9:271-296 (1991).Applicant
- Stenberg et al., “Structural Analysis of the Major Immediate Early Gene of Human Cytomegalovirus,” J. Virology, 49(1):190-199 (Jan., 1984).Applicant
- Subramani et al., “Expression of the Mouse Dihydrofolate Reductase Complementary Deoxyribonucleic Acid in Simian Virus 40 Vectors,” Mol. Cell. Biol. 1(9):854-864 (Sep., 1981).Applicant
- Swanborg et al., “Experimental Autoimmune Ecephalomyelitis in Rodents as a Model for Human Demyelinating Disease,” Clin. Immunol. Pathol. 77(1):4-13 (1995).Applicant
- Szabo et al., “Chemokine Class Differences in Binding to the Duffy Antigen-Erythrocyte Chemokine Receptor,” J. Biol. Chem., 270(43):25348-25351 (1995).Applicant
- Taub et al., “Chemokines, Inflammation, and the Immune System,” Therapeutic Immunology, 1:229-246 (1994).Applicant
- Taylor, M.L. et al., “Monocyte-derived chemokine (MDC) induces human eosinophil (EOS) chemotaxis (CTX) and shape change in a CCR3-independent manner,” (Bruce Brodnur's Abstract) AAAA1 (Nov. 1998) (Abstract).Applicant
- Tempest et al., Reshaping A Human Monoclonal Antibody To Inhibit Human Respiratory Syncytial Virus Infection In Vivo, Bio/Technology, 9:266-271 (1991).Applicant
- Tiffany, H.L. et al., “Identification of CCR8: A Human Monocyte and Thymus Receptor for the CC Chemokine I-309,” Journal of Experimental Medicine, 186(1):165-170 (Jul. 7, 1997).Applicant
- Carballido, J.M. et al., “The intensity of T cell receptor engagement determines the cytokine pattern of human allergen-specific T helper cells,” Eur. J. Immunol., 27(2):515-521 (1997).Applicant
- Tjoelker et al., “Anti-inflammatory Properties of a Platelet Activating Factor Acetylhydrolase,” Nature, 374:549-553 (Apr. 6, 1995).Applicant
- Tracy, “Development and Scale-up of a Microsphere Protein Delivery System,” Biotechnol. Progress, 14:108-115 (1988).Applicant
- Tuschil et al., “Interleukin-8 Stimulates Calcium Transients and Promotes Epidermal Cell Proliferation,” J. Invest. Dermatol., 99:294-298 (1992).Applicant
- Umetsu, D.T. et al., “Th1 and Th2 CD4+ cells in the pathogenesis of allergic diseases,” Proc. Soc. Exp. Biol. Med., 215:11-20 (1997).Applicant
- Urlaub et al., “Deletion of the Diploid Dihydrofolate Reductase Locus from Cultured Mammalian Cells,” Cell, 33:405-412 (Jun., 1983).Applicant
- Van Roon et al., “Decrease in peripheral type 1 over type 2 T cell cytokine production in patients with rheumatoid arthritis correlates with an increase in severity of disease,” Ann. Rheum. Dis., 56(11):656-660 (1997).Applicant
- Van Kimmenade et al., “Expression, renaturation and purification of recombinant human interleukin 4 from Escherichia coli,” Eur. J. Biochem., 173:109-114 (1988).Applicant
- Van Damme et al., “Structural and Functional Identification of Two Human, Tumor-derived Monocyte Chemotactic Proteins (MCP-2 and MCP-3) Belonging to the Chemokine Family,” J. Exp. Med., 176:59-65 (Jul., 1992).Applicant
- Verhoeyen, M. et al., “Reshaping Human Antibodies: Grafting an Antilysozyme Activity,” Science, 239:1534-1536 (1988).Applicant
- von Heijne, G., “A New Method for Predicting Signal Sequence Cleavage Sites,” Nucleic Acids Res., 14(11):4683-4690 (1986).Applicant
- von Boehmer, H., “T-cell development: Is Notch a key player in lineage decisions?” Current Bilogy, 7:R308-R310 (1997).Applicant
- Watanabe et al., “Pharmacological analysis of neutrophil chemotactic factor production by leucocytes and roles of PAF in allergic inflammation in rats,” Br. J. Pharmacol., 111:123-130 (1994).Applicant
- Weber et al., “Monocyte Chemotactic Protein MCP-2 Activates Human Basophil and Eosinophil Leukocytes Similar to MCP-3,” J. Immunology, 154:4166-4172 (1995).Applicant
- Weissman, D. et al., “Macrophage tropic HIV and SIV envelope proteins induce a signal through the CCR5 chemokine receptor,” Nature, 389:981-985 (1997).Applicant
- Wells et al., “Selectivity and antagonism of chemokine receptors,” J. Leukocyte Biology, 59:53-60 (Jan., 1996).Applicant
- Wilcox et al., “Regulation of the L-Arabinose Operon BAD in Vitro*,” J. Biol. Chem., 249:2946-2952 (1974).Applicant
- Wilson et al., “Expression and Characterization of TCA3: A Murine Inflammatory Protein,” J. Immunology, 145(8):2745-2750 (Oct. 15, 1990).Applicant
- Windhagen et al., “Role of Th1 and Th2 Cells in Neurologic Disorders,” Chem. Immunol., 63:171-186 (1996).Applicant
- Winkler, C. et al., “Genetic Restriction of AIDS Pathogenesis by an SDF-1 Chemokine Gene Variant,” Science, 279:389-393 (Jan. 16, 1998).Applicant
- Winter, G. et al., “Antibody-based Therapy: Humanized antibodies,” TiPS, 14:139-143 (May 1993).Applicant
- Wolowczuk et al., “Interleukin-7 in the skin of Schistosoma mansoni-infected mice is associated with a decrease in interferon-γ production and leads to an aggravation of the disease,” Immunol., 9(1):35-44 (1997).Applicant
- Woods et al., “Loss of Inducible Virus in CD45RA Naive Cells After Human Immunodeficiency Virus-1 Entry Accounts for Preferential Viral Replication in CD45RO Memory Cells,” Blood, 89:1635-1641 (1997).Applicant
- Wu et al., “CCR5 Levels and Expression Pattern Correlate with Infectability by Macrophage-tropic HIV-1, In Vitro,” J. Exp. Med., 185:1681-1691 (1997).Applicant
- Yamashita et al., “Increased levels of blood platelet-activating factor in bronchial asthmatic patients with active symptoms,” Allergy, 49:60-63 (1994).Applicant
- Yeh et al., “Design of yeast-secreted albumin derivatives for human therapy: Biological and antiviral properties of a serum albumin-CD4 genetic conjugate,” Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci., USA, 89(5):1904-1908 (1992).Applicant
- Yoshida, T. et al., “Molecular cloning of a novel C or γ type chemokine, SCM-1,” FEBS Letters, 360:155-159 (1995).Applicant
- Yoshimura et al., “Production and Characterization of Mouse Monoclonal Antibodies Against Human Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1,” J. Immunol., 147(7):2229-2233 (Oct., 1991).Applicant
- Yoshimura, T., “cDNA Cloning of Guinea Pig Monocyte Chemoattractant Protein-1 and Expression of the Recombinant Protein,” J. Immunol., 150(11):5025-5032 (Jun. 1, 1993).Applicant
- Zarco et al., “Involvement of platelet-activating factor and tumour necrosis factor in the pathogenesis of joint inflammation in rabbits,” Clin. Exp. Immunol., 88:318-323 (1992).Applicant
- Austrup, F., et al., “P-and E-selectin mediate recruitment of T-helper-1 but not T-helper-2 cells into inflamed tissues,” Nature 385,81-83 (1997).Applicant
- Clapham, P.R., “HIV and chemokines: ligands sharing cell surface receptors,” Trends in Cell Biol. 7, 264-268 (1997).Applicant
- Corrigan et al., “T-cell/eosinophil interactions in the induction of asthma,” Eur. Respir. J. Suppl. 22, 72s-78s (1996).Applicant
- Endres et al., “CD4 independent infection by HIV-2 is mediated by fusin/CXCR4,” Cell, 87, 745-756 (1996).Applicant