US 6,485,972 B1Grant
WNT signalling in reproductive organs
Issue Date:2002-11-26
•3 Claims
Abstract
A method of enhancing viability of an oocyte by contacting the oocyte with a Wnt-4 polypeptide.
Metadata
Assignee
- President and Fellows of Harvard College
Inventors
- Andrew P. McMahon
- Brian A. Parr
- Seppo Vaino
Application Information
Application Number:US 09/417,039
Filing Date:1999-10-12
Priority Date:1998-10-15
Art Unit:7
Classifications
IPC:
C12N 500C12N 104A61P 1500C07K 100C07H 2104
Field of Search:
514 2514 44536 235530350435 6435 721435 72435 691435374435260436501424 2
Patent Drawings
This patent does not have any drawings.
Description
[0002] This application claims priority from provisional application Ser. No. 60/104,355, filed on Oct. 15, 1998.
BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
[0004] The invention relates to reproductive biology.
[0005] Wnt polypeptides are secreted cysteine-rich glycosylated polypeptides that play a role in the development of a wide range of organisms. The Wnt family of polypeptides contains at least 16 mammalian members which bind to an extracellular domain of a family of cell surface proteins called Frizzled receptors. Wnt polypeptides may play a role in embryonic induction, generation of cell polarity, and specification of cell fate.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
[0006] The invention is based on the discovery that Wnt signalling is involved in the development of female reproductive organs in the embryo and in oocyte development in adult animals. Accordingly, the invention features a method of contraception which is carried out by administering to a female primate an antagonist of a Wnt polypeptide. The antagonist inhibits Wnt-signalling which plays a role in oocyte development and, in turn, inhibits oocyte development. Preferably, the Wnt polypeptide is Wnt-1 class polypeptide such as Wnt-1, Wnt-2, Wnt-3a, Wnt-4, Wnt-7a, or Wnt-7b polypeptide.
[0007] A Wnt antagonist is a composition which inhibits the physiological activity of a Wnt polypeptide. For example, the activity is preferably Wnt signalling by a Wnt-1 class polypeptide. A Wnt antagonist inhibits oocyte development in an adult female animal and is therefore useful as a contraceptive. A Wnt antagonist binds to a Wnt polypeptide or to its receptor or to another component of the Wnt-1 class signal transduction pathway but fails to potentiate Wnt-signalling. For example, the Wnt antagonist is a dominant negative N-cadherin mutant, a dominant negative β-catenin mutant, or a Frizzled polypeptide. Antagonistic polypeptides may contain a cysteine-rich domain, e.g., a peptide having an amino acid sequence with at least 5%, preferably at least 7%, and most preferably at least 8%, cysteines. The polypeptide preferably contains at least 5 cysteines, more preferably at least 8 cysteines, and most preferably at least 10 cysteines. For example, the polypeptide is about 120 amino acids in length and contains 10 cysteines. Preferably, the polypeptide contains the amino acid consensus sequence of CX7-9CX36-42C8CX6CX6-10CX3CX6-7CX12-27CX8-13(SEQ ID NO: 1) or CXPXXXXXXX CXXXXYXXXX XPNXXXHXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXXXLXX XXCSXXXXXF LCXXXXPXCX XXXXXXXXXX PCRXXCEXXX XXXCXXXXXX XXXXXXXXXX XXXXXWPXXX XCXXXPXXXX XXXXXC (SEQ ID NO:2). Preferably, the polypeptide has at least 30%, more preferably at least 40%, more preferably at least 50%, more preferably at least 75% identity to the cysteine-rich domain of a Frizzled receptor. Sequence identity is determined using the Sequence Analysis Software Package of the Genetics Computer Group, University of Wisconsin Biotechnology Center, 1710 University Avenue, Madison, Wis. 53705), with the default parameters as specified therein. Other Wnt antagonists include Wnt-specific antibodies, e.g., an antibody which binds to a Wnt polypeptide and inhibits oocyte development, and Wnt-5a class polypeptides.
[0008] The invention also includes a contraceptive vaccine. The vaccine contains a Wnt polypeptide, e.g., Wnt-1, Wnt-2, Wnt-3a, Wnt-4, Wnt-7a, or Wnt-7b. The Wnt polypeptide is characterized as binding to an antibody that inhibits Wnt-signalling, and thereby, oocyte development.
[0009] Wnt polypeptides, e.g., Wnt-4 and Wnt-7a, promote oocyte development. Thus, a method of promoting maturation of an immature oocyte by contacting the oocyte with a substantially pure preparation of a Wnt polypeptide, e.g., Wnt-1, Wnt-2, Wnt-3a, Wnt-4, Wnt-7a, or Wnt-7b polypeptide, is also within the invention. Polypeptides or other compounds are said to be “substantially pure” when they are within preparations that are at least 60% by weight (dry weight) the compound of interest. Preferably, the preparation is at least 75%, more preferably at least 90%, and most preferably at least 99%, by weight the compound of interest. Purity is measured by any appropriate standard method, e.g., by column chromatography, polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, or HPLC analysis.
[0010] Wnt polypeptides are also used to enhance viability of an oocyte, e.g., an oocyte to be used in an in vitro fertilization (IVF) procedure. The oocyte is contacted with w Wnt polypeptide either in vivo prior to retrieval or in vitro prior to the IVF procedure. For example, the viability of a cryopreserved oocyte is enhanced by contacting the oocyte with a Wnt polypeptide during and/or subsequent to thawing. Wnt polypeptides are also used to increase the number of mature oocytes by culturing a sample containing immature oocytes in a culture medium which includes a Wnt polypeptide. The oocytes are cultured in the presence of a Wnt polypeptide for at least one hour and up to several days. Following culture, the number of mature oocytes in the sample cultured in the presence of said Wnt polypeptide is at least 50% greater than the number of mature oocytes cultured in the absence of the Wnt polypeptide. Preferably, the increase in the number of mature oocytes in the sample is at least 75%, more preferably 100%, and most preferably 200% greater than the number of mature oocytes cultured in the absence of the Wnt polypeptide.
[0011] Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following description of the preferred embodiments thereof, and from the claims.
DETAILED DESCRIPTION
[0012] The data described herein indicate that Wnt-signaling by Wnt-1 class polypeptides, e.g., Wnt-4 and Wnt-7a, is involved in the development of female reproductive organs in the embryo and in oocyte development in adult animals.
EXAMPLE 1
Female Development in Mammals Regulated by Wnt-4 Signaling
[0013] In the mammalian embryo, both sexes are initially morphologically indistinguishable, and specific hormones are required for sex specific development. MIS and testosterone secreted by the differentiating embryonic testes results in the loss of female (Müllerian) and promotion of male (Wolffian) reproductive duct development, respectively.
[0014] The data described herein demonstrate that Wnt-4 signaling also plays a pivotal role in female sexual development. At birth, Wnt-4 mutant males appear normal, whereas Wnt-4 mutant females are masculinized; the Müllerian duct is absent, while the Wolffian duct continues to develop. Initially, Wnt-4 is required in both sexes for formation of the Müllerian duct. Next, Wnt-4 activity in the developing ovary appears to suppress Leydig cell development. Consequently, Wnt-4 mutant females ectopically activate the testosterone biosynthetic pathway. Finally, the data indicate that Wnt-4 is required for maintenance of the female germ line. These studies indicate that establishment of sexual dimorphism is under the control of both local and systemic signals.
[0015] Early in fetal life, the reproductive system of male and female mammalian embryos consists of an indifferent gonad, indistinguishable by morphological criteria between the sexes. Adjacent to the gonads are two simple ducts, the Müllerian and Wolffian ducts, the anlagen of female (ovary, uterus, and upper part of the vagina) and male (epididymis, vas deferens and seminal vesicles) reproductive tract, respectively. Thus, the embryo is initially sexually indifferent. Correct sexual development is dependent on differentiation of somatic cell lineage in the gonad and the appropriate production, reception and response to gonadal hormones.
[0016] Male gonadal differentiation is triggered by the action of the Y chromosome encoded testis determining factor (SRY) in the supporting cell lineage of the testis. This results in the differentiation of Sertoli cell precursors, and the secretion of a hormone, Müllerian inhibiting substance (MIS), which induces regression of the Müllerian duct. The interstitial cell lineage gives rise to steroid cell precursors. In the testis, their differentiation into Leydig cell precursors leads to production of testosterone which promotes the development of Wolffian duct derivatives. In the female, absence of MIS permits continued development of the Müllerian duct, while absence of testosterone leads to degeneration of the Wolffian duct. Thus, the female pathway of development has traditionally been considered a default state resulting primarily from the absence of the testis determining factor, and as a consequence, the failure of MIS and testosterone synthesis. However, the data described below indicate that other factors are involved in the pathway. For example, Wnt-4 and Wnt-7a, play an important role in the development of female reproductive organs in the embryo and in oocyte development in adult animals.
[0017] Wnt-4, a member of the Wnt-family of locally acting cell signals, is essential for development of the female and suppression of the male reproductive system. Wnt-4 has now been found to play a key role in the female pathway of sexual development by regulating Müllerian duct formation, controlling steroidogenesis in the gonad and supporting oocyte development.
[0018] The role of Wnt-4 in development of female reproductive organs, steriodogenesis, and oocyte development was determined as follows.
[0019] Genotyping and Sex Typing of Embryos
[0020] A Wnt-4 mutant mouse line and Wnt-4 mutant embryos were made and genotyped using methods known in the art, e.g., Stark et al., 1994, Nature 372:679-683. For sex typing, embryos were collected separately, DNA was isolated by routine methods from either the yolk sac, or remainder of the embryo after removal of the urogenital system and digested with EcoRI. Y-chromosome specific sequences were detected by Southern blot hybridization with the Y-chromosome repetitive probe, pY353/B41. After genotyping and sex typing, samples were pooled accordingly. The Pax-2 transgenic mouse line (Kispert et al., 1996, Development 122:3627-2627) was typed using a Lac Z cDNA probe.
[0021] Histology in situ Hybridization, β-galactosidase and Antibody Staining:
[0022] Histological procedures, whole mount and section in situ hybridization and β-galactosidase staining were performed according to routine procedures. An antibody which binds to germ cell nuclear antigen (GCNA)-1 was used at a concentration of 1 in 1,000, and antibody binding visualized using a Vectastain ABC kit according to the manufacturer's recommendations.
[0023] Characterization of Sex Specific and Sex Independent Expression of Wnt-4
[0024] Wnt-4 expression was detected in the kidney as well as in the mesonephros, which participates in gonad formation, in the gonad itself, and in association with the Müllerian duct.
[0025] Prior to gonad formation at 9.5 and 10.5 days post coitum (dpc) in the mouse, Wnt-4 was found to be expressed along the length of the mesonephros in the mesenchyme but not in mesonephric tubules. In the region of the presumptive gonad, expression was also observed in the coelomic epithelium. As the gonads emerged at 11.0 dpc, Wnt-4 was expressed in the mesenchyme of the indifferent gonad in both sexes and in the mesonephros, but was absent from the mesonephric tubules and Wolffian duct. A second Wnt family member, Wnt-6 was also expressed in the genital ridge. At this stage of development, the Müllerian duct was not visible; the duct formed over the next 24 hours by an in-folding of Wnt-4 expressing coelomic epithelium. When sex specific differentiation of the gonads commenced around 11.5 dpc, Wnt-4 expression was down-regulated in the male, and maintained in the female gonad. Sexually dimorphic expression continued over the period in which the sexes become morphologically distinct. Examination of Wnt-4 expression in the ovaries of Steele (S1) mutant embryos, which are germ cell deficient, indicated that Wnt-4 expression is either partly or completely within somatic cell lineages. In contrast to the gonads, Wnt-4 expression was maintained in the mesonephric mesenchyme of both sexes from where some of the gonadal somatic lineages are thought to emerge. In the region of the developing sex ducts, Wnt-4 was absent from the Wolffian duct epithelium and mesenchyme, but was strongly expressed in mesenchyme cells underlying the newly formed Müllerian duct which itself expressed high levels of a second Wnt family member, Wnt-7a, and the transcriptional regulator, Pax 8. Expression in the duct and in the ovary was maintained throughout fetal life.
[0026] Masculinization of Wnt-4 Mutant Females
[0027] The sex specific regulation of Wnt-4 in the gonad and sex independent expression of Wnt-4 in the mesenchyme of the mesonephros and Müllerian duct suggested that Wnt-4 plays a role in development of the reproductive system. To address this issue, the urogenital systems from progeny of heterozygous intercrosses between mice carrying a likely null allele of Wnt-4 were collected. As mice which are homozygous for this mutation die of kidney failure shortly after birth, pups were examined at 18.5 dpc and at birth. Genotype and sex were initially scored by phenotypic inspection of internal reproductive organs and subsequently determined unambiguously by Southern blot analysis with Wnt-4 and Y-chromosome specific probes.
[0028] At birth the reproductive organs of male and female pups are distinct. The testis were round in appearance with prominent Sertoli cell generated sex cords ensheathing the germ cells. The proximal Wolffian duct which corresponds to the developing epididymis was highly coiled. Testis and ductal development in Wnt-4 mutant males were morphologically indistinguishable from wild-type and heterozygous male siblings. Further, expression of the Sertoli cell markers MIS21 and Desert hedgehog (Dhh), Leydig cell marker, 3β-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (3b-HSD), and Wolffian duct specific expression of Sonic hedgehog, (Shh) 24 were found to be unaltered. Thus, male development was unaffected by the loss of Wnt-4.
[0029] Normal females were observed to have an elongated ovary which lies closer to the kidney than does the testis. The ovary was covered by an outer coelomic epithelial capsule. In contrast to the Wolffian duct of the male, the proximal region of the Müllerian duct had only two or three large coils where oviduct formation has commenced. Whereas females heterozygous for the Wnt-4 mutant allele were similar to their wild-type siblings, the gonad and proximal sex ducts of homozygotes appeared masculinized. In most cases, the gonad of mutant females was in its correct position but developed closely associated with a fat body typical of the male. Further, the gonad was round and unencapsulated like that of the male, and the single gonadal associated duct had a highly convoluted proximal region resembling the developing epididymal region of the male Wolffian duct. In contrast to the internal organs, no masculinization of the external genitalia of Wnt-4 mutant females was evident at birth.
[0030] To determine the identity of the gonad associated duct in Wnt-4 mutant females, expression of a Pax2lacZ transgene, which is expressed in the Wolffian duct and its derivatives, as well as in the collecting duct system and ureter of the kidney was evaluated. As expected, the transgene was expressed in the Wolffian duct of wild type and Wnt-4 mutant males and was absent from wild-type females after Wolffian duct regression. In contrast, the transgene was expressed in the single duct of Wnt-4 mutant females, indicating that this duct was indeed the Wolffian duct, a conclusion further supported by expression of Shh, a second Wolffian duct marker. Thus, the external appearance of the gonad with associated fat pad, the absence of a Müllerian duct and the development of a Wolffian duct was indicative of a reversal of sexual development in Wnt-4 mutant females.
[0031] Wnt-4 is Required for Müllerian Duct Formation
[0032] Development of the sex ducts in mammals dependent on a poorly understood sex independent morphogenesis of the ductal systems, and a subsequent hormone-dependent modification which relies on correct differentiation of somatic cell lineages in the gonad. To investigate the fate of the Müllerian duct in Wnt-4 mutants, Wnt-4 mutants of both sexes at 14.5 dpc, one day prior to the MIS-induced apoptosis of the Müllerian duct in males, were examined. Müllerian duct development was identified by the expression of Wnt-7a, which is essential for sexually dimorphic development of this duct and Pax-8. The Müllerian duct was present in wild-type and heterozygous mice of both sexes as expected, but was absent from both mutant females and males. The absence of Wnt-7a and Pax-8 expression in identifiable Müllerian ducts at 12.5 dpc, or at 11.5 dpc (when the rostral region of the duct first forms) indicated that Wnt-4 signaling was required for the initial stages of ductal morphogenesis. These data indicate that Wnt-4 is essential in both sexes for Müllerian duct formation, although it is only in females that this deficiency has a significant consequence.
[0033] Steroidogenesis in Wnt-4 Mutant Females
[0034] Wolffian duct development depends upon steroid biosynthesis although it is not clear whether testosterone itself or an intermediate such as androstenedione represents the early bioactive male steroid. As Wnt-4 was not expressed in the Wolffian duct, continued development of this duct in mutant females indicated that Wnt-4 expression in the ovary plays a role in the control of steroidogenesis.
[0035] Testosterone biosynthesis in Leydig cells of the testes is dependent upon the expression of the several enzymes. For example, 3β-HSD converts pregnenolone to progesterone, an intermediate in testosterone biosynthesis. A deficiency in 3β-HSD consequently leads to male pseudohermaphrodism. 3β-HSD was found to be strongly expressed in Leydig cell precursors in the testes from 12.5 dpc. In the wild-type female, expression was absent from the ovary, but present in the adrenal gland where 3β-HSD is associated with the synthesis of mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids. In contrast, 3β-HSD was expressed in the ovary of Wnt-4 mutant females from 12.5 dpc until birth. Ectopic activation of two other genes (17a-hydroxylase and the type III isoform of 17b-hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (17b-HSD) which encodes the enzyme responsible for the conversion of androstenedione to testosterone was also observed. Thus, in the absence of Wnt-4 signaling, steroidogenesis was initiated in the ovary. These data indicate that biosynthesis and secretion of testosterone by the ovary promotes Wolffian duct development in Wnt-4 mutant females, although levels may be insufficient to masculinize external genitalia. The ectopic activation of steroidogenesis reflects either premature differentiation of thecal and/or granulosa cells (which require the same steroid intermediates for estradiol synthesis later in the mature ovary) or the inappropriate differentiation of Leydig cell precursors in the ovary. As the type III isoform of 17b-HSD is exclusively expressed in Leydig cells during normal mouse development, it appears that, in the absence of Wnt-4, interstitial cells in the ovary adopt a male Leydig cell fate.
[0036] To address whether the supporting cell lineage in the ovary of Wnt-4 mutants has undergone a primary sex-reversal which may subsequently lead to a secondary change in interstitial cell fates, expression of Dhh, MIS and Sox-9 (all of which are pre-Sertoli cell markers specifically expressed in the supporting cell lineage of the testes) was measured. None of these genes were ectopically activated in the ovaries of Wnt-4 mutants prior to normal loss of the Wolffian duct. This result, together with the absence of morphologically identifiable sex cords (at the time ectopic steroidogenic gene expression was first observed at 12.5 dpc) indicates that the ovaries of Wnt-4 mutants have not undergone a primary sex reversal leading to Sertoli cell development. Expression of Dax-1, which is implicated in the female pathway of sex determination, was still detected. However, several female characteristics were altered. For example, ovary specific expression of Msx-1 was detected at 14.5 dpc, but expression was lost from the ovary of Wnt-4 mutants. Thus, Wnt-4 signaling not only suppresses Leydig cell development in the developing ovary but also supports female-specific characteristics of gonadal gene expression.
[0037] Wnt-4 Supports Oocyte Development
[0038] In addition to alterations in steroidogenesis, a marked reduction in oocyte development was observed in mutant females. Germ cells enter the gonads between 10.5 and 12.5 dpc. In the female, germ cells enter meiotic prophase progressing to the diplotene stage by birth. In the male, after an initial proliferative phase they enter mitotic arrest. In situ hybridization at 14.5 dpc with Oct4, a germ cell marker, indicated normal numbers of germ cells in both the ovary and testes of Wnt-4 mutants. Consequently, the early phases of germ cell migration and proliferation were unaltered. In contrast, at birth, wild type or heterozygous females had a large number of readily detectable meiotic stage cortical oocytes, whereas the ovaries of Wnt-4 mutant females had only a few and those few were degenerating. The specific loss of oocytes was confirmed by staining testes and ovaries with an antibody which binds to the anti-GCNA-1. Whereas no differences were observed in the testes, Wnt-4 mutant ovaries had less than 10% of the oocytes scored in wild-type or heterozygous siblings. As chronic administration of testosterone does not impair oocyte development, the data indicated that the loss of oocytes was not a secondary consequence of altered interstitial cell fates, but reflected a direct role for Wnt-4 in promoting and maintaining development of the female germ line.
[0039] The loss of oocytes leads to a secondary sex-reversal of supporting cell lineages, and continued interactions between the oocyte and supporting cells are necessary for maintaining follicle cell and suppressing Sertoli cell fates. Consistent with this observation, few sex cord-like structures were found to emerge in oocyte depleted ovaries of Wnt-4 mutants at birth. Moreover, in contrast to the wild-type ovary, expression of the Sertoli cell markers, MIS and Dhh were detected in Wnt-4 mutants. Thus, although no apparent sex reversal was observed in the supporting cell lineage of the Wnt-4 mutant ovary earlier in development, some supporting cells adopted Sertoli cell characteristics after the loss of oocytes.
[0040] The data described herein indicate that Wnt-signaling plays a role in female development. Wnt-4 is required for three distinct aspects of the female pathway: (1) formation of the Müllerian duct, (2) differentiation of the interstitial cell lineage, and (3) oocyte development. The failure to identify the Müllerian duct in either sex between 11.5 and 12.5 dpc suggested that Wnt-4 regulates morphogenesis of this duct from the coelomic epithelium. Once the duct is formed, a second Wnt-member, Wnt-7a, regulates sex-specific development of the Müllerian duct and its derivatives. Thus, there are two phases to Wnt participation in the process of reproductive organogenesis. In the ovary, ectopic activation of genes encoding enzymes in the testosterone biosynthetic pathway (whose gonadal expression is normally restricted to the testis) indicated that during normal development, ovary specific expression of Wnt-4 suppressed Leydig cell development. As Wnt-4 expression is lost in the testis in conjunction with male sex determination, Wnt-4 is negatively regulated by the male sex determining pathway.
[0041] Outside the gonad, Wnt-4 is also expressed in the adrenal cortex of both sexes consistent with a broader role for Wnt-4 in the regulation of steroidogenesis. Two nuclear factors, SF-1 and Dax-1 demonstrate a connection between sex specific differentiation in the gonad and regulation of adrenal gland development. The early loss of the female germ line indicated that Wnt-4 is involved in the post-meiotic maintenance of oocytes. Oocytes have been shown to grow and survive in the adrenal gland of both sexes where the oocytes are in association with Wnt-4 expressing cells. These observations indicate that Wnt-4 supports oocyte development in this or other ectopic locations (or in in vitro culture conditions) in which oocytes are exposed to or contacted with Wnt-4.
EXAMPLE 2
Sexually Dimorphic Development of the Mammalian Reproductive Tract Requires Wnt-7a
[0042] A striking feature of mammalian development is the generation of sexually dimorphic reproductive tracts from the Müllerian and Wolffian ducts. The data described below demonstrate that male mice lacking the Wnt-7a signaling molecule fail to undergo Müllerian duct regression due to the absence of normal MIS receptor expression. Wnt-7a deficient females were infertile due to abnormal development of the oviduct and uterus, both Müllerian duct derivatives. Therefore, Wnt-7a signaling permits sexually dimorphic development of the Müllerian ducts.
[0043] Wnt-7a is a member of the Wnt family of secreted glycoproteins that function as cell signaling molecules in a variety of developmental contexts. Mice homozygous for a mutant Wnt-7a allele (Wnt-7a deficient mice) exhibit defects in limb patterning, but otherwise appear fully viable.
[0044] To study the role of Wnt-7a in reproductive organs, pregnancies resulting from mating Wnt-7a-deficient mice were examined. Wnt-7a associated sterility in female animals was evaluated as follows.
[0045] Generation of Wnt-7a Mutant Mice
[0046] A null allele of Wnt-7a was produced and mice carrying the mutant allele generated according to known methods (e.g, the method described in Parr et al., 1995, Nature 374:350-353). The mutant allele was made by inserting a neomycin resistance gene into the second exon of the Wnt-7a locus. Mice with the mutant allele produce a nonfunctional Wnt-7a polypeptide which is translated from a truncated Wnt-7a transcript. Genotyping of embryos and postnatal animals by Southern blots confirmed presence of the mutant allele.
[0047] Histology
[0048] Reproductive tracts were dissected in phosphate-buffered saline (PBS) and fixed in Bouin's fixative. After dehydration through an ethanol series, the specimens were embedded in paraffin and sectioned at 7 mm. The sectioned slides were stained with hematoxylin and eosin and photographed on a Leitz DM RB microscope using Ektachrome 64T film. Comparative photographs of wild type and mutant siblings are at the same magnification.
[0049] In situ Hybridization
[0050] In situ hybridizations to 6 mm paraffin sections were performed using standard methods. Photographs were taken on a Leitz Aristoplan microscope using Fujichrome Velvia film and blue and red filters to give a double exposure image.
[0051] Whole Mount Photography
[0052] Reproductive tracts from neonatal or adult mice were dissected in PBS. Whole mount photographs of the reproductive tracts were taken in PBS on an Olympus SZH1O camera using Ektachrome 64T film.
[0053] Computer Graphics
[0054] A Kodak RFS 2035 slide scanner was used to scan 35 mm slides into Adobe Photoshop 3.0 on a Power Macintosh 8100.
[0055] Wnt-7a and Development of Reproductive Organs
[0056] The reproductive tracts of postnatal mice were dissected. When Wnt-7a homozygous females were compared to wild type or heterozygous littermates as either neonates or adults, their Müllerian duct derivatives were found to be improperly differentiated. At the neonatal stage, Müllerian ducts were present but there were no signs of coiled oviducts in Wnt-7a homozygous females. In addition, the uterine wall was thinner and notably less muscular than that of the wild type. Adult Wnt-7a −/− females lacked visibly coiled oviducts, and while their uteri were larger than at neonatal stages, they remained smaller than those of wild type siblings. Histological sections through the anterior region of the reproductive tract of Wnt-7a mutant females reveal a fimbriated, ciliated epithelium typical of the proximal oviduct. More posterior sections revealed a less elaborately folded mucosa made up of a simple columnar epithelium, with a prominent layer of circularly arranged smooth muscle beneath. Although the mucosa was less well developed than wild type, this region resembled the isthmic region of the oviduct. These data indicate that regional differentiation occurred along the oviduct, but normal elongation of this highly coiled ductal system did not occur.
[0057] At the uterine level, the radial diameter was less than half that of wild type siblings. The most prominent feature was a virtual absence of uterine glands, which are derived from the uterine epithelium, and a reduction in the mesenchymally derived uterine stroma so that the transverse and circular muscles, which were present but reduced, came to lie closer to the endometrial epithelium. Thus, in the absence of Wnt-7a, both epithelial and mesenchymal differentiation were disrupted in the uterus. Significantly, at both neonatal and adult stages, the ovaries, which are not derived from the Müllerian duct, underwent normal follicular growth, ovulation and cycling in the adult. Thus, the normal hormonal regulation of reproductive development does not appear to be altered in Wnt-7a mutants, indicating that the observed phenotype was unlikely to reflect an absence of the steroid hormones that coordinate uterine and ovarian development. As live born offspring were obtained from ovaries transplanted to recipient wild-type females, the evidence indicates that a failure intrinsic to the Müllerian duct led to female infertility.
[0058] Persistent Müllerian ducts were seen in Wnt-7a homozygous males throughout postnatal life. The non-regressed ducts appear as thin undifferentiated tubes that run alongside the epididymis and vas deferens from the testis to the urogenital sinus. The presence of a second duct appears to prevent the vas deferens from making a proper connection at its distal end, a condition also seen in MIS and MIS-receptor deficient mice, resulting in a block to sperm passage. Examination of the Müllerian ducts in adult males revealed a thin, poorly differentiated structure consisting of little more than a uniform cuboidal epithelium with a thin layer of muscle beneath, and no regional differentiation along its length. The testes and Wolffian duct derivatives of Wnt-7a mutant males appeared normal and mature sperm filled the vas deferens. Thus, Wnt-7a does not play a role in development of the male reproductive system, but is required for Müllerian duct regression. The persistent Müllerian duct prevents the exit of sperm leading to male sterility.
[0059] To determine how Wnt-7a regulates Müllerian duct development, Wnt-7a expression was examined in the embryonic urogenital system. Müllerian ducts arise from the coelomic epithelium in the mesonephric region of the mouse embryo under the influence of Wnt-4 between 11.5 and 12.5 dpc. Wnt-7a was found to be expressed along the length of the Müllerian duct epithelium of both sexes from 12.5 to 14.5 dpc, but was then lost from males following Müllerian duct regression. In the female, epithelial specific Wnt-7a expression continued in Müllerian duct derivatives throughout life consistent with a role for Wnt-7a signaling in both fetal and adult aspects of ductal development. The gene targeting strategy used to generate Wnt-7a deficient mice was insertion of a neomycin resistance gene into the second exon of the Wnt-7a locus. This construct generated a nonfunctional protein translated from a truncated Wnt-7a transcript. The truncated Wnt-7a transcripts were detected in Wnt-7a −/− mice during embryogenesis, and these transcripts served as useful markers for the Müllerian duct epithelium. At 14.5 dpc, Wnt-7a transcripts were still detected in the Müllerian duct epithelium of both sexes. Thus, by this criterion, the epithelium was developing normally. These data indicated that epithelial-derived Wnt-7a signal functions by regulating gene expression in the adjacent mesenchyme.
[0060] To confirm this mechanism, expression of the MIS type II receptor in the mesenchyme was examined. Wild type males and females were found to express the receptor in mesenchymal cells surrounding the Müllerian duct at 14.5 dpc. In addition, males also expressed the receptor in Sertoli cells of the testis. However, expression was absent from the Müllerian duct mesenchyme in Wnt-7a mutant males and females, while expression in the testis was unaltered. These data indicate that Wnt-7a is required for regulation of MIS receptor expression in the periductal mesenchyme and subsequent regression of the Müllerian duct in males and that Wnt-7a acts as a signal from the epithelium to the surrounding mesenchyme during Müllerian duct development. The epithelial to mesenchymal signaling recalls the role of Wnt-7a in limb bud patterning, where it signals from the dorsal ectoderm to the underlying mesenchyme to regulate expression of Lmx-lb, thereby patterning the dorsal limb.
[0061] Estrogen and progesterone is important for development of the uterus after birth. Their target is also the stromal mesenchyme. Whereas progesterone only appears to function in pregnancy, estrogen receptor mutants have hypoplastic development of the uterine epithelium, stroma and muscle and a marked loss of uterine glands in the adult female. The loss of Wnt-7a was found to lead to a more severe phenotype than the estrogen deficiency; however, the similarities suggested that Wnt-7a may also be required for mediating a stromal response to estrogen.
[0062] Although the persistence of the Müllerian duct in Wnt-7a mutant males was consistent with a loss of MIS signaling, mutants lacking either MIS or its receptor formed well developed oviducts and uteri in the male. In contrast, the persistent Müllerian duct in Wnt-7a −/− males was a simple, undifferentiated tube with no regional organization. These data indicated that, as in the female, Wnt-7a function is also necessary for further differentiation of the Müllerian duct and that Wnt-7a is not acting simply as an effector of MIS function in Müllerian duct regression, but plays a more extensive role in regulating morphogenesis of ductal derivatives. The results further indicate that Wnt-7a signaling lies near the top of a differentiation pathway required for Müllerian duct development in both sexes. After Wnt-4 initiates ductal formation, Wnt-7a functions as an epithelial to mesenchymal signal rendering the mesenchyme competent to respond to MIS signaling through the MIS receptor.
EXAMPLE 3
Wnt-derived contraceptive Agents
[0063] The ability of Wnt polypeptides to promote oocyte development is inhibited by Wnt antagonists. Wnt antagonists, e.g., inhibitors of Wnt-signalling in female reproductive organs, are administered to humans and other animals, e.g., dogs or cats, to inhibit oocyte development as a method of birth control. For contraceptive purposes, Wnt antagonists inhibit signalling by Wnt-1 class Wnt polypeptides (e.g., Wnt-1, 2, 3a, 4, 7a, or 7b, the amino acid sequences of which are known and provided below). Soluble fragments of these Wnt polypeptides having the ability to inhibit Wnt signalling, e.g., by blocking binding of a naturally-occurring Wnt polypeptide to its receptor, are useful as Wnt antagonists. Polypeptides with such inhibitory activity are identified using methods described below.
| TABLE 1 |
|---|
| Human Wnt-1 amino acid sequence |
| TABLE 2 |
|---|
| Human Wnt-2 amino acid sequence |
| TABLE 10 |
|---|
| Human Wnt-3a amino acid sequence |
| TABLE 4 |
|---|
| Human Wnt-4 amino acid sequence |
| TABLE 5 |
|---|
| Human Wnt-7a amino acid sequence |
| TABLE 6 |
|---|
| Human Wnt-7b partia1 amino acid sequence |
[0064] Other Wnt antagonists include Wnt polypeptides of the Wnt-5a class, e.g., Wnt-5a.
| TABLE 7 |
|---|
| Human Wnt-5a amino acid sequence |
[0065] Wnt antagonists also include compositions which inhibit other events in the Wnt signalling pathway, e.g., signal transduction by β-catenin. Thus, dominant negative mutants of β-catenin such are those which bind to upstream or downstream components of the signalling pathway but fail to transduce a signal as useful Wnt antagonists. For example, dominant negative mutants of β-catenin lack one or more armidillo-like repeats which participate in cadherin binding. For example, at least repeats 11-13 (amino acids 555-695 of SEQ ID NO:10) are deleted. Other mutants which fail to bind cadherin include those which lack amino acids 555-781 of SEQ ID NO:10, those which lack amino acids 424-781 of SEQ ID NO:10, and those which lack amino acids 1-422 of SEQ ID NO:10.
| TABLE 8 |
|---|
| Human β-catenin |
[0066] Signal transduction by β-catenin is mediated by binding to the cytoplasmic domain of a cadherin, e.g., N-cadherin, a glycoprotein which mediates cell adhesion. Accordingly, dominant negative mutants of N-cadherin which inhibit Wnt-1 class signals can also be used as Wnt antagonists for inhibition of oocyte development. For example, a dominant negative cadherin mutant lacks at least 20 amino acids of the cytoplasmic domain and up to the entire the cytoplasmic domain of N-cadherin. Preferably, a dominant negative mutant lacks the cytoplasmic catenin binding domain of N-cadherin. Mutants are terminally deleted or contain an internal deletion. Other dominant negative mutants lack extracellular cysteines, e.g., the cysteine residues were replaced with another amino acid such as serine, or lack a portion, e.g., at least 50 amino acids, or all of the extracellular domain. Dominant negative N-cadherin mutants are known in the art and described in Torres et al., 1996, J. Cell Biol. 133:1123-1137 and Kintner et al., 1992, Cell 69:225-236.
| TABLE 9 |
|---|
| Human N-cadherin |
[0067] The extracellular domain of human N-cadherin spans amino acids 160-724, and the cytoplasmic domain spans amino acids 747-906.
[0068] Wnt receptors such as Frizzled receptor proteins or fragments thereof, e.g., soluble fragments of Frizzled polypeptides or Frizzled-like polypeptides containing a cysteine-rich domain, are also useful Wnt antagonists for inhibition of oocyte development. Other Wnt antagonists are known in the art. For example, Fritz is a secreted protein which is structurally related to the extracellular domain of Frizzled and interferes with Wnt association with Frizzled receptors (Mayr et al., 1997, Mech. Dev. 63:109-125). Frzb-1 is a secreted antagonist of Wnt signalling (Leyns et al., 1997, Cell 88:747-756). Secreted Frizzled related proteins (sFRP) are a family of secreted proteins the amino acid sequence of which contains a conserved cysteine-rich domain (Rattner et al., 1997, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:2859-2863 and Finch et al., 1997, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 94:6770-777-5). Secreted apoptosis-related proteins (SARPs) contain a conserved cysteine-rich domain and modify intracellular levels of β-catenin, thereby disrupting Wnt-1 class signal transduction via the Wnt-frizzled pathway (Melkonyan et al., 1997, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 9:13636-13641).
[0069] Oocytes are contacted with a Wnt antagonist which inhibits Wnt binding to its cognate receptor, e.g., the Frizzled receptor protein. The Frizzled receptor protein contains a cysteine-rich domain which is involved in Wnt binding. A peptide containing a cysteine-rich domain, e.g., a cysteine-rich domain of a Frizzled receptor, Frizzled-like protein, or tyrosine kinase receptor, is used to inhibit association of a Wnt polypeptide with a Frizzled receptor. Such peptides contain the consensus amino sequence of SEQ ID NO:1 or 2, where X is any amino acid.
[0070] All Frizzled proteins share the following structural similarities: a signal sequence at the amino terminus, a conserved region of approximately 120 amino acids in the extracellular domain containing a motif of 10 invariantly spaced cysteines (cysteine-rich domain), a seven-pass transmembrane region, and a cytoplasmic domain with little homology among family members. Examples of Frizzled and receptor tyrosine kinases peptides with cysteine-rich domains are known in the art, e.g., those described in Saldanha et al., 1998, Protein Science 7:1632-1635; Xu et al., 1998, Curr. Biol. 8:R405-6; Masiakowski et al., 1998, Curr. Biol. 8:R407; and Saldahha et al., 1998, Protein Science 7:1632-1635.
[0071] To render the therapeutic peptides less susceptible to cleavage by peptidases, the peptide bonds of a peptide may be replaced with an alternative type of covalent bond (a “peptide mimetic”). Where proteolytic degradation of the peptides following injection into the subject is a problem, replacement of a particularly sensitive peptide bond with a noncleavable peptide mimetic will make the resulting peptide more stable and thus, more useful as a therapeutic. Such mimetics, and methods of incorporating them into polypeptides, are well known in the art. Similarly, the replacement of an L-amino acid residue with a D-amino acid is a standard way of rendering the polypeptide less sensitive to proteolysis. Also useful are amino-terminal blocking groups such as t-butyloxycarbonyl, acetyl, theyl, succinyl, methoxysuccinyl, suberyl, adipyl, azelayl, dansyl, benzyloxycarbonyl, fluorenylmethoxycarbonyl, methoxyazelayl, methoxyadipyl, methoxysuberyl, and 2,4,-dinitrophenyl. Blocking the charged amino- and carboxy-termini of the peptides would have the additional benefit of enhancing passage of the peptide through the hydrophobic cellular membrane and into the cell. This modification may be especially useful in the delivery of peptides into cells, the delivery of peptides to inhibit intracellular Wnt-mediated signal transduction. Liposomal delivery is also favored for intracellular delivery of compounds.
[0072] Wnt antagonists are administered to animals, e.g., a human patient, in pharmaceutically acceptable carriers (e.g., physiological saline), which are selected on the basis of the mode and route of administration and standard pharmaceutical practice. Suitable pharmaceutical carriers, as well as pharmaceutical necessities for use in pharmaceutical formulations, are described in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, a standard reference text in this field, and in the USP/NF.
[0073] A therapeutically effective amount is an amount which is capable of producing medically desirable result, e.g., contraception, in a treated animal. As is well known in the medical arts, dosage for any one patient depends upon many factors, including the patient's size, body surface area, age, the particular compound to be administered, sex, time and route of administration, general health, and other drugs being administered concurrently.
[0074] An antibody which inhibits Wnt-signalling can also be used as a Wnt antagonist for contraceptive purposes. For administration to human patients, antibodies, e.g., Wnt-specific monoclonal antibodies, can be humanized by methods known in the art. Antibodies with a desired binding specificity can be commercially humanized (Scotgene, Scotland; Oxford Molecular, Palo Alto, Calif.).
[0075] Wnt antagonists are administered to a patient by any appropriate method, e.g., locally such as a coating on an intrauterine device or as an intraperitoneal implant, or systemically, for contraception. For example, Wnt antagonists are administered orally, using dosing regimens similar to those used for steroid-based oral contraceptives. For control of wildlife species or urban control of nuisance animals, the compositions may be administered food or bait. Transmucosal, transdermal, or surgical administration such as implantation of Wnt antagonists, e.g. encapsulated in hard or soft tubing or incorporated into a solid or semi-solid biologically compatible and resorbable matrix, can also be used. Appropriate transdermal delivery systems and subdermally implantatable contraceptive delivery devices are known in the art, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 5,762,956 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,756,115, respectively. An antagonist can also be administered rectally, e.g., in the form of a suppository capsule. Therapeutic doses are determined specifically for each compound, most being administered within the range of 0.001 to 100.0 mg/kg body weight, or within a range that is clinically determined to be appropriate by one skilled in the art. A Wnt antagonist may be administered daily throughout the menstrual cycle. Alternatively, the composition is administered congruent with ovulation, e.g., from a time 1-3 days before ovulation for a period of 5-6 days or to approximately the end of the menstrual cycle.
EXAMPLE 4
Wnt-specific Antibodies
[0076] Wnt-specific antibodies, e.g., antibodies that bind to Wnt-4 or Wnt-7a and thereby inhibit Wnt-signalling, are produced using standard methodologies for raising polyclonal antisera and making monoclonal antibody-producing hybridoma cell lines (see Coligan et al., eds., Current Protocols in Immunology, 1992, Greene Publishing Associates and Wiley-Interscience). To generate monoclonal antibodies, a mouse is immunized with a Wnt polypeptide, e.g., a peptide having at least 10 amino acids of the amino acid sequence of any one of SEQ ID NO:3-8, antibody-secreting B cells isolated from the mouse, and the B cells immortalized with a non-secretory myeloma cell fusion partner. Hybridomas are then screened for production of a Wnt-specific antibody and cloned to obtain a homogenous cell population which produces a monoclonal antibody.
[0077] Antibodies are further screened for the ability to block Wnt-signalling. For example, antibodies found to bind to a Wnt polypeptide are then incubated with the Wnt polypeptide and a receptor with which it binds. The Wnt peptide may have the amino acid sequence of a full-length naturally-occurring Wnt polypeptide or it may be a shorter peptide containing the amino acid sequence of a Wnt domain know to participate in receptor binding; the receptor peptide may have the amino acid sequence of a full-length naturally-occurring Wnt receptor, e.g., the Frizzled receptor, or it may be a shorter peptide containing a binding domain, e.g., a cysteine-rich domain. A decrease in Wnt/receptor binding in the presence of an antibody compared to that in the absence of the antibody indicates that the antibody inhibits binding of the Wnt polypeptide to its receptor and thereby inhibits Wnt signalling. The ability of such antibodies to inhibit oocyte development is then confirmed in vitro and in animals using the screening methods described herein.
EXAMPLE 5
Identification and Use of Compositions Which Inhibit Wnt Signalling
[0078] Wnt antagonists can be generated, for example, by combinatorial mutagenesis techniques well known in the art (See, for example, Ladner et al. PCT publication WO 90/02909; Garrard et al., PCT publication WO 92/09690; Marks et al., 1992, J. Biol. Chem. 267:16007-16010; Griffiths et al., 1993, EMBO J 12:725-734; Clackson et al., 1991, Nature 352:624-628; and Barbas et al., 1992, PNAS 89:4457-4461). Peptidomimetics of such antagonists or other small molecules, such as may be identified in the assays set out below, can also be used to antagonize Wnt signalling. For example, the antagonists block signal transduction by the Frizzled receptor. Such agents include dominant negative mutants of Wnt pathway proteins, e.g., a dominant negative mutant of N-cadherin or β-catenin. Other agents which inhibit the Wnt receptor second messenger pathways downstream of the Frizzled receptor can also be used to inhibit Wnt-mediated oocyte development.
[0079] Primary screening assays are performed in cell-free systems, e.g., using purified or semi-purified proteins such as Wnt-4 or Wnt-7a and the receptors to which they bind. A candidate compound is contacted with a mixture containing a Frizzled receptor or a cell expressing the Frizzled receptor and a Wnt protein, e.g., Wnt-4 or Wnt-7a, under conditions in which it is ordinarily capable of binding the Wnt protein. To the mixture is then added a candidate compound. A decrease in the number of receptor/Wnt complexes in the presence of a candidate compound compared to the number in the absence of the compound indicates that the compound inhibits the association between a receptor protein and the Wnt polypeptide and thereby inhibits Wnt-signalling involved in oocyte development. Wnt antagonists are further evaluated in vitro for the ability to inhibit oocyte viability and development, e.g., progression from an immature state to a mature state, as described below. Antagonists which inhibit progression of oocytes from an immature to a mature state are useful as contraceptive agents.
[0080] Compositions are evaluated in vitro as follows. Oocytes are harvested from animals and cultured in tissue culture medium in the presence and absence of a candidate compound. A decrease in the number and/or viability of oocytes (or in the number of mature oocytes) in a culture sample in the presence of a candidate Wnt antagonist compared to one cultured in the absence of a Wnt antagonist indicates that the composition inhibits oocyte viability and/or development.
[0081] Screening of compounds for the ability to inhibit oocyte development is carried out in vivo by administering candidate antagonists of Wnt signalling, e.g., a dominant negative mutant of N-cadherin or β-catenin, to normal female animals, e.g., mice, and determining whether oocyte development is impaired compared to animals not receiving the composition. Following a course of administration of a Wnt antagonist, the mice are evaluated as described above, e.g., by examining the ovaries for depletion in the number of oocytes or decreased viability of oocytes.
EXAMPLE 6
Contraceptive Vaccine
[0082] A Wnt polypeptide containing an epitope which binds to a Wnt-specific antibody, e.g., an antibody that inhibits oocyte development, is administered to an animal to elicit antibodies. Such peptides are identified by standard methods of epitope mapping using Wnt-specific antibodies that inhibit Wnt signalling, e.g., those described in Example 4. For example, a polypeptide containing at least 10, preferably at least 20, more preferably at least 30, more preferably at least 50, amino acids of any one of SEQ ID NO:3-8. The polypeptides are administered as a vaccine for immunological control of fertility in female animals as described in U.S. Patent No. 3,992,520.
EXAMPLE 7
Use of Wnt Polypeptides to Promote Oocyte Development and Viability
[0083] Wnt polypeptides, e.g., Wnt-1, Wnt-2, Wnt-3a, Wnt-4, Wnt-7a, or Wnt-7b, are used as media supplements for culturing oocytes for the purpose enhancing viability of freshly isolated or cryopreserved oocytes and for promoting development, e.g., maturation, of oocytes in vitro or in vivo. For example, Wnt-supplemented media preparations are used to increase the fertilization potential of oocytes prior to contacting the oocytes with sperm cells in in vitro fertilization (IVF) procedures.
[0084] Any standard oocyte compatible tissue culture medium, e.g., Ham's Flo medium, is supplemented. Culture media suitable for oocyte culture are described in Wood and Trounson, eds., 1989, in Clinical in vitro Fertilization, 2nd ed. (London, Springer-Verlag). Wnt polypeptides are added to the medium at a concentration of at least 0.01 ng/ml. In preferred embodiments, the concentration is at least 0.1 ng/ml, in the range of 1 ng/ml to 100 mg/ml, and up to a concentration of about 10 mg/ml of tissue culture medium. Oocytes are cultured from at least one hour to up to several days, e.g., two days prior to use in IVF procedures.
[0085] Oocytes are obtained from donor females either during a natural cycle or after administration of a stimulating agent, e.g., a fertility enhancer such as clomiphene citrate, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), a mixture of FSH and luteinizing hormone (LH), and/or human chorionic gonadotropins. An oocyte is retrieved from a follicle of an ovary using standard methods, e.g., transvaginal ultrasonically guided follicular aspiration. Oocytes may be retrieved from stimulated or unstimulated follicles. Even those retrieved from stimulated follicles may be mature or immature. Immature oocytes are those that are viable but incapable of fertilization without additional stimulation or maturation, whereas mature oocytes are capable of being fertilized upon being contacted with a sperm cell. Mature oocytes are distinguished from immature oocytes using standard criteria. For example, oocytes are visually assessed microscopically; mature oocytes have an expanded granulosa cell layer, no germinal vesicle and a single polar body while immature oocyes have two or more layers of surrounding condensed granulosa cells, a germinal vesicle, and no polar body.
[0086] Oocytes which have been cryopreserved using standard media preparations supplements with a cryoprotectant such as glycerol, propanediol, or dimethylsulfoxide, are thawed using standard protocols. Oocytes are contacted with a Wnt polypeptide during and/or after the thawing process to enhance cell viability and/or to promote maturation.
[0087] Other embodiments are within the following claims.
Claims
What is claimed is:
1. A method of promoting maturation of an immature oocyte comprising contacting said oocyte with a substantially pure preparation of a Wnt polypeptide, wherein said Wnt polypeptide comprises the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:6.
2. A method of enhancing viability of an oocyte in vitro comprising contacting said oocyte with a Wnt polypeptide, wherein said Wnt polypeptide comprises the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:6.
3. The method of claim 2, wherein said oocyte is cryopreserved and said contacting step occurs during thawing of said cryopreserved oocyte.
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