US 6,359,328 B1Grant
Methods for making interconnects and diffusion barriers in integrated circuits
Issue Date:2002-03-19
•20 Claims
•2 Drawing Sheets
Abstract
The inventor devised methods of forming interconnects that result in conductive structures with fewer voids and thus reduced electrical resistance. One embodiment of the method starts with an insulative layer having holes and trenches, fills the holes using a selective electroless deposition, and fills the trenches using a blanket deposition. Another embodiment of this method adds an anti-bonding material, such as a surfactant, to the metal before the electroless deposition, and removes at least some the surfactant after the deposition to form a gap between the deposited metal and interior sidewalls of the holes and trenches. The gap serves as a diffusion barrier. Another embodiments leaves the surfactant in place to serve as a diffusion barrier. These and other embodiments ultimately facilitate the speed, efficiency, or fabrication of integrated circuits.
Metadata
Assignee
- Intel Corporation
Inventor
- Valery Dubin
Application Information
Application Number:US 09/224,941
Filing Date:1998-12-31
Priority Date:1998-12-31
Art Unit:7
Classifications
IPC:
H01L 2906H01L 29207H01L 29227
Field of Search:
257752257622257624257626257758
Patent Drawings (2 sheets)
Description
Technical Field
[0002] The present invention concerns methods of fabricating integrated circuits, particularly methods of making integrated-circuit wiring, or interconnects, from metal and method of inhibiting metal diffusion through insulation.
Background of the Invention
[0003] Integrated circuits, the key components in thousands of electronic and computer products, are interconnected networks of electrical components fabricated on a common foundation, or substrate. Fabricators typically use various techniques, such as layering, doping, masking, and etching, to build thousands and even millions of microscopic resistors, transistors, and other electrical components on a silicon substrate, known as a wafer. The components are then wired, or interconnected, together to define a specific electric circuit, such as a computer processor.
[0004] To interconnect millions of microscopic components, fabricators sometimes use a dual-damascene metallization technique, which takes its name from the ancient Damascan metalworking art of inlaying metal in grooves or channels to form ornamental patterns. The dual-damascene technique entails covering the components with an insulative layer, etching small holes in the insulative layer to expose portions of the components underneath, and etching shallow trenches from hole to hole to define a wiring pattern. Fabricators then execute a single deposition procedure, such as chemical or physical vapor deposition, to blanket the entire insulative layer with a thin sheet of aluminum. Some of this aluminum fills the holes and trenches and the rest lies on the higher surfaces of the insulative layer. The aluminum on these higher surfaces is then polished or scraped off, leaving behind aluminum vias, or contact plugs, in the holes and thin aluminum wires in the trenches. The wires are typically about one micron thick, or about 100 times thinner than a human hair.
[0005] This dual-damascene technique suffers from at least two problems. The first problem is that it uses a single-deposition procedure, which works fairly well for depositing aluminum into wide and shallow holes and trenches, but it is much less effective for narrow and deep ones, particularly those having width-to-depth, or aspect, ratios greater than five. For these aspect ratios, the single-deposition procedure using chemical or physical vapor deposition yields contact plugs and wires that have voids or cavities dispersed throughout and thus increased electrical resistance. Increased electrical resistance wastes power and slows down the transfer of electrical signals through an integrated circuit.
[0006] Fabricators have tried to solve this cavity problem, particularly for copper, using “reflow” techniques which entail depositing copper using standard cavity-prone methods and then heating the copper near its melting point. Melting the copper causes it to consolidate and thus eliminates cavities. (See S. Hirao et al, “A Novel Copper Reflow Process Using Dual Wetting Layers,” Symposium on VLSI Technology, Digest of Technical Papers, pp. 57-58 (1997)). However, these “reflow” techniques preclude the use of certain materials having melting points lower than that of the deposited metal. This is particularly true for some low-melting-point insulators which would improve integrated-circuit speed and efficiency.
[0007] The second problem with the conventional dual-damascene technique is its incompatibility with metals, such as gold, silver, and copper. These metals are more desirable than aluminum because their lower electrical resistance enhances efficiency and speed of integrated circuits and their higher electromigration resistance offers superior reliability. The incompatibility stems from how easy these metals diffuse through silicon-dioxide insulation and thus form short circuits with neighboring wires. Although the diffusion can be prevented by cladding the contact plugs and wires in diffusion barriers, conventional dual-damascene techniques require extra deposition steps to form the barriers. These extra depositions are not only time-consuming but also increase the cost of fabrication.
[0008] Accordingly, there is a need for better methods of making contact plugs and wiring, especially methods of making high-aspect-ratio contact plugs and wiring from metals, such as gold, silver, and copper, and more efficient methods of making diffusion barriers.
Summary of the Invention
[0009] To address these and other needs, the inventor devised a new dual-damascene method and a new method of making diffusion barriers for gold, silver, copper, and other metals. Specifically, one embodiment of the new dual-damascene method divides the single-deposition step of conventional dual-damascene techniques into two depositions: a selective electroless deposition for forming vias, or contact plugs with fewer voids, and a conventional deposition process, such as chemical or physical vapor deposition, to fill trenches. Other embodiments fill the trenches using an electroless deposition after forming barrier or seed layers in the trenches using chemical or physical vapor deposition.
[0010] One embodiment of the new method of making diffusion barriers entails adding a surfactant to a metal, depositing the metal on an insulative structure, and then removing at least some of the surfactant to form a gap, which serves as a diffusion barrier, between the de ited metal and the insulative structure. Another embodiment of this method leaves the surfactant in place to serve as a diffusion barrier.
Brief Description of the Drawing
[0011] FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional view of an integrated circuit 10 at an early fabrication stage, including a substrate 12, conductors 14aand 14b, diffusion barriers 15aand 15b, a passivation layer 16, holes 18aand 18b, and a trench 18c;
[0012] FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional view of the FIG. 1 integrated circuit after at least partly filling holes 18aand 18bwith a conductive material to form contact plugs 22aand 22b.
[0013] FIG. 3 is a cross-sectional view of the FIG. 2 integrated circuit, after forming respective gaps 24aand 24bbetween contact plugs 22aand 22band the interior sidewalls of holes 18aand 18b, for example by removing a surfactant from the conductive material constituting contact plugs 22aand 22b;
[0014] FIG. 4 is a top view of the FIG. 3 integrated circuit illustrating that respective gaps 24aand 24b, in this exemplary embodiment, form “air cylinders” around respective contact plugs 22aand 22b; and
[0015] FIG. 5 is a cross-sectional view of the FIG. 3 integrated circuit after formation of a diffusion barrier 26 and a conductive layer 28 within trench 18c.
Detailed Description of Preferred Embodiments
[0016] The following detailed description, which references and incorporates FIGS. 1-5, describes and illustrates one or more specific embodiments of the invention. These embodiments, offered not to limit but only to exemplify and teach the invention, are shown and described in sufficient detail to enable those skilled in the art to practice the invention. Thus, where appropriate to avoid obscuring the invention, the description may omit certain information known to those of skill in the art.
[0017] FIGS. 1-5 show a number of exemplary integrated-circuit assemblies, which taken collectively and sequentially, illustrate an exemplary method of the present invention. The method, as shown in FIG. 1, a cross-sectional view, begins with an integrated-circuit assembly or structure 10, which can be part any integrated circuit, a computer processor, for example. Assembly 10 includes a substrate 12. The term “substrate,” as used herein, encompasses a semiconductor wafer as well as structures having one or more insulative, semi-insulative, conductive, or semiconductive layers and materials. Thus, for example, the term embraces silicon-on-insulator, silicon-on-sapphire, and other advanced structures.
[0018] Substrate 12 supports conductors 14aand 14b, which are electrically connected to two or more corresponding transistors or other integrated devices (not shown). FIG. 1 also shows that conductors 14aand 14b, which comprise copper, silver, or gold in this exemplary embodiment, are clad in respective diffusion barriers 15aand 15b. The diffusion barriers are made of zirconium, titanium, tantalum, tantalum nitride, tungsten nitride, or hafnium, for example. Other embodiments form conductors 14aand 14bfrom other metals, for example, aluminum, which are less prone to diffusion than copper, silver, or gold, or form diffusion barriers 15aand 15bfrom other diffusion-barrier materials, such as TaN/Ta, TaSiN, TiN, Ti/TiN, TiSiN, and WSiN. Thus, the invention is not limited to any particular metal or class of metals, nor to any particular diffusion-barrier materials.
[0019] Conductors 14aand 14bare covered by a 10-to-500 nanometer-thick, passivation layer 16, which, for example, comprises silicon nitride, silicon oxynitride, or silicon oxide. Atop passivation layer 16 is an insulative layer 18, sometimes termed an interlayer dielectric or ILD for short. Insulative layer 18 has a nominal thickness of one micron and comprises an organic or inorganic insulative material composition. Examples of suitable insulative materials include silicon oxides, such as silicon dioxide, and polymeric materials, such as polyimides. Moreover, some embodiments form insulative layer 18 from materials such as BCB™ and FLARE™, which are inherent diffusion barriers. (These embodiments omit remaining portions of the exemplary methods that relate specifically to inhibiting diffusion.) Thus, the invention is not limited any particular insulators or types of insulators.
[0020] Layer 18 includes holes 18aand 18band a trench 18cwhich connects the holes, according to conventional dual-damascene techniques. Holes 18aand 18bhave an aspect ratio, that is, height-to-width ratio, greater than five, for example 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, and so forth. More precisely, holes 18aand 18bhave a diameter of about 50, 60, 70, . . . , or 150 nanometers and a height (depth) of about 250, 350, 450, . . . , or 1050 nanometers. In addition, holes 18aand 18bexpose at least a portion of respective conductors 14aand 14b. Trench 18c, in the exemplary embodiment, has an aspect ratio ranging approximately between two and four, with an approximate width of 0.15, 0.20, 0.30, 0.40, 0.5, 0.6, 0.7, 0.80, 0.90, or 1.0 microns. However, other embodiments use trenches with aspect ratios greater than five, for example 5.5, 6.0, 6.5, 7.0, 7.5, and so forth.
[0021] FIG. 2 shows that the exemplary method entails forming contact plugs 22aand 22bin corresponding holes 18aand 18b. Forming the contact plugs entails using an electroless metal deposition to deposit metal in the holes, filling them from the bottom up to approximately the lowest level of trench 18c. (As used herein, electroless deposition includes any autocatalytic deposition of a film through the interaction of a metal salt and a chemical reducing agent.) During the electroless deposition, the exposed portions of conductors 14aand 14bserve as seed areas or regions which control placement of the deposited metal. In contrast, conventional techniques of chemical and physical vapor deposition allow deposited metal atoms to stick to sidewalls of holes and trenches and then to each other, eventually building bridges, or closures, across the holes and trenches and ultimately leaving voids, or wormholes, in the resulting structure. The exemplary technique generally avoids this limitation. Moreover, because of the inherent selectivity of the deposition, this exemplary technique allows the formation of unlanded contact plugs, that is, plugs that are offset from the underlying conductor. Ultimately, this permits use of lower precision, and thus generally lower cost, fabrication equipment.
[0022] Additionally, because the exemplary technique avoids the formation of cavities, there is no need to resort to corrective procedures, such as reflow, which entail heating the deposited metal to its melting point to eliminate cavities. As a consequence, the exemplary technique is not limited to insulative materials with high melting points. Indeed, some embodiments of the invention exercise the exemplary technique with low-dielectric-constant insulators (k<3), such as CVD F—SiO2, porous oxides, organic polymers, aerogels, and nanofoams. These materials, which have previously not been paired with gold, silver, copper (particularly in dual-damascene structures) because of the need to reflow these metals, generally enhance the speed and efficiency of integrated circuits.
[0023] More specifically, the exemplary electroless deposition procedure deposits a gold, silver, or copper alloy in composition with an anti-bonding material, such as one or more surfactants, that prevents chemical bonding of the alloy to the material of insulative layer 18. As used herein, the term surfactant includes materials or material compositions exhibiting one or more of the following functional properties or characteristics: cleaning (detergency), foaming, wetting, emulsifying, solubilizing, and dispersing. The term also include materials that, when in a liquid state, have a higher concentration at the surface than within the bulk of the liquid.
[0024] Although the invention is not limited to any particular genus or species of surfactant, the exemplary embodiment uses polyethyleneglycol, RE 610™, or TRITON X-100.™ (Triton X-100 is supplied by Aldrich.) Various embodiments of the invention use one or more of the following types of surfactants:
[0025] cationics—surfactants which exhibit adsorption on surfaces and have a surface active group named after the parent nitrogen, phosphorous, or sulfur starting materials, for example, dodecyl methylpolyoxyethylene ammonium chloride;
[0026] anionics—surfactants which exhibit adsorption on polar surfaces and have a surface active part of the molecule has a negative charge, for example, detergents, carboxylates, isethionates, taurates, phosphates, sarcosinates, sulphates, sulphonates, sulphosuccinates, and sulphosuccinamates;
[0027] non-ionics—surfactants which lack a charge group, for example, surfactants having the hydroxyl group (R—OH), the ether group (R—O—R) or oxide group (amine oxide); and
[0028] amphoterics—surfactants in which the surface active group can have a positive, negative, or mixed charged depending on particular conditions, for example, N-alkyl aminopropionates, N-alkyl betaines, and carboxy glycinates.
[0029] One or more of these surfactants are incorporated into the electroless deposition (or plating) solution before beginning the deposition.
[0030] The exemplary embodiment adds enough surfactant, several milligrams per liter of solution, to form a mono-layer between the deposited metal and the walls of the holes. Other embodiments use surfactant concentrations ranging approximately from 3 milligrams per liter to 10 grams per liter. In selecting the appropriate amount of surfactant, one should consider that greater surfactant concentrations will generally result in greater increases in the electrical resistance of the deposited metal. Whether the increase is acceptable will ultimately depend on particular performance objectives. However, in general, the amount of surfactant should be minimized.
[0031] Other embodiments of the invention omit the anti-bonding material from the metal and deposit gold, silver, or copper with one or more alloying elements such as Sn, Mg, Ni, Zn, Pd, Au, Re, Zr and W, which, when annealed, form a self-passivation layer on the sidewalls of contact plugs 22aand 22b. More precisely, during annealing, these alloying elements migrate toward the metal-insulator interface of contact plugs 22aand 22band holes 18aand 18b, forming a barrier layer which inhibits migration or diffusion of metal atoms into insulative layer 18. Thus, alloys containing sufficient quantities of these and functionally equivalent alloy elements require no extra deposition procedures to inhibit diffusion into surrounding insulative structures. To avoid increasing resistivity of the alloy above four micro-ohms per centimeter (the resistivity of conventional aluminum-copper alloys used in integrated circuits), the exemplary embodiment adds one or more of these alloy elements to make up approximately 0.01 to 5.0 percent of the resulting alloy.
[0032] FIG. 3 shows that after forming the contact plugs, the exemplary method optionally removes the anti-bonding material from the contact plugs to form gaps 24aand 24bbetween plugs 22aand 22band the interior sidewalls of holes 18aand 18b. These gaps are several angstroms wide in the exemplary embodiment and inhibit diffusion of material from plugs 22aand 22binto the interior sidewalls of holes 18aand 18b. FIG. 4 shows that gaps 24aand 24b, in this exemplary embodiment, define respective cylindrical air cavities or “air tubes” around plugs 22aand 22b. Alternatively, one can view these as “air barriers” or “barrier tubes.”
[0033] In the exemplary embodiment, removing the anti-bonding material added to the metalplating solution before filling holes 18aand 18bentails annealing the assembly at a temperature of 100-500° C. for about 0.1-4.0 hours. Annealing the assembly expels substantially all of the surfactant and leaves a gap about 1-20 angstroms wide, depending on quantity and type of anti-bonding materials and specifics of the annealing procedure. Other embodiments of the invention omit the removal procedure since the surfactant soaks, or adsorbs, into the interior sidewalls of holes 18aand 18b, forming an effective diffusion barrier.
[0034] FIG. 5 shows that after forming plugs 22aand 22band optionally removing any anti-bonding material from them, the exemplary method forms a diffusion-barrier layer 26 and a conductive layer 28 within trench 18c, thereby electrically connecting contact plugs 22aand 22b. Although the invention is not limited to any specific method of forming layers 26 and 28, the exemplary method uses a chemical or physical deposition, electroless deposition, or selective chemical-vapor deposition, or electroplating.
[0035] Moreover, some embodiments omit barrier layer 26 and form conductive layer 28 using a process similar to that for making contact plugs 22aand 22band diffusion barriers gaps 24aand 24b. In brief, this entails depositing metal containing an anti-bonding material and optionally removing at least some of the anti-bonding material to form air gaps between conductive layer 28 and insulative layer 18. Formation of these air gaps will likely reduce the effective dielectric constant of the interconnection and thus enhance speed and efficiency of the resulting integrated circuit.
Conclusion
[0036] In furtherance of the art, the inventor has devised and presented new methods of making integrated-circuit wiring systems, new methods of making diffusion barriers, and new interconnective structures. Various embodiments of the invention ultimately facilitate fabrication of integrated circuits, such as computer processors and integrated memories, with superior speed and efficiency.
[0037] More particularly, the exemplary embodiment of the new method applies a selective electroless deposition to form the contact plugs and a selective or non-selective deposition to fill trenches. The exemplary method of making a diffusion barrier entails adding an anti-bonding material, such as a surfactant, to a metal, forming a structure containing the metal in insulation, and optionally removing at least a portion of the anti-bonding material.
[0038] The embodiments described above are intended only to illustrate and teach one or more ways of practicing or implementing the present invention, not to restrict its breadth or scope. The actual scope of the invention, which encompasses all ways of practicing or implementing the concepts of the invention, is defined only by the following claims and their equivalents.
Claims
Certificate of Correction present
The claims shown below may not include correction changes. Use the corrected PDF for authoritative text.
What is claimed is:
1. An interconnect structure in an integrated circuit, comprising:
an insulative layer having one or more holes or trenches, with each hole or trench having at least one sidewall; and
one or more metal structures, each comprising one or more surfactants and having a portion lying at least partly within one of the holes or trenches.
2. An interconnect structure in an integrated circuit, comprising:
an insulative layer having one or more holes or trenches, with each hole or trench having at least one sidewall;
one or more metal structures, with each having a portion lying at least partly within one of the holes or trenches; and
one or more surfactant layers, each layer located between a portion of one of the metal structures and the one sidewall of the one of the holes or trenches.
3. An interconnect structure in an integrated circuit, comprising:
an insulative layer having one or more holes or trenches, with each hole or trench having at least one sidewall;
one or more metal structures, each having at least a portion lying at least partly within one of the holes or trenches; and
one or more gaps, each gap lying between the portion of one of the metal structures and at least one sidewall of one of the holes or trenches.
4. An interconnect structure in an integrated circuit, comprising:
a conductive layer;
an insulative layer having one or more holes, with each hole exposing at least a portion of the conductive layer and having one or more interior sidewalls;
one or more contact plugs, each lying at least partly within one of the holes, contacting the conductive layer, and having one or more plug sidewalls facing one or more of the interior sidewalls of the one of the holes; and
one or more gaps, each gap between one of the interior sidewalls of one of the contact plugs and one of the sidewalls of a corresponding hole, wherein each gap has a width less than about 10 angstroms.
5. An interconnect structure in an integrated circuit, comprising:
an insulative layer having one or more holes or trenches, with each hole or trench having at least one sidewall;
one or more metal structures, each having at least a portion lying at least partly within one of the holes or trenches; and
anti-bonding means for preventing bonding of at least the portion of one of the metal structures and one sidewall.
6. The interconnect structure of claim 5 wherein the anti-bonding means comprises a gap or one or more surfactants.
7. The interconnect structure of claim 5 wherein the insulative layer comprises CVD F—SiO2, a porous oxide, an organic polymer, an aerogel, or a nanofoam and wherein one or more of the holes or trenches has a diameter or width less than one micron.
8. The interconnect structure of claim 1, wherein the metal structure consists essentially of the one or more surfactants and a gold, silver, or copper alloy.
9. The interconnect structure of claim 1, wherein the one or more surfactants include at least one of polyethyleneglycol, a RE 610™ surfactant, and a TRITON™ surfactant.
10. The interconnect structure of claim 2, wherein the one or more surfactants include at least one of the following types of surfactants: cationic, anionic, and anionic.
11. The interconnect structure of claim 2, wherein each of the one or more metal structures consists essentially of a gold, silver, or copper alloy.
12. The interconnect structure of claim 2, wherein each of the one or more surfactant layers include at least one of polyethyleneglycol, a RE 610™ surfactant, and a TRITON™ surfactant.
13. The interconnect structure of claim 3, wherein each of the one or more surfactant layers include at least one of the following types of surfactants: cationic, anionic, and anionic.
14. The interconnect structure of claim 3, wherein the metal structure consists essentially of a gold, silver, or copper alloy.
15. The interconnect structure of claim 3, wherein each gap defines an air tube around the one of the metal structures.
16. The interconnect structure of claim 3, wherein each gap has a width measured between an outer surface of the one of the metal structures and the sidewall of the one of the holes or trenches between 1 and 20 angstroms, inclusive.
17. The interconnect structure of claim 4, wherein each contact plug consists essentially of a gold, silver, or copper alloy.
18. The interconnect structure of claim 4 wherein the insulative layer comprises CVD F—SiO2, a porous oxide, an organic polymer, an aerogel, or a nanofoam.
19. The interconnect structure of claim 5, wherein each metal structure consists essentially of a gold, silver, or copper alloy.
20. The interconnect structure of claim 5 wherein the insulative layer comprises CVD F—SiO2, a porous oxide, an organic polymer, an aerogel, or a nanofoam.
Patent Citations (26)
| Patent | Date | Inventor | Cited By |
|---|---|---|---|
| US2842438(A) | 1958-07-01 | Saarivirta et al. | Applicant |
| US3954570(A) | 1976-05-01 | Shirk et al. | Applicant |
| US4386116(A) | 1983-05-01 | Nair et al. | Applicant |
| US4788082(A) | 1988-11-01 | Schmitt | Applicant |
| US4931410(A) | 1990-06-01 | Tokunaga et al. | Applicant |
| US4962058(A) | 1990-10-01 | Cronin et al. | Applicant |
| US5100499(A) | 1992-03-01 | Douglas | Applicant |
| US5158986(A) | 1992-10-01 | Cha et al. | Applicant |
| US5173442(A) | 1992-12-01 | Carey | Applicant |
| US5240878(A) | 1993-08-01 | Fitzsimmons et al. | Applicant |
| US5256205(A) | 1993-10-01 | Schmitt, III et al. | Applicant |
| US5334356(A) | 1994-08-01 | Baldwin et al. | Applicant |
| US5470789(A) | 1995-11-01 | Misawa | Applicant |
| US5470801(A) | 1995-11-01 | Kapoor et al. | Applicant |
| US5506449(A) | 1996-04-01 | Nakano et al. | Applicant |
| US5635253(A) | 1997-06-01 | Canaperi et al. | Applicant |
| US5659193(A) | 1997-08-01 | Ishigaki | Examiner |
| US5674787(A) | 1997-10-01 | Zhao et al. | Applicant |
| US5679608(A) | 1997-10-01 | Cheung et al. | Applicant |
| US5681441(A) | 1997-10-01 | Svendsen et al. | Applicant |
| US5695810(A) | 1997-12-01 | Dubin et al. | Applicant |
| US5717236(A) | 1998-02-01 | Shinkawata et al. | Examiner |
| US5785570(A) | 1998-07-01 | Bruni | Applicant |
| US5913147(A) | 1999-06-01 | Dubin et al. | Applicant |
| US5982040(A) | 1999-11-01 | Yamada et al. | Examiner |
| US6107657(A) | 2000-08-01 | Arita et al. | Examiner |
Non-Patent Literature (33)
- Metals Handbook, 8th Edition 8, pp. 300-302,.Applicant
- Electronic Materials Handbook, ASM International, 1, Packaging, 105, 768-772, (1989).Applicant
- “Formation of Conductors at Variable Depths”, Research Disclosure, Table of Contents, (Jul. 10, 1998).Applicant
- “Improved Metallurgy for Wiring Very Large Scale Integrated Circuits”, International Technology Disclosures, 4 (9), (Sep. 25, 1986).Applicant
- “Kirk-Othmer Concise Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology”, M. Grayson (ed), Wiley-Interscience, New York, NY (1985), 433-435, 926-938, (1985).Applicant
- “Properties and Selection: Nonferrous Alloys and Pure Metals”, Metals Handbook Ninth Edition, 2, ASM International, 157, 395, (1979).Applicant
- Abe, K., et al., “Sub-half Micron Cooper Interconnects Using Reflow of Sputtered Copper Films”, VLSI Multilevel Interconnection Conference, 308-311, (Jun. 25-27, 1995).Applicant
- Bai, G., et al., “Copper Interconnection Deposition Techniques and Integration”, 1996 Symposium on VLSI Technology, Digest of Technical Papers, 48-49, (1996).Applicant
- Braud, E., et al., “Ultra Thin Diffusion Barriers for Cu Interconnections at The Gigabit Generation and Beyond”, VMIC Conference Proceedings, 174-179, (1996).Applicant
- Ding, et al., “Copper Barrier, Seed Layer and Planerization Technologies”, VMIC Conference Proceedings, 87-92, (1997).Applicant
- Ernst, et al., “Growth Model for Metal Films on Oxide Surface: Cu on ZnO (0001)-O”, Physical Review B, vol. 47, No. 20, 13782-96, (1993).Applicant
- Godbey, L. J., et al., “Copper Diffusion in Organic Polymer Resists and Inter-level Dielectrics”, International Conference on Metallurgical Coatings and Thin Films, Paper H2.04, San Diego, CA To be published, 313, (Apr. 21-25, 1997).Applicant
- Hirao, S., et al., “A Novel Copper Reflow Process Using Dual Wetting Layers”, Symposium on VLSI Technology, Digest of Technical Papers, 57-58 , (1997).Applicant
- Iijima, T., et al., “Microstructure and Electrical Properties of Amorphous W-Si-N Barrier Layer for Cu Interconnections”, 168-173, (1996).Applicant
- Izaki, M., et al., “Characterization of Transparent Zinc Oxide Films Prepared by Electrochemical Reaction”, Journal of the Electrochemical Society, vol. 144, No. 6, 1949-1952, (Jun. 1997).Applicant
- Jayaraj, K., et al., “Low Dielectric Constant Microcellular Foams”, Proceedings from the Seventh Meeting of the DuPont Symposium on Polymides in Microelectrics, 474-501, (1996).Applicant
- Jin, et al., “Porous Xerogel Films as Ultra-low Permitivity Dielectrics for AILS Interconnect Applications”, Advanced Metallization and Interconnect Systems for ULSI Application, Boston, MA, (Oct. 1996).Applicant
- Kang, H. K., et al., “Grain Structure and Electromigration Properties of CVD CU Metallization”, Proceedings of the 10th International VLSI Multilevel Interconnection Conference, 223-229, (Jun. 8-9, 1993).Applicant
- Laursen, T., et al., “Encapsulation of Copper by Nitridation of Cu-Ti Alloy/Bilayer Structures”, International Conference on Metallurgical Coatings and Thin Films, Paper H1.03, San Diego, CA, 309, (Apr. 21-25, 1997).Applicant
- Miller, et al., “Low Dielectric Constant Polyimides and Polyimide Nanofoams”, Seventh Meeting of the DuPont Symposium on Polymides in Microelectronics, 443-473, (Sep. 1996).Applicant
- Miyake, T., et al., “Atomic Hydrogen Enhanced Reflow of Copper”, Applied Physics Letters, vol. 70, No. 10, 1239-41, (1997).Applicant
- Murarka, S. P., et al., “Copper Interconnection Schemes: Elimination of The Need of Diffusion Barrier-Adhesion Promoter by the Use of Corrosion Resistant, Low Resistivity Doped Copper”, SPIE, 2335, 80-90, (Oct. 20-21, 1994).Applicant
- Park, C. W., et al., “Activation Energy for Electromigration in Cu Films”, Applied Physics Letters, vol. 59, No. 2, 175, (1991).Applicant
- Ramos, T., et al., “Nanoporous Silica for Dielectric Constant Less Than 2”, Advanced Metallization and Interconnect Systems for ULSI Applications, Boston, MA, (1996).Applicant
- Rossnagel, S. M., “Magnetron Sputter Deposition of Interconnect Applications”, Conference Proceedings, ULSI XI, Materials Research Society, 227-32, (1996).Applicant
- Saarivirta, M. J., “High Conductivity Copper Rich Cu-Zr Alloys”, Trans Met. Soc. AIME 218, 431-437, (1960).Applicant
- Shacham-Diamand, Y., “100 nm Wide Copper Lines Made by Selective Electroless Deposition”, Journal of Micromechanics and Microengineering, 1(1), 66-72, (Mar. 1991).Applicant
- Srivatsa, A. R. , et al., “Jet Vapor Deposition: an Alternative to Electrodeposition”, Surface Engineering, vol. 11, No. 1; 75-77, (1995).Applicant
- Tao, J., et al., “Electromigration Characteristics of Copper Interconnects”, IEEE Electron Devices Letter, vol. 14, No. 5, 249-251, (1993).Applicant
- Ting, C. H. , “Methods and Needs for low K Material Research”, Materials Research Society Symposium Proceedings, vol. 381, San Francisco, California, 3-17, (Apr. 1995).Applicant
- Van Vlack, L. H., “Elements of Materials Science”, Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., Inc. Reading, MA, 468, (1959).Applicant
- Wang, X. W., et al., “Highly Reliable Silicone Nitride Thin Films Made by Jet Vapor Deposition”, Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 34, Pt. 1, No. 23, 955-58, (1995).Applicant
- Wolf, S., “Silicon Processing for the VLSI Era”, Process Technology, 1, Lattice Press, Sunset Beach, CA, 514-538, (1986).Applicant