Layered lithium manganese oxide bronze and electrodes thereof

[0002] The invention relates to layered lithium manganese oxide bronzes, to their production, and to electrodes comprising these bronzes, as well as use of those electrodes.

[0003] Layered A_xMnO_ybronzes are classified into different categories, by Delmas et. al, Revue de Chimie Minerale19, 343 (1982); the categories are distinguished by the stacking of the oxygen: ABCABC . . . (03); II: ABBA . . . (P2); and III: ABBCCA . . . (P3). Those three different categories, O3, P2 and P3, are defined by a letter followed by a number: The letter may be O or P and refers to the oxygen environment of the alkali ion. The letter O refers to an octahedral environment of the alkali metal, while the letter P refers to a prismatic environment. The number indicates the number of MO₂sheets within the unit cell; M in MO₂refers to the 3d transition metal in the formula A_xMO_y; and M is Mn when the bronze is A_xMnO_y.

[0004] Layered bronzes and their structures are of interest as cathodes in rechargeable lithium batteries since layered structure types, more than any other, enable the reversible intercalation of lithium. The term “intercalation” herein means “the reversible insertion of guest atoms (Li, in this case) into host solids, such that the structure of the host is not significantly changed”. LiCoO₂and LiNiO₂are good examples of layered materials which are used in Li-ion batteries. The preparation of the corresponding LiMnO₂is motivated by the fact that Mn is non-toxic and abundant. Unfortunately, solid-state reaction at high temperature to prepare layered LiMnO₂has been unsuccessful since the non-layered structures LiMn₂O₄(spinel), LiMnO₂(orthorhombic) or Li₂MnO₃(rocksalt) are more stable.

[0005] Layered LiMnO₂of the O3 type has been prepared and reported by Armstrong and P. G. Bruce, Nature 381, 499 (1996). The layered LiMnO₂samples were able to deintercalate large amounts of lithium, for example, Bruce and Armstrong reported 250 mAh/g, or about 90% of the Li atoms, on the first charge. Unfortunately the layered O3 phase converts to spinel during cycling, which leads to rapid capacity loss. Recently, the “direct” preparation of layered LiMnO₂by a soft chemical route was reported by Tabuchi et al. J. Electrochem. Soc.145 L49-52 (1998), but their material also seems to convert to spinel upon cycling.

[0006] The layered O3 LiMnO₂structure is very close to the structure (space group I4₁/amd) of lithiated spinel Li₂Mn₂O₄. The structures differ only by a minor cationic arrangement. Consequently, a conversion of layered LiMnO₂of O3 structure to spinel during cycling can be expected. This is because the composition of Li_xMnO₂becomes equal to that of the thermodynamically stable phase, spinel LiMn₂O₄, at x=½.

[0007] Layered α-NaMnO₂exhibits an O3 structure. The O3 structure has octahedral sodium sites. Lithium prefers these octahedral sites. Therefore, the O3 structure can remain undisturbed during ion exchange. However, the P2 structure, with prismatic sodium sites, transforms to O2, and P3 transforms to O3, respectively. These transformations are possible since only a gliding of MnO₂layers is required. Consequently, ion exchange of P3 manganese bronzes will finally lead to an O3 structure which is similar to the O3 structure obtained by ion exchanging an O3 sodium bronze. Layered lithium manganese oxides of the O3 type convert to spinel during cycling. Therefore, only ion exchange of manganese bronzes of different types than P3 or O3 is promising for Li-ion battery applications.

[0008] This work investigates lithium manganese oxides having the O2 structure obtained by ion exchange of P2-type sodium manganese bronzes. The O2 structure is very different from the spinel structure. The O3 structure has an oxygen stacking which differs fundamentally from P2. In O3 and spinel, all hexagonal close-packed O-M-O layers (M=cation) differ only by a translation, ABC→BCA; the O3 structure can transform gradually to spinel by minor changes in cation positions. In P2, every second layer is mirrored, ABC→CBA, and therefore different by symmetry. The same is true for O2. So the transformation of P2 or O2 to spinel can only occur by a rearrangement of the oxygen lattice which requires the breaking of all MnO bonds. This is highly unlikely at room temperature. Consequently it can be expected that lithium manganese oxide with the O2 structure will not be able to transform to spinel during battery operation. Its stacking will remain unchanged and it will cycle well.

[0009] Here the layered P2 structure is converted to O2 configuration. Moreover, it has been reported, by C. Delmas et al. in Solid State Ionics3/4, 165 (1981) and L. W. Schacklette et al., J. Electrochem. Soc.145.2669 (1988), that P2 structures do not convert to O3 structures for sodium intercalation in Na_xCoO₂. Na_xCoO₂can be prepared in the three different crystal structures P2, O3 and P3. Starting the charge-discharge cycling of Na/Na_xCoO₂cells with either P3 or O3 Na_xCoO₂leads to the same voltage profile, proving that during cycling O3 and P3 transform to each other. The phase transformation is reversible and connected with a hysteresis between the charge and discharge voltage profiles. P2 structure Na_xCoO₂did not show a conversion to P3 or O3 based on the difference of its voltage profile.

[0010] For the first time a layered lithium manganese oxide was prepared which could be used as cathode material in lithium batteries without rapid transformation to spinel. These materials are based on the O2 structure which cannot transform to spinel without breaking all the Mn—O bonds in the sample. The O2 phases have a reversible capacity in the range of 150 mAh/g to 210 mAh/g if cycled between 2V and 4.8V vs. Li. These phases can be prepared by ion exchanging sodium manganese bronzes of the P2 type.

[0011] FIGS. 1A and 1B constitute X-ray diffraction pattern and Rietveld refinement of the P2-type Na_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂. The asterisks mark the positions of peaks due to a possible superstructure.

[0012] FIGS. 2A-2D include X-ray diffraction patterns of different lithium manganese oxides obtained by ion exchange, as follows:

[0013] FIG. 2A: LiMnO₂from α-NaMnO₂(O3);

[0014] FIG. 2B: Li_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂obtained from Na_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂(P2);

[0015] FIG. 2C: Li_2/3[Li_1/6(Mn_0.82Co_0.18)_5/6]O₂obtained from Na_2/3[Li_1/6(Mn_0.82Co_0.18)_5/6]O₂(P2); and

[0016] FIG. 2D: Li_0.7MnO_2+yobtained from low temperature Na_0.7MnO_2+y.

[0017] FIGS. 3A-3D include graphs of the plot of Voltage versus capacity for cells with different Li—Mn-Oxide cathodes, as indicated below:

[0018] FIG. 3A: LiMnO₂from α-NaMnO₂(O3);

[0019] FIG. 3B: Li_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂obtained from Na_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂(P2);

[0020] FIG. 3C: Li_2/3[Li_1/6{Mn_0.82Co_0.18}_5/6]O₂obtained from Na_2/3[Li_1/6{Mn_0.82Co_0.18}_5/6]O₂(P2); and

[0021] FIG. 3D: Li_0.7,MnO_2+yobtained from low temperature Na_0.7MnO_2+y

[0022] FIG. 4: X-ray diffraction pattern for Li_2/3MO₂with smaller Mn oxidation state (thick lines) obtained by ion exchanging the corresponding sodium bronze Na_2/3MO₂(thin lines):

[0023] FIG. 4a) M=Li_1/18Mn_17/18—ion exchanged for Li;

[0024] FIG. 4b) M=Li_1/18Mn_17/18—sodium starting material;

[0025] FIG. 4c) M=Mn_0.85Co_0.15—ion exchanged for Li; and

[0026] FIG. 4d) M=Mn_0.85Co_0.15sodium starting material

[0027] FIG. 5 presents an upper and a lower plot of Voltage versus capacity for cells with O2 type Li—Mn oxides cathodes with lower Mn oxidation state, in which the upper plot is Li_2/3[Li_1/18Mn_17/18]O₂and lower plot is Li_2/3[Mn_0.85Co_0.15]O₂

[0028] The invention relates to a layered bronze, of the empirical formula Li_x(Mn_1−yMy)O_2+Z; in the formula, x is 0.5<x<1.3; y is 0.0≦y<0.4; z is −0.5<z<0.5; M is a 3d transition metal, aluminum or lithium and admixtures thereof and Li is lithium; Mn is manganese and has an oxidation state which is less than 4+. X is oxygen atom(s) which may be substituted for fluorine and/or sulfur atoms. The layered bronze exhibits a reversible charge capacity in units of mAh/g, when used as an electrode (e.g. a cathode) and is cycled between 2V and 4.8V vs. Li. In these bronzes embraced by the formula Li_x(Mn_1−yM_y)O_2+Zeach of the Li (lithium) and Mn (manganese) is in octahedral coordination. The coordination about Li is most significant, as it distinguishes the O (octohedral) from the P (prismatic) phases. In that formula, M is selected from the group consisting of Ni, Co, Ti, Fe, V, Cr, Cu, and Li, and is preferably cobalt or lithium. The unit(s) “mAh/g” is milliampere hours/gram. The characteristic of reversibe charge capacity endures during repetitive cycling as an electrode at 2V and 4.8V; and during that cycling the layered bronze remains free of non-layered spinel.

[0029] Layered bronzes of this invention comprise a stack of alternating O—(Mn_1−yM_y)-O layers (type I) and layers containing lithium (type II), stacked perpendicular to these layers. An O—(Mn_1−yM_y)-O layer consists of an (Mn_1−yM_y) sublayer sandwiched between two O sublayers. The atoms within each sublayer are placed on sites of a (possibly distorted) hexagonal lattice, these lattices being arranged such that the Mn or M atoms are each surrounded by six oxygen atoms forming corners of an octahedron (i.e. they are octahedrally coordinated). The lithium atoms of the type-II layer containing lithium, too, are placed on sites of a (possibly distorted) hexagonal lattice; these sites will be called L-sites. Some of these L-sites may not be filled with lithium atoms, particularly when this bronze is cycled in an electrochemical cell. However, the L-sites themselves will always be surrounded by six oxygen atoms forming the corners of an octahedron. Each oxygen atom is surrounded by three L-sites and three sites for Mn or M. The specific arrangements of these six sites will lead to either an octahedral coordination (the six sites form the corners of an octahedron) or a prismatic coordination (the six sites form the corners of a triangular prism). All oxygen atoms of a certain O sublayer will have the same coordination. The layered bronzes of this invention are characterized in that at least some oxygen atoms are prismatically coordinated. The occurrence of this prismatically coordinated oxygen is believed to result in the stability of this bronze, in preventing conversion to a spinel structure. Such stability is desirable for a material used in a rechargeable electrochemical cell.

[0030] In a specific embodiment of this invention, this stack of type-I and type-II layers forms an O2 structure, according to the Delmas categorization described above. In this embodiment, four layers form a repeating unit of the type Li—O—(Mn_1−yM_y)-O— Li—O—(Mn_1−yM_y)-O, where O sublayers with prismatically and octahedrally coordinated oxygen alternate. Some of the embodiments herein exhibit a unit cell dimension perpendicular to the layers of 9.608 or 9.8 Å for this repeating unit. This dimension will vary depending on the exact composition and stoichiometry.

[0031] Layered bronzes are susceptible to faults in the stack, so this invention includes both materials free of stacking fault and materials with stacking faults, leading to structures other than O2. Stacking faults are defined as displacements parallel to the layer direction. Stacking faults imply that the repeating unit would change within a stack.

[0032] The atoms of the layers are characterized by the coordination described hereafter. All cations or metal atoms of the bronzes of the invention are in octahedral coordination with the surrounding oxygen atoms; that is each is surrounded by six oxygen atoms. Some of the oxygen atoms of these layered bronzes are prismatically coordinated by metal atoms; those oxygen atoms which are said to be prismatically coordinated are surrounded by 6 cations or metal atoms; and some oxygen atoms are octahedrally coordinated by metal atoms. The occurrence of the prismatic oxygens is believed to result in the stability of the bronze, in preventing conversion to spinel.

[0033] Specific species of the layered bronzes include Li_2/3(Li_1/6Mn_5/6)O₂and Li_2/3(Li_1/6{Mn_0.82Co_0.18}_5/6)O₂. Characterization of the bronzes was in part based on X-ray diffraction studies. By way of illustration, FIG. 2cis an X-ray diffraction pattern of Li_2/3[Li_1/6(Mn_0.82CO_0.18)_5/6]O_2.The X-ray diffraction pattern of FIG. 2C be understood on the basis of an O2 phase displaying some stacking faults. Stacking faults cause those Bragg peaks with mixed Miller indices (i.e. h01) to be broad, and those with non-mixed Miller indices (i.e. hk0 to 001) to be sharp. The table below shows the observed and calculated scattering angles for the sample described by FIG. 2c,based on a hexagonal unit cell with dimensions a=2.837 Å and c=9.608 Å. The calculated positions agree well with those observed. FIG. 2calso shows that the 101, 103, and 105 peaks are broad, while the peaks with non-mixed indices are sharp, consistent with some stacking faults in the O2 structure.

[0034] It is expected that the lattice constants of the O2 phase will vary with its compositions. The position of the significant lines can be measured to plus/minus 0.2 degrees. However, the position of the significant lines will change by much more than that as the stoichiometry of the O2 phase varies. For O2 phases displaying hexagonal axes, the scattering angles of the Bragg peaks can be calculated from the lattice constants as follows. First, the atomic plane spacings are calculated from the Miller indices, h, k and l. $\frac{1}{d^2}=\frac{4\left(h^2+k^2+\mathrm{hk}\right)}{3a^2}+\frac{1}{c^2}$

[0035] Then the scattering angle is given by 2θ, where θ is the Bragg angle given by sin(θ)=λ/2d, where λ is the wavelength of the x-ray.

[0036] Thus, the positions of the significant diffraction peaks for any hexagonal O2 structure can be calculated from its lattice constants.

[0037] The crystal structure of the hexagonal O2 phase of ideal stoichiometry Li_2/3MnO₂, without stacking faults can be understood as that of a Bravais Lattice with an 8 atom basis. The fractional atomic coordinates of the 8 atoms in the unit cell are given in the table below, where u is about 0.125.

[0038] When transition metals or Li are substituted for Mn, these randomly replace Mn on its sites.

[0039] The synthesis of layered sodium manganese bronze was an initial stage in the production of the lithium manganese bronzes of the invention. The layered sodium manganese bronzes having the P2 structure (Na_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂) were used to prepare layered lithium manganese oxides by ion exchange of Na by Li using LiBr in n-hexanol. X-ray diffraction and chemical analysis shows that the resulting layered Li_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂has the O2 structure. The arrangement of manganese and oxygen atoms in this phase differs fundamentally from that found in layered LiMnO_{2 (O}3 structure), in orthorhombic LiMnO₂and in spinel Li₂Mn₂O₄so that conversion to spinel during electrochemical cycling is not expected. Li_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂has a reversible charge capacity of ≅150 mAh/g. During cycling the new cathode material does not convert to spinel unlike that found in layered and orthorhombic LiMnO₂.

[0040] FIG. 2A is an X-ray diffraction pattern of the layered LiMnO₂; FIG. 2C is an X-ray diffraction pattern of the Li_xMn_0.82Co_0.18O₂.

[0041] These layered lithium manganese oxide bronzes can be used as an active material in an electrochemical cell that allows for the extraction or insertion of lithium into bronze. One electrode of this electrochemical cell would be made of this bronze or would comprise this bronze. This electrochemical cell can be of the rechargeable type as these bronzes allow for the reversible insertion and extraction of lithium. Specifically, a lithium-ion cell can be made that would be assembled comprising a negative electrode capable of inserting lithium, a lithium-ion-containing electrolyte, and a positive electrode comprising the subject layered lithium manganese oxide bronzes. In such applications, the compositions may be supported with or without compounding. For example, the compositions in the form of powders can be compounded with an inert binder; by “inert” we mean materials which do not react chemically or electrochemically with the electrolyte or electrode materials used in the lithium battery. Examples of the inert material include polymeric materials, such as polyvinylidene fluoride, teflon, polyethylene, vinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene copolymers. Conducting diluents may be admixed with the subject layered lithium manganese oxide compositions. Thus carbon black, graphite and other conducting diluents may be added to the electrode compound. When compounded, the amount of the layered bronze in the compounded composition for the cathode production can range from 1 to 99 weight percent.

[0042] In accordance with the invention, the layered lithium manganese oxide materials themselves are produced by ion exchange of a sodium manganese oxide bronze of P2 structure. An X-ray diffraction pattern of the sodium manganese oxide bronze of P2 structure appears in FIG. 1. The α-Na_0.7,MnO₂is a structure of the P2 type. This structure can be written as Na_2/3MnO₂. It was determined that α-Na_2/3MnO₂yields Li_2/3MnO₂after ion exchange. For comparison LiMnO₂with the O3 structure prepared by methods similar to Bruce and Armstrong was also investigated in this work.

[0043] The crystal structure of Na_xMnO_2+yis highly dependent on preparation conditions (oxygen partial pressure, pO2, and temperature T) as well as on th e composition x. Phases with different oxygen stoichiometry are known. Oxygen rich α-Na_0.7MnO_2+xis stable at low temperatures and has the hexagonal P2 structure, whereas high temperature β-Na_0.7MnO₂has lower oxygen stoichiometry but has a distorted crystal structure (an orthorhombic-distorted P2 structure).

[0044] Production of the sodium manganese oxide bronze of P2 structure involves providing a mixture of oxide sources. The oxide sources include Mn₂O₃, Li₂CO₃, Na₂CO₃; and optionally a M-oxide or M-hydroxide (e.g. Co₃O₄, is included, when the cobalt doped layered lithium manganese oxide is to be produced.) M is Li or Aluminum (Al) or a 3d transition metal selected from the group consisting of Co, Ni, Ti, V, Cr, Cu, and Fe. When M is the 3d transition metal, the oxide sources can be Co₃O₄, CoO, Ni(OH)₂, TiO₂, V₂O₅, Cr₂O₃, CuO, and Fe₂O₃. When M is Al, Al(OH)₃can be used as an aluminum source. In principle, it could be possible to suppress the phase transition to Spinel by proper doping. Bruce reported the possibility of stable layered LiMn_1−xCo_xO₂by ion exchanging NaMn_1−xCo_xO2. We were not successful in our attempts to prepare layered LiMn_1−xCo_xO₂. It has been shown that heavy chromium doping stabilizes the layered structure. Dahn et. al. reported layered and thermodynamically stable LiMO₂with M=Mn_1−xCr_x−yNiy₂, which cycled well J. R. Dahn et al., J. Electrochem. Soc.145, 851 (1998). However, a material with a large chromium content is not desired because chromium is toxic and relatively expensive.

[0045] The oxide sources are provided in stoichiometric amounts, which means that masses of reactants are selected based on their molar weights so that the correct molar ratios are incorporated to give the desired products. The reagent oxide sources are thoroughly admixed; this can be done by milling. Thereafter the admixture can be pelleted. The admixture is subject to calcination in air at temperatures of at least 500° C. for a time duration sufficient to cause bronze formation; the temperature may range up to 900° C. After calcination, the calcined mixture can be quenched. In embodiments below, the initially calcined mixture is subject to a second calcination at temperatures of at least 500° C.; a quench stage (in liquid nitrogen) is employed between two calcinations. In specific embodiments below, the admixture was calcined at temperatures of at least 750° C.; preferably there are two calcinations. The calcined mixture is quenched in liquid nitrogen and subjected to a second air calcination at temperatures of at least 750° C. The calcinations, in accordance with the invention, were conducted in air. Some calcinations in the examples were conducted in argon, an inert atmosphere; these calcinations were for production of other than layered bronzes of O2 structure. The exact choice of temperature conditions and atmosphere may vary with the choice of M and y.

[0046] The calcined material is then subjected to ion exchange. In preferred embodiments, the calcined material is subjected to ion exchange, after it has been milled to fine powder. The calcined material is subjected to ion exchange by treatment with large excesses of LiBr, in refluxing n-hexanol. The minimum amount of LiBr is that needed to replace sodium cation, on a one-to-one basis, if the free energy of the system is lowered when lithium replaces sodium, in the ion exchange. The absolute minimum amount has not been the subject of these studies. Thereafter the powder is isolated; it may then be rinsed and air dried.

[0047] Ion exchange of Na_xMnO_2+yyields Li_xMnO_2+y. Battery applications require that as much lithium as possible can be extracted from the structure. The most useful compounds will therefore have a small mean Mn oxidation state (since lithium only can be extracted until Mn reaches oxidation state 4+) and large x. The layered phase, Li₂MnO₃, for example, can not be charged (no lithium can be extracted) since the Mn oxidation state already is 4+. The channel structure material Li_0.44MnO₂prepared by ion exchanging Na_xMnO₂cycles well without transformation to spinel, according to M. Doeff et al., J. Electrochem. Soc.143, 2507 (1996) and A. R. Armstrong et al., J. Mater. Chem.8, 255 (1998). However it does not have a sufficient charge capacity since x is only 0.44. However, with 130 mAh/g theoretical capacity, it does not have sufficient charge capacity since x is only 0.44. Our approach focuses on layered O2 Li_2/3MnO₂obtained from P2 Na_2/3MnO₂. The maximum expected charge capacity is significantly larger, approximately 190 mAh/g. This work will show that layered lithium manganese oxide of the O2 structure exists, can be prepared and cycles well without conversion to spinel.

[0048] The sodium manganese bronzes used as starting material for the ion exchange were prepared by solid state reaction from stoichiometric amounts of Mn₂O₃(Aldrich), Li₂CO₃(FMC), Co₃O₄(Aldrich) and Na₂CO₃(Aldrich). The powders were milled carefully to mix them (Retsch RM-0 autogrinder), and pellets (diameter=1 cm, length=0.5 cm) were pressed. Two different methods of solid state calcination were performed.

[0049] Na_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂(P2-type) [Method 1]:

[0050] The pellets were heated 2 days at 800° C. in air and were then quenched in liquid nitrogen, followed by a careful milling and pressing of new pellets. A final heating at 800° C. (1 day) followed by quenching to liquid N₂was made. The X-ray diffraction pattern of this product is illustrated in FIG. 1.

[0051] NaMnO₂(O3-type) [Method 2]:

[0052] The pellets were heated for two days in a flow of argon at 800° C. The pellets were milled and new pellets were pressed which were heated in argon at 800° C. for 1 day.

[0053] Ion exchange of the example 1 and example 2 compositions was undertaken: Ion exchanges of the material of Example 1, following the procedure below, resulted in a product of the invention; ion exchange of the material of Example 2 produced a composition used for comparative purposes.

[0054] The pellets were milled carefully before ion exchange was attempted, because we found that fine powders give better results. The fine powder was added to a boiling solution of 5M lithium bromide (10 times excess) in n-hexanol. In the case of air sensitive powders (α-NaMnO₂is air sensitive) rapid manipulations are required. Since air might dissolve in the solution, ion exchange in a solution under inert gas was tried, but did not give significantly different results. The ion exchange was made for ≅8 hours at ≅180° C. under reflux. Finally, the mixture was filtered to recover the powder and the powder was rinsed in methanol. The powders were dried in air.

[0055] The preparation of electrochemical cells was undertaken as follows: Powders of the cathode materials were mixed with 10% by weight Super S (MMM Carbon) carbon black. PVDF binder dissolved in 1-methyl pyrrolidinone was added (so that the weight of the binder in the electrode after drying would be 5%) until a thick slurry was obtained. The slurry was tape cast using the doctor blade technique on an aluminum foil. 2325 type coin-cells were prepared using lithium as the anode, a Celgard #2502 membrane as the separator and 1M LiPF₆in 33%EC+67%DEC (Mitsubishi Chemical) as the electrolyte.

[0056] Electrochemical Testing

[0057] The cells were charged and discharged with a small constant current (C/40 rate for removing x=1 in Li_xMnO₂) from 2V to an upper voltage of 4.2V. Typical currents were 30-50 μA. After 2-3 charge-discharge cycles the upper voltage was increased by 0.2 V sequentially until 4.8 V was reached.

[0058] X-ray Investigation

[0059] X-ray powder diffraction was made using a Siemens D500 diffractometer. Rietveld profile refinement of the collected data was made using the Hill and Howard's version of the Rietveld program. Rietveld refinement of layered structures can be a problem because powder pressed onto a holder may show preferential orientation.

[0060] To reduce the anisotropy, the powder was sprinkled onto a zero-background holder (a Si wafer cut on the 510 plane) which was wetted with acetone. Some of the phases investigated (e.g. NaMnO₂) are not sufficiently stable to x-ray directly in air. Diffraction patterns of air-sensitive powders were measured in argon, using a special holder equipped with kapton windows.

[0061] Chemical analysis:

[0062] Approximately 0.1 g of the samples was accurately weighed into small beakers. 3 mL hydrochloric acid and lmL nitric acid were added and the covered beaker was heated for 45 minutes. The watch glass cover was removed and the acid was evaporated until 1.5 mL remained. Upon cooling the sample was transferred to a 50 mL centrifuge tube and diluted to 25 mL with deionized water. Elemental analysis was performed using a Jarrell-Ash 61E ICP using the element method. Oxygen stoichiometries were obtained by difference.

[0063] Discussion of Results

[0064] A.} Sodium-Manganese Bronzes Prepared by Solid State Reaction

[0065] Samples with overall composition Li_xNa_1−xMnO_ybut different x were prepared by method one. Single-phase material was only achieved for NaMnO₂(x=0) and for 0.2>x>0.16. The first is the known α-NaMnO₂(O3) and the latter has the same crystal structure as β-Na_0.7MnO₂which is the desired (P2) structure. For ion exchange the P2 phase with x=0.2 (which can be written as Na_2/3[Li_l/6Mn_5/6]O₂) was selected. For comparison, the O3 α-NaMnO₂sample prepared by method 2 was ion exchanged.

[0066] The diffraction pattern of Na_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O2 is shown in FIG. 1. It can be indexed as a structure with the most symmetric hexagonal space group P6₃/m 2/m 2/m. The result of the Rietveld refinement is very similar to results published for Na_0.7CoO₂, by R. J. Balsys et al., Solid State Ionics93, 279 (1996), and proves that the desired (P2) structure was achieved. It is believed the small difference between the calculated and measured data is caused by preferred orientation. The asterisks show the positions where ¼ ¼ 0 and ¼ ¼ 2 superstructure peaks would fall if the material had such a superstructure. The small peak at 22° could be due to impurities or to a superstructure. Rietveld refinement shows that the lithium occupies octahedral manganese sites implying that the structure should be written as Na_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂.

[0067] A chemical analysis was made for the Na_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂sample. The result was Na_0.707[Li_0.167Mn_0.832]O_2.35. The cation ratios are exactly as expected, and the oxygen stoichiometry is larger than expected. However, since the oxygen stoichiometry was obtained from a small difference between large numbers it has a large error.

[0068] B.} Layered Lithium Manganese Oxides obtained by Ion exchange

[0069] Ion exchange was successful, both for the (O3) and the (P2) sodium bronzes. FIG. 2 (FIGS. 2A-2D) shows the X-ray diffraction pattern of four different materials obtained by ion exchange of sodium bronzes. FIG. 2A shows the diffraction pattern of O3 LiMnO₂obtained from NaMnO₂. The ion exchange is estimated to be 90-95% complete, based on the small residue peaks from NaMnO₂in the pattern. The agreement between the calculated and measured pattern is quite good. FIG. 2B shows the diffraction pattern of Li_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂obtained by ion exchanging Na_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂. Notice that the 003 peak (at 16°) from the Na phase is almost eliminated showing that the ion exchange is almost complete and that the pattern differs greatly from that of the O3 phase. Chemical analysis of this sample showed it to be Li_1.096Na_0.09MnO_2.783which can be written as Li_0.75Na_0.076[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O_2.319. For comparison, FIG. 2C shows the diffraction pattern of Li_2/3[Li_1/6{Mn_0.82Co_0.18}_5/6]O₂obtained by ion exchanging Na_2/3[Li_1/6{Mn_0.82Co_0.18}_5/6]O₂which also had the P2 structure. The pattern is very similar to that in FIG. 2B. Now we consider the reasons for the simultaneous presence of broad and narrow peaks in FIGS. 2B and 2C.

[0070] Sodium prefers prismatic or octahedral places and lithium only adopts octahedral coordination in these structures. The P2 structure with prismatic sites is not suitable for lithium. The oxygen stacking in the P2 structure is BA AB BA AB BA etc. During ion exchange the layers rearrange to make octahedral sites for lithium. This can be accomplished by gliding every second O(Mn_1−yM_y)O layer in one direction (i.e. A becomes B) or alternatively, by gliding in the other direction (i.e. A becomes C). Both possibilities are energetically equivalent and lead to the same O2 structure with space group P3 ml, C. Delmas et al., Mat. Res. Bull.17, 117 (1982).

[0071] The “ideal” O2-structure has a low symmetry, for example it has no inversion symmetry. The symmetry of a structure obtained by alternately gliding the second and fourth layers has higher symmetry. This structure is of the O4 type. It is very likely that for samples prepared by ion exchange at room temperature, the structure of the O2 or O4 materials will contain a large number of stacking faults. Most likely the stacking faults will be randomly positioned along the c-axis leading to a condition known as “turbostratic disorder”. Describing Li_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂as an O2 structure with stacking faults or as an O4 structure with stacking faults is more or less a question of taste.

[0072] In more general terms the ion-exchanged materials exhibit structures that are based on stacking of alternating lithium-containing layers and layers of the form O—(Mn_1−yM_y)-O. Both the metal atoms in the O—(Mn_1−yM_y)-O layer and the lithium in the lithium-containing layer are each surrounded by six oxygen atoms forming the corners of an octahedron. However, there are two types of oxygen atoms; those that are surrounded by six metal atoms forming the corners of an octahedron, and those that are surrounded by six metal atoms forming the corners of a triangular prism. The O2 and O4 structures are special cases of this general arrangement. O2 occurs when O sublayers with octahedrally and prismatically coordinated oxygen alternate leading to stacking . . . OPOPOPOP . . . ; O4 occurs when O sublayers are repeatedly stacked PPOPOOPO. With the presence of stacking faults O2-based structures become indistinguishable from O4 based structures. What these novel materials have in common is the presence of O sublayers with prismatically coordinated oxygen.

[0073] Stacking faults in layered structures result in diffraction patterns with sharp 001 and hk0 peaks. Most other peaks (mixed peaks) become broad. This is the case in FIGS. 2B and 2C.

[0074] The ion exchange technique was also applied to other sodium manganese bronzes. According to C. Delmas, J. -J. Braconnier, A. Maazn, and P. Hagenmuller, Revue de Chimie Minerale 19,343 (1982), an oxygen rich P2 phase, Na_0.7,MnO_2+y, exists if prepared at lower temperatures. We prepared this phase, but because of broad peaks (possibly due to stacking faults) the diffraction pattern which was similar to a P2-phase could not be indexed to our satisfaction. FIG. 2D shows that the pattern of the ion exchanged phase, Li_0.7,MnO_2+y, exhibits peaks which are typical for the O2 phase of Li_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂(at ≅37° and 66°) and peaks which are more typical for the O3 phase LiMnO₂(at ≅45°). Since the electrochemical properties of this material are inferior it will not be discussed further.

[0075] C. Electrochemical Results

[0076] The results of electrochemical testing for the samples described by FIG. 2 are displayed in FIG. 3. FIG. 3ashows the results for layered O3 LiMnO₂, which are in reasonable agreement with references, A. R. Armstrong and P. G. Bruce, Nature 381, 499 (1996) and G. Vitins and K. West, J. Electrochem. Soc. 144, 2587 (1997). However, the large capacity reported by Armstrong and Bruce et al. In Nature 381, 499 (1996) could not be repeated. The results of West and Vitins et al. J. Electrochem. Soc.144, 2587 (1997) are more similar to ours, where capacities in the range of 100 mAh/g were achieved. The shape of the voltage profile changes in a few cycles to resemble that of spinel. FIG. 3bshows that when the cell made with the O2 cathode Li_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂is initially charged to 4.2V, approximately 40 mAh/g of Li can be removed. About 60 mAh/g can be intercalated into the cathode during discharge. In the voltage range between 2 and 4.4 V the cell can be charged and discharged reversibly yielding a low capacity of ≅55 mAh/g. If the upper voltage is increased to 4.6V, then a large, irreversible plateau appears. This plateau indicates an irreversible phase transformation which occurs when the manganese oxidation state reaches 4. For Li_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂, the Mn oxidation state reaches four when 1/6 of a mole of Li is extracted to form Li_0.5[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂. This capacity (1/6 mole corresponds to 53 mAh/g) agrees well with that measured before the onset (about 50 mAh/g) of the large plateau in FIG. 3b.The phase transition does not “destroy” the cathode, instead the material cycles well and gives a reversible capacity in the range of 120 to 150 mAh/g. The shape of the curve is smooth and plateaus at ≅3 and ≅4V do not appear. Such plateaus are typical for spinel and are always observed if LiMnO₂(orthorhombic) or LiMnO₂(O3-type) are cycled for a few times. This indicates that the O2 material is more resistant to conversion to spinel than O3. The material cycles quite well.

[0077] The cobalt doped sample of the O2-type Li_2/3[Li_1/6M_5/6]O₂, M=Mn_0.82Co_0.18(FIG. 3c), shows a behavior similar to the undoped sample. The behavior of the oxygen rich sample Li_0.7MnO_2+yis shown in FIG. 3d.As in the case of O2 Li_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂, it has a small reversible charge capacity in the range of 50 mAh/g to an upper limit of 4.2V. If the voltage increases to 4.6V, an irreversible reaction occurs. The final material cycles with a large capacity in the range of 150 mAh/g but it converts gradually to spinel as can be seen by the development of plateaus (FIG. 3d) at 3V and at 4V. This behavior is very different to the O2-type Li_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂.

[0078] Ion exchange of P2-type Na_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂leads to O2-type Li_2/3[Li_1/6Mn_5/6]O₂. This layered lithium manganese oxide has a small reversible charge capacity to an upper cutoff voltage of 4.4 V. After increasing the upper cutoff voltage to 4.6V, an irreversible plateau was observed. This plateau is connected with irreversible changes to the layered phase. This altered phase need not necessarily be layered Li_xMnO₂. However, the large reversible capacity and the smooth charging and discharging curve suggest that the layered phase remains. It also seems likely, that the O2-oxygen stacking remains, since O3 or P3 stacking would convert to spinel. Such a plateau must be investigated further.

[0079] Samples of P2 Na_2/3[Li_1/18Mn_17/18]O₂and Na_2/3[Co_0.15Mn_0.85]O₂were prepared by solid-state reaction at higher temperatures. These were ion exchanged to give O2-type Li_2/3[Li_1/18Mn_17/18]O₂and Li_2/3[Co_0.15Mn_0.85]O₂. FIG. 4 shows the X-ray diffraction patterns for the ion exchanged Li_2/3[Li_1/18Mn_17/18]O₂and Li_2/3[Co_0.15Mn_0.85]O₂samples, and for the starting P2-manganese bronzes Na_2/3[Li_1/18Mn_17/18]O₂and Na_2/3[Co_0.15Mn_0.85]O₂respectively. The P2 sodium manganese oxide phases have an in-plane orthorhombic distortion. The ion exchanged phases are O2 structures displaying stacking faults. Both contain some sodium manganese bronze since the ion exchange works less well for these materials.

[0080] FIG. 5 shows the electrochemical behavior of these materials. The irreversible plateau is very short for Li_2/3[Li_1/18Mn_17/18]O₂and is not observed for Li_2/3[Co_0.15Mn_0.85]O₂. The manganese oxidation state reaches 4.0 for Li_2/3[Li_1/18Mn_17/18]O₂when 1/2 mole of Li is extracted (158 mAh/g) and all the Li can be extracted from Li_2/3[Co_0.15Mn_0.85]O₂without all the Mn reaching 4+. These materials show smooth voltage profiles without evidence for conversion to spinel. They have reversible capacities near 150 mAh/g.