High-Speed Electro-Optic Modulator

Much progress has been made in the last thirty years in developing optical switches or modulators, but current devices are not very satisfactory for many applications. The majority of active fiberoptic devices used in present day systems, for example, fiberoptic intensity attenuators, are based on electromechanical operation. In one type, fibers are positioned end to end and mechanically moved in or out of line. In another type, mirrors are rotated to direct beams into or away from a receiving fiber. This can be accomplished mechanically or with piezoelectric or electrostatic drivers. Mechanical devices intrinsically lack speed and long term reliability. Solid-state light controlling devices (without moving parts) are needed for fiber communication systems. A key problem for these developing fiberoptic components is realizing speed and reliability, as well as the essential fiberoptic systems requirement of low insertion loss and polarization insensitivity. For devices used between regular fibers, low insertion loss and polarization insensitivity operation is the basic performance requirement.

Others have proposed an optical switch/attenuator using a liquid crystal cell as the modulation element situated between an input and an output birefringent element, each fed by optical fibers. When the liquid crystal cell is turned on, light emerging from the output birefringent element is deflected and not focused by the subsequent collimator onto the corresponding optical fiber. Although it has the desirable features of low insertion loss, and low required operating voltage, being liquid crystal-based, the long term reliability of organic materials and the relatively low switching speed are not suitable for many applications.

Others have also proposed a fast (less than one microsecond) optical switch using an electro-optic crystal in which birefringence can be induced by application of an electric field. Operation is based on rotating the plane of polarization of light with respect to the orientation of a subsequent passive polarizer that blocks or transmits light depending on the angle. The basic arrangement works efficiently with incoming light polarized with a particular orientation. Randomly polarized light suffers a loss. This is overcome by using additional elements that split incoming light into two orthogonal polarizations, passively rotates one to match the other, and combines the two into a single beam fed to the basic modulator. However, the suggested electro-optic crystals, require voltages of a kV or more for operation.

Still others have described a modulator having a tapered plate, a Faraday rotator or electro-optic crystal, and a second tapered plate. The Faraday rotator is controlled by varying the current in an external coil which varies a magnetic field. The suggested electro-optic crystals require high drive voltages of kilovolts. Electrode design also effects polarization dependence and modulation efficiency.

Accordingly, the main objects of the invention are to provide an electrically controllable solid state optical modulator, attenuator, or switch that is insensitive to the polarization of the incoming light, has low insertion loss and, has a fast (one hundred nanoseconds or less) response time. Additional objects are to provide a device using rugged oxide materials and using easy assembly and alignment processes.

These objectives and other features and advantages are realized in two basic modes. In the transmission mode, arbitrarily polarized light beam enters from one side (the input surface) and exits the other side (the output surface). In one embodiment, the modulator comprises, between the input and output, a polarization separator, e.g., a birefringent plate with an oriented c-axis, followed by an electro-optic phase retarder with electrodes to generate an internal electric field when a voltage is applied, followed by a polarization recombiner. The separator breaks the light beam into two polarization rays, an ordinary one having a polarization direction (angular orientation with respect to the separator c-axis) perpendicular to the c-axis and an extraordinary one with a polarization direction parallel to the c-axis. In addition, the extraordinary ray is deflected in a plane containing the c-axis while the ordinary ray travels straight through. These two paths define a separation plane. The recombiner doesn't effect ordinary rays either, but causes extraordinary rays to be deflected an equal amount but opposite the separator deflection back to be recombined with undeflected ordinary rays at the output. The modulator is normally-on. The phase retarder has an electric field that extends across the optical path at an angle, preferably at about 45.degree. to the separation plane which is also at 45.degree. to both the extraordinary and ordinary polarization directions. When a voltage is applied to the phase retarder, portions of the extraordinary ray become ordinary and are not deflected to the output. In addition, portions of the ordinary ray become extraordinary and, instead of traveling through the recombiner to the output are deflected away from it. With sufficient voltage, the two rays are completely interchanged so that none of their components reach the output.

A normally-off modulator can be obtained simply by orienting the deflection of the recombiner to be in the same direction as the separator. If the output is placed equidistant between the undeflected ordinary ray and the twice deflected extraordinary ray, none will normally reach the output. However, if a voltage is applied to the phase retarder, portions of the ordinary ray will be deflected once and portions of the extraordinary ray will be not be deflected and both will reach the output. With sufficient voltage, all light will reach the output. Addition of a 90.degree. polarization direction rotator, i.e., a polarization direction interchanger, to the normally-off modulator produces a normally-on modulator with low polarization mode dispersion. Addition of two 45.degree. polarization direction rotators allows the fields in the phase retarder to be at 90.degree. to the separation plane which produces a modulator with the minimum spacing between phase retarder electrodes thereby reducing the control voltage.

In a reflection mode, the simplest version comprises a separator covering an input area and a transversely displaced recombiner covering an output area, both followed by an electro-optic phase retarder, in turn followed by a reflector which directs the rays which have traveled through the separator and retarder back through the retarder for a second pass and then through the recombiner to the output. Having the input and output on the same side is considered useful in certain applications. A further advantage is that having two passes through the phase retarder means that each pass adds to the phase so that less voltage is required for full modulation. In fall modulation, linear polarized extraordinary and ordinary rays with polarization directions at 45.degree. to the electric field become circularly polarized on one pass and rotated by 90.degree., i.e., interchanged, after two passes.

As in the transmission mode, the deflection of the recombiner can be arranged to provide normally-on or normally-off modulation. The control voltage can be reduced by adding a 45.degree. polarization direction rotator, e.g., a half-wave plate with a c-axis at 22.5.degree.+N.times.45.degree. (N an integer), between the separator/recombiner and the phase retarder so that the electric field can be at 90.degree. to the separation plane. Insertion of a circular polarizer, e.g., a quarter-wave plate with a c-axis at 22.5.degree.+N.times.45.degree. (N an integer) will convert any configuration from normally-on to normally-off and vice versa.

The described modulator/attenuator can be built advantageously to control power levels in, for example, fiberoptic communication systems. In these applications the I/O ports are made of optical fibers and can be assembled in transmission or in reflection mode. In particular, the transmission and reflection mode assemblies can be made advantageously using Graded Index lenses (GRIN lenses). For a reflective system, one side of the lens can be made reflective by e.g. coating the lens surface or attaching a mirror. The other side of the lens receives the input light and emits the output beam. The two input/output fibers must be symmetrically located on both sides of the optical axis of the GRIN lens. For ease of alignment the fibers can be mounted on a single fiber block and aligned simultaneously to the optimal position. This type of alignment eliminates a full degree of freedom and makes the fiber attachment considerably more expedient.

The phase retarder can be made from a special class of ferroelectric complex oxides in the form of polycrystalline ceramics which are optically isotropic, but become anisotropic along the direction of an applied electric field. In other words, the field makes them birefringent with a higher index of refraction along the field than perpendicular to it. An example is lead lanthanum zirconate titanate (PLZT). The electric fields for fall modulation are higher than for liquid crystal phase retarders, but the response time is much faster.

FIGS. 1A-1D show the structure, ray traces, and polarization directions of one embodiment of the invention as a modulator of transmitted light which is normally-off when no voltage is applied.

FIGS. 2A-2C show an embodiment which is normally-on when no voltage is applied.

FIGS. 3A-3D show an embodiment which is normally-on when no voltage is applied and has low polarization mode dispersion.

FIGS. 4A-4D show an embodiment which is normally-on when no voltage is applied, has low polarization mode dispersion, and minimized operating voltage requirements.

FIGS. 5A-5D show an embodiment of the invention as a modulator of reflected light which is normally-off when no voltage is applied.

FIGS. 6A-6D show an embodiment which is normally-on when no voltage is applied.

FIGS. 7A-7D show an embodiment which is normally-on when no voltage is applied and has low polarization mode dispersion.

FIGS. 8A-8D show an embodiment which is normally-off, has low polarization mode dispersion, and minimized operating voltage requirements.

FIGS. 9A-9D show an embodiment which is normally-on, has low polarization mode dispersion, and minimized operating voltage requirements.

FIGS. 10A-10E show an embodiment which is normally-off, has low polarization mode dispersion, minimized operating voltage requirements, and a minimal number of components.

FIGS. 11A-11D show an embodiment which is normally-on, has low polarization mode dispersion, minimized operating voltage requirements, and is particularly suited to use with single-mode optical fibers, having a GRIN lens-based reflector and optical fiber mounting block.

FIGS. 12A and 12B show electrode geometries for an electro-optic phase retarder.

FIG. 13 shows another preferred embodiment of a reflective system in accordance with the invention.

FIG. 14 shows attenuation of light beam intensity as a function of control voltage.

FIG. 15 shows the fall signal response time of light modulation to a control voltage pulse.

In order to realize the objectives of the invention in different applications, a number of embodiments are provided. Each embodiment comprises a configuration of optical elements including an electro-optic phase retarder.

Polarization direction is a term which refers to the angular orientation of a polarization plane with respect to some external reference plane and not to a direction of travel. Electrical phase shift can be expressed in degrees or radians. Degrees are used herein, but should not be confused with angular orientations.

A preferred embodiment of the invention is illustrated in FIGS. 1A-1D, which show a cross section of three optical elements with a small spacing which may be zero in some cases. The beam travels from left to right in the figure and first passes through a polarization separator 101 followed by an electro-optic phase retarder 102 and then a polarization recombiner 103. The separator and recombiner can be made in several ways. FIG. 1A illustrates plates of birefringent materials having optical axes, usually designated the c-axis. FIG. 1A, each has its c-axis oriented at nominally 45.degree. to the direction of travel of the light. The c-axis and direction of travel define a separation plane which, as illustrated, is in the plane of the paper. An end view of the phase retarder in FIG. 1B shows two electrodes arranged to provide an electric field at 45.degree. to the separation plane with space between the electrodes to permit passage of light beams. The path of the light beam when the phase retarder is not operative (no voltage applied) is illustrated by solid rays and when the phase retarder is operative by dashed rays. (Generally, light from an optical source has a finite beam diameter and is not collimated. In many applications, a coherent light source such as a laser emitting at a wavelength in the visible or infrared regions of the spectrum can be used. For ease of understanding, the figures show the paths of central rays with no beam divergence.) FIGS. 1C and 1D show an end view of the light beams and the direction of polarization of the rays at points between optical elements.

Arbitrarily polarized light enters the separator 101 at a point labeled IN and is separated into two components, one having a polarization direction parallel to the separator (paper) plane and one perpendicular. The perpendicular one is also perpendicular to the c-axis and travels through the separator undeflected. This is called an ordinary ray and is labeled "o." The parallel one to the separation plane is deflected at an angle (shown much exaggerated). This is called an extraordinary ray and is labeled "e." If the phase retarder is inoperative, i.e., no voltage is applied, these two rays pass through unaltered and enter the recombiner 103. The original o-ray is still an ordinary ray with respect to the recombiner and passes through undeflected. The original e-ray is deflected a second time. Both rays miss the output at the point labeled OUT.

In order to transmit light to the output, a voltage, V, is applied to the phase retarder. This produces an electric field at about 45.degree. which changes the index of refraction in the retarder for polarization components parallel to the electric field which creates an electrical phase difference compared to perpendicular components. Each of the o- and e-rays, being at 45.degree. to the electric field, have equal parallel and perpendicular components. If sufficient voltage is applied, the parallel components' phase delay is 180.degree.. These are then in phase with the perpendicular components, but with a negative sign so that linearly polarized beams result with a rotation in the polarization direction of the o- and e-rays by 90.degree. as shown in the lower part of FIGS. 1C and 1D. Thus, the original ordinary ray becomes extraordinary, labeled e' and the original extraordinary ray becomes ordinary, labeled o'. The o'-ray passes through the recombiner to the output and the e'-ray is deflected and, also reaches the output. Thus, all the light from the input reaches the output. Lesser voltages produce less transmission, as will be further explained below, but the polarizations are not linear and are difficult to show graphically. Note that, the input beam could have been linearly polarized with a direction of either the o- or e-ray. In this case, there would be half as many rays but the transmission intensity results would be the same. In other words, the input beam can be arbitrarily polarized.

There are several ways to separate the two polarizations. One suitable for this invention is the use of birefringent crystals, as illustrated. These have an index of refraction for light traveling along the c-axis, which is different than the indices for light traveling along the other two directions. One well known effect is that light impinging at normal incidence on a flat plate of such material and polarized in a plane perpendicular to the c-axis (an o-ray) is transmitted, but light polarized parallel (an e-ray) is deflected. The e-ray emerges traveling in a direction parallel to the o-ray, however. With the usual notation, letting n.sub.e be the value of the c-axis index and n.sub.o the value of the indices for the other two axes, the parallel separation, often called the walk-off distance, d, of the e-ray from the o-ray is given by the formulas:

where t is the plate thickness in the direction of beam travel, .theta. is the walk-off angle, and .gamma. is the angle of the c-axis to the direction of travel in a plane containing both the c-axis and the direction of travel. d is maximized when tan .gamma.=n.sub.e /n.sub.o which means .gamma. is close to but not exactly 45.degree.. However, it is usually convenient to use .gamma.=45.degree. and adjust t. Unless n.sub.e -n.sub.o is unusually large, .theta. is at most a few degrees and, to first order, d=t(n.sub.e -n.sub.o)/n.sub.o. Separation of the two polarizations requires that d is bigger than the beam diameter, D. Light beams do not have sharp edges but fall off as a Gaussian exponential within a few wavelengths. Because of diffraction, beams expand at a nominal half-angle given by 1.22.lambda./D. This is quite severe for a 1.55 .mu.m wavelength emanating from a 10 .mu.m diameter single-mode fiber, being about 11.degree.. Thus, if the distance between the input and output is 1 mm, the beam expands to about 375 .mu.m. A collimator can be used produce a larger beam with less divergence. There is a trade-off between beam size and divergence which depends on the length of the modulator. However, the length is affected by the thickness of the phase retarder which depends on the beam size.

There are a number of materials and mechanisms that can be used to produce a phase retarder which will be discussed in more detail below. Its operation in the device illustrated in FIGS. 1A-1D can be explained by assuming an ideal material which, with no voltage applied, has equal indices of refraction for all polarization directions. When a voltage is applied, the internal electric field induces a change in index of refraction (also known as field-induced birefringence), in the simple ideal case, only for polarization directions parallel to the electric field. This causes a relative phase shift in the electromagnetic fields of the light beam polarized parallel and perpendicular to the electric field in the phase retarder. On emerging, they can be represented by sin(.omega. t-.phi.) and sin(.omega. t), respectively, where .omega.=2.pi.c/.lambda.. The change in index produces phase changes in the parallel components of each of the o- and e-ray. This means that the original o-ray will have extraordinary ray components and the original e-ray will have ordinary ray components, both of which will be collected at the output.

The amount of transmission can be found using well known analysis. In a more general case, where the angle of the electric field in the material is at an angle, .alpha., not limited to 45.degree., the transmission, T, of each of the o- and e-rays is given by T(V)=sin.sup.2 (2 .alpha.) sin.sup.2 (.phi./2) where .phi. is the field-induced electrical phase lag which is a function of V. When V=0 and, hence .phi.=0, T(0)=0, independently of the value of .alpha.. Defining "normally" as V=0, this is a normally-off modulator. When V=V.sub..pi. where V.sub..pi. is a voltage sufficient to make .phi.=.pi. radians or 180.degree., T(V.sub..pi.)=sin.sup.2 (2.alpha.). Usually, it is desirable to make T(V.sub..pi.)=1. This can be obtained if .alpha.=45.degree.+N.times.90.degree., where N is an integer including 0. In other words, the orientation can be at .alpha.=45.degree., 135.degree., 215.degree., and 305.degree.. Some error can be tolerated, depending on the application. E.g., for .alpha.=44.degree., T(V.sub..pi.) is less than unity by 0.1% or -30 dB which is usually more than adequate. Assuming .alpha.=45.degree., or the equivalent, T(V)=sin.sup.2 (.phi./2).

A normally on modulator can be constructed as illustrated in FIGS. 2A-2C. Here, the recombiner 103 in FIG. 1A has been replaced by a recombiner 104 with a c-axis orientation at 90.degree. to the orientation in the separator. If so, the e-ray is deflected away from the o-ray and then deflected back to the o-ray to be collected at the output. When V=V.sub..pi., the polarization rotator interchanges the two rays and the original e-ray will become an o'-ray and not be deflected a second time while the original o-ray will become an e'ray and deflected away from the output. Between the two extremes, T(V)=cos.sup.2 (2.alpha.)+sin.sup.2 (2.alpha.) cos.sup.2 (.phi./2). When .phi.=0, T(0)=1, independently of .alpha.. When .phi.=180.degree., T(V.sub..pi.)=cos.sup.2 (2.alpha.). This is minimized when .alpha.=45.degree.+N.times.90.degree.. Assuming a 1.degree. departure from ideal in .alpha., T(V.sub..pi.)=0.1%=-30 dB. This is usually adequate, but may not be so in every application, making alignment more critical for a normally-on modulator. Assuming .alpha. is one of the ideal values, T(V)=cos.sup.2 (.phi./2).

One disadvantage of the modulator illustrated in FIGS. 2A-2C is that there is what is called polarization mode dispersion (PMD). The transmitted e-ray is deflected twice while the transmitted o-ray is not deflected. This means that there is an optical path length difference and equivalent time delay between the two. Not only is there a small difference in path length, but the e-ray experiences a different refractive index and emerges with additional phase retardation compared to the o-ray. It can be shown that the approximate phase difference is .DELTA..phi.=(360.degree.(n.sub.e -n.sub.o)/.pi.)(d/.lambda.). Since the walk-off distance, d, is, at a minimum, many wavelengths, the phase difference is many cycles. Even if the number of cycles is an integer, the corresponding time delay is undesirable in some applications. In the normally-off modulator, this does not happen because the optical path lengths are the same.

A normally-on low PMD modulator can be obtained by inserting an extra half-wave plate 105 in the normally-off configuration of FIG. 1A oriented at 45.degree., as illustrated in FIG. 3A. The half-wave plate acts to passively interchange o- and e-rays, converting a normally-off modulator to a normally on one with the c-axes of the separator and recombiner oriented in the same direction. As illustrated, each ray undergoes one deflection. Assuming the separator 101 and recombiner 103 are closely matched, there is no dispersion.

The half-wave plates can be made from the same materials used for the separator and recombiner. In this case, the c-axis is perpendicular to the direction of travel of the light beam. Polarizations which are parallel to the c-axis are retarded in phase by a different amount than polarizations perpendicular to it. The difference is given by .DELTA..phi.=2.pi.(n.sub.e -n.sub.o)t/.lambda. where t is the thickness. By adjusting t, .DELTA..phi. can be made to be .pi. radians=180.degree.. This means that after traversing the plate, the electric field of one polarization component has the opposite sign relative to the other compared to when they entered the plate. A little geometrical construction will show that if the incoming polarization direction with respect to the c-axis were .beta., the outgoing direction will be 180.degree.--.beta. for (n.sub.e -n.sub.o) positive and--.beta. for (n.sub.e -n.sub.o) negative. In the second case, the polarization direction is reflected about the c-axis as a mirror. However, the polarization direction of the first case is equivalent to the second and so this reflection can be used to visualize the results for both cases. Orientations of the c-axis at .beta..degree.+N.times.45.degree., produce the same results. Thus, orienting the half-wave plate c-axis at 45.degree. to the o-ray and e-ray directions causes them to flip 45.degree.. In other words, the directions are rotated by 90.degree. and interchanged. There is some polarization mode dispersion, but it is slight (one-half a cycle) and could be corrected with a second half-wave plate after the modulator, oriented at 90.degree. to the first.

A normally-off modulator could be obtained by using a recombiner with deflections opposite the separator, but this has the same large polarization mode dispersion as the previous normally-on modulator with such an arrangement. It is simpler, to remove the half-wave plate.

The four configurations just described, have a phase retarder at 45.degree.. As FIG. 1 illustrates, the electrodes must be separated by enough to encompass the two beams. This is D(1+2.sup.1/2). It would be desirable to minimize the separation so that the voltage required to produce the required electric field could be reduced. A configuration which allows this is illustrated in FIGS. 4A-4D. Here, first and second half-wave plates 106 and 108 are shown with c-axes oriented at 22.5.degree. (or equivalently at 22.5.degree.+N.times.45.degree.). Half-wave plate 106 flips the o- and e-ray directions about its c-axis which is equivalent to a 45.degree. rotation If the phase retarder is inoperative, half-wave plate 108 rotates them back so that there is no net change. The normally-off state is the same as in FIG. 1.

As illustrated in FIG. 4B, the electric field in the phase retarder 107 is at 90.degree. to the walk-off direction and the electrode gap can be reduced to D. Since the o- and e-rays have been rotated by 45.degree., the condition .alpha.=45.degree. is again obtained. From here the analysis is the same as for FIGS. 1C-1D. The electric fields can be arranged to be parallel to the walk-off direction, but this increases the electrode gap to 2D.

A normally-on modulator, but with high PMD, can be obtained by arranging for opposite walk-off as in FIG. 2. One with low PMD is obtained by inserting a half wave plate at 45.degree. in FIG. 4A, as in FIG. 3A, but with the separator and recombiner having the same walk-off direction. A lower parts count alternative is to change the orientation of the second 22.5.degree. half-wave plate in FIG. 4A to -22.5.degree. and leave out the additional plate. The last alternative is to change back to a normally-off modulator by using opposite walk-off, again with high PMD.

In another preferred embodiment, the simplest reflection mode configuration is the normally-off modulator illustrated in FIGS. 5A-5D. The separator and recombiner are made from a single plate 201 so that unaltered o- and e-rays are separated by two walk-off distances after two passes through the plate 201. As illustrated in the end view of FIG. 5B, the phase retarder 202 is oriented at 45.degree. to a plane containing the o-ray and deflected e-ray (the separation plane). A simple 90.degree. mirror 203 is used to reflect the incoming beam back through the modulator to the output.

When the phase retarder 202 is inoperative, the light is separated into two polarizations which are reflected and further separated in the second pass through the plate 201. When the voltage on the phase retarder is increased, components of both the original o- and e-rays perpendicular and parallel to the electric field in the retarder acquire a relative phase shift. This differs from the transmission mode in that the rays make two passes through the retarder acquiring equal phase shifts on each pass. Therefore, the voltage required to produce 180.degree. phase shift between the parallel and perpendicular components can be less, i.e., V=V.sub..pi./2 instead of V.sub..pi.. In the completely on state, the o- and e-rays going into plate 201 after reflection are interchanged. However, after the first pass through the retarder, their components have picked up only enough phase shift, 90.degree., to be circularly polarized, as illustrated, picking up the remaining 90.degree. on the second pass.

A normally-on modulator can be produced by arranging for opposite deflection of the incoming and outgoing beams. For example, assuming the plate 201 is a birefringent plate, it can be split into two halves, one covering incoming beams and the other outgoing beams. Then the c-axes are be opposite each other, e.g., at +45.degree. and -45.degree.. In this case, the incoming e-ray is deflected away from the o-ray to the center and the outgoing e-ray is deflected away from the center to meet the outgoing o-ray at the output, as illustrated in FIGS. 6A-6D. However, this configuration has high PMD and there are other ways to produce normally-on modulators with low PMD. But, in general, any configuration with a single deflector plate can be split and opposite deflections provided for incoming and outgoing rays in order to change the normal transmission of the modulator from on to off or vice versa.

A normally-on modulator with no PMD can be obtained by inserting into the previous configuration a quarter-wave plate 204, either before or after the phase retarder, as illustrated in FIGS. 7A-7D. As shown in the end view, its c-axis is at 45.degree. to the separation plane. A quarter wave plate produces 90.degree. of phase shift between components polarized parallel and perpendicular to its c-axis. Since the o- and e-rays are at 45.degree. to the c-axis, each ray has equal parallel and perpendicular components so that each become circularly polarized after the first pass. After reflection by the mirror 203, the second pass produces an additional 90.degree. relative phase shift. The total of 180.degree. phase shift produces a reflection in polarization direction about the c-axis. Since it is at 45.degree., the o- and e-ray polarization directions are interchanged. The deflector 201 deflects the new e-ray to combine with the new o-ray at the output.

In order to turn the modulator off, a V.sub..pi./2 voltage is applied to the retarder 202 which also produces 90.degree. relative phase shift between components parallel and perpendicular to the electric field which is also at 45.degree. to the separation plane. After the first pass through the quarter-wave plate and retarder, the o- and e-ray polarization directions are interchanged. After reflection and a second pass, these rays are interchanged again. Thus, the original e-ray is again an e-ray and is deflected a second time and misses the output as does the undeflected o-ray.

The same effect could be achieved by leaving out the quarter-wave plate and biasing the retarder with a DC voltage, V=V.sub..pi./2, to produce a normally on-state. Increasing the voltage to V=V.sub..pi./2 drives the modulator to off However, with available retarder materials, the voltages required are high enough that this may be an undesirable alternative.

The walk-off distance, as before, should be at least a nominal beam diameter, D. However, it is usually undesirable to have light return to the input area. Therefore, the separation between the input and output should be at least 2D. This means that the electrode gap in the configurations illustrated in FIGS. 5B and 7B must be at least D(1+2.times.2.sup.1/2). The gap can be narrowed to D, if a half-wave plate is inserted between the deflector 201 and the mirror 203, either before or after the phase retarder 202. This configuration is illustrated in FIGS. 8A-8D which show a phase retarder 206 with electrodes at 90.degree. and an electrode gap of D. The half-wave plate 205 can be made from a birefringent plate with an optical phase delay of 180.degree. and a c-axis oriented at 22.5.degree. to the separation plane.

As before, the extraordinary component of the incoming beam is separated and deflected from the ordinary component. After the first pass through the half-wave plate 205, the o- and e-ray directions are rotated by 45.degree.. If the phase retarder is inoperative, these are reflected and make a second pass through the half-wave plate and are rotated back to their original direction. The new o-ray passes through the deflector 201 and the e-ray is deflected so that both rays miss the output. The modulator is normally-off.

Application of V.sub..pi./2 to the retarder 202 adds 90.degree. of phase delay to the components of the o- and e-rays which are parallel to the electric field. This causes both rays to become circularly polarized. After reflection by the mirror 203, the phase retarder adds another 90.degree. of delay to the same components of the o- and e-rays which were delayed on the first pass, producing linearly polarized rays, but with a 45.degree. rotation compared to the polarization direction before the first pass. The half-wave plate 205 then provides another 45.degree. of rotation so that the o- and e-rays are interchanged. The original e-ray, now an o-ray, is undeflected and the original o-ray, now an e-ray, is deflected and both reach the output, as illustrated in FIG. 7A.

A normally-on modulator with low PMD is produced by adding a quarter wave plate. This operates similarly to the configuration in FIG. 7A to interchange polarization directions compared to a configuration without the quarter wave plate. Another way to accomplish the same result without adding a plate is to split the half-wave plate 205 of the last configuration into two halves--one half covering the incoming beam area and the other the reflected outgoing beam area as seen in FIGS. 9A-9D. As illustrated in the end view in FIG. 9B, the outgoing beam half 205B has its c-axis rotated 45.degree. (or equivalently, 135.degree., 225.degree., or 315.degree.) with respect to the orientation of the c-axis of the incoming beam half 205a. When the phase retarder 206 is inoperative, the 45.degree. polarization direction changes caused by half-wave plate 205A to the incoming beam are further increased by 45.degree. by the half wave-plate 205B to the outgoing beam. Thus, the original o- and e-rays are interchanges so that they converge at the output. The modulator is normally-on. A 45.degree. Faraday rotator in place of plates 205A and 205B would have the same effect. When sufficient voltage is applied to the phase retarder, the beams are rotated by 90.degree. after traversing the retarder twice. In this case, when they pass through the plate 205B the further 45.degree. rotation brings the total to 180.degree., so that the o and e-rays regain their original polarization direction.

The beams in the above configurations all travel in one plane which has been designated the separation plane. Physically, it is a plane which contains the o-ray and the e-ray as they exit from the first separator or deflector. All other component are referenced to this plane, either necessarily or by design. A reflection mode design in which that is not so, has advantages in some situations. In this one, assuming it is a birefringent plate, the c-axis of the deflector is not in the paper plane, but canted into the paper. If it were a cubic block (which would usually be much too thick), the c-axis would be along a diagonal running from the front upper left to the back lower right.

FIG. 10A shows a cross-section of the deflector 208 where, however, the end view of FIG. 10B shows its c-axis at 45.degree. with respect to the plane of the paper and at 45.degree. with respect to the direction of beam propagation. This has two effects. First, what is an o- or e-ray with respect to plate 208 is no longer ones that are horizontal or vertical, respectively, but ones that are parallel or perpendicular to the c-axis at 45.degree., as illustrated. The e-ray is now deflected at a 45.degree. angle. In this case, the separation plane is rotated by 45.degree. with respect to the paper plane. The end view also shows the two beams with their polarization directions and displacements. The advantage of this design is that it uses the fewest components while allowing a 90.degree. electric field orientation. The disadvantage is that the electrode gap is D(1+2.sup.-1/2) instead of D, but this is still an improvement over D(1+2.times.2.sup.1/2).

As illustrated in FIGS. 10A-10E, operation is similar to the other reflection mode normally-off modulators with no PMD. Like those, a normally-on modulator with no PMD can be obtained by inserting a quarter-wave plate at 45.degree. or equivalent, either before or after the retarder 209.

When the beam is fairly large with minimal beam divergence, the previous configurations may not require additional components. However, when it is desired to transmit the light to a small diameter receiver such as an optical fiber, a lens or equivalent which focuses the transmitted light is required. Even if the input is from a same-size optical fiber, the beam diverges while passing through the modulator. One approach is to collimate the input to reduce its divergence and focus the output with an identical lens.

The reflection mode has a similar problem. Additionally, for use with fiber optic communications applications, it is usually desirable to make modulators as small as possible. This means that there may not be much room between the input and output for collimators. A solution is illustrated in FIGS. 11A-11D which adds several components. An adaption of FIG. 9A is used for illustration, but the same additions can be made to any of the other reflection mode configurations.

First, the input is provided by the optical fiber 301 and the output goes to fiber 302. These are held in a precise spaced-apart position (shown exaggerated) by the fiber mounting block 303. The function of the deflector 304, split half-wave plates 305A and 305B, and phase retarder 306 are as described for FIG. 9A for elements 201, 205A and 205B, and 206, respectively. Following the retarder is a cylindrical rod-type GRIN lens 307 coated on the end away from the fibers by a reflective surface 308. The end view shows the orientation of the c-axes of the half-wave plates 305A and 305B on which is superposed a view of the retarder 306. In this application, it is desirable to keep the longitudinal spacing between components as small as possible in order to reduce the effects of beam divergence.

The GRIN lens 307 functions as a collimator and collimator. The input beams expand and become more collimated as they travel to the mirror 308 striking it an angle. After reflection by the mirror, the output beams are refocused as they travel back to the output. The center of the beams enter and emerge from conjugate points which are equidistant from the central axis. Otherwise, operation is the same as that described for FIGS. 9C-9D as illustrated by the identical polarization orientation diagrams of FIGS. 11C-11D. During the on state, ideally, the output fiber collects all the light from the input fiber 301 and the light experiences no insertion loss. Since typical single mode fibers operating at communications wavelengths of 1.3 .mu.m and 1.55 .mu.m have cores on the order of 10 .mu.m, alignment of fibers 301 and 302 is critical. The fiber alignment problem and various solutions are known in the art, but the use of the block 303 to hold the fibers at a fixed separation, e.g, 2D, on the same side of the modulator makes this easier. One degree of freedom is eliminated and the block is moved to maximize transmission in the on-state.

The general requirement for the electro-optic phase retarder is that, when a voltage is applied, a phase shift of .pi./2 for the reflection mode and .pi. for the transmission mode is produced between differing polarization directions. Preferably, the material has a high electro-optic coefficient in order to reduce operating voltages to less than 500 volts. Also, the material isotropic index of refraction sufficient to achieve polarization-independent operation. Preferably, the mechanical characteristics allow formation of a bar or plate. Of course, the material must be transparent at the wavelength of interest, e.g., between 1200 nm and 1600 nm.

These requirements are satisfied by a class of ferroelectric complex oxides which: are optical isotropic; have a Curie temperature less than about 300.degree. C., so that electro-optic coefficients are high near room temperature; have a diffusive phase transition, so that the temperature dependence of the electro-optic coefficients is lessened; and which are not permanently poled by moderate electric fields since materials with a low Curie temperature that become permanently poled are less stable. Example material systems are: lead zirconate titanate (PZT), lanthanum modified PZT (PLZT), lead manganese niobate (PMN), and a solid solution of lead manganese niobate and lead tantalate (PMN-PT). More members of this class may be discovered in the future.

PLZT with a nominal 9/65/35 La/Pb/Zr composition is a preferred material. This composition is known to be transparent in a range from 450 nm to 7 .mu.m, see, for example, Lionel M. Levinson, Electronic Ceramics, Chapter 7 (Marcel Delker, N.Y., 1987). In the form of hot-pressed ceramics, it is optically isotropic and exhibits little birefringence with zero applied voltage. The electro-optic coefficient is high and the effect is approximately quadratic with voltage.

An electrode geometry which takes advantage of this material is illustrated by the transverse field configurations illustrated in FIGS. 12A and 12B. The electric field is 90.degree. to the light beam so that polarization-independent operation can be achieved. Since the effect is based on the electric field in the material (designated .epsilon. and illustrated by dashed arrows in the figures), it is desirable to arrange the electrodes as close together as possible to minimize the control voltage. FIG. 12A illustrates the embodiments in which a half wave plate was used to rotate the polarization directions by 45.degree. so that the electrode gap, g, could be as small as possible. In those, g can be as small as the beam diameter. For a single-mode fiber, this is larger, typically 100 .mu.m or more, than the fiber core diameter, typically 10 .mu.m, because of beam divergence.

In order to obtain a uniform electric field, placing electrodes on the side of a bar is preferable. Another solution is to place electrodes on the front and back of a plate and connect them. Achieving uniform fields requires a larger electrode gap than the minimum. However, this can be reduced by using a groove structure as illustrated in FIG. 12B. This shows an electro-optic plate with grooves of depth, e, and width, w, on either side of the beam transmission area. Electrodes are deposited on both sides and connected. With this configuration, adequate field uniformity can be obtained even though the electrodes are not widely separated.

Another preferred embodiment uses a single-piece birefringent plate 304, as illustrated in FIGS. 11A-11D, for operation at 1550 nm. The birefringent plate 304 was 0.5 mm thick YVO.sub.4. Based on an n.sub.e -n.sub.o =0.2 at 1550 nm (see the supplier's data sheet in "Crystals & Materials, Laser Accessories," from Crystal Guide 1996, p. 51, CASIX, Inc. Monrovia, Calif.), this produces a separation of 50 .mu.m for the o- and e-rays. The half-wave plates 305 was 0.28 mm thick. The GRIN lens 307 was a 3 mm diameter Model SLW 300-025-156 from Nippon Sheet Glass Co., Ltd., sold under the trademark SELFOC. This is nominally a quarter pitch, 7.89 mm long, and to compensate for the extra optical path length in the other elements, 1.1 mm was cut off. The mirror 308 was evaporated gold. The phase retarder 306 was made from a commercially available (Aura Ceramics, New Hope, Minn.) 375 .mu.m thick 9/65/35 PLZT hot-pressed bulk ceramic. The electrode configuration was as in FIG. 12A with a separation, g, of 200 .mu.m. Electroless-plated nickel, followed by gold, were used as electrodes.

The fibers 301 and 302 were single-mode, model SWF-29, from Corning, Inc. (Corning, N.Y.) with a core diameter of 10 .mu.m and an overall diameter of 125 .mu.m. These were mounted in block 303 in V-grooves etched in a silicon slab at a distance of 150 .mu.m. (A smaller fiber separation reduces distortions in the GRIN lens which can be obtained by removing the cladding, but the separation should be greater than about twice the walk-off distance, d, if preventing transmission back into the input fiber in the off state is desirable.) Block 303 was aligned with the rest of the assembly by maximizing the transmission from fiber 301 to fiber 302 in the on state. Use of the just described block with both fibers on the same side so that their separation was fixed, made this relatively easy. All surfaces of the optical elements were anti-reflection coated. The plates were held in close proximity but with an air gap with an adhesive outside the beam transmission area. Alternatively, if only low power beams are used, index matching adhesive could be used and the air gap eliminated.

Another preferred embodiment of the invention is illustrated in FIG. 13. Input fiber 402 extends through fiber retaining substrate 406 and is optically coupled to 1/4 pitch GRIN lens 408. The element 410 is a birefringent wedge which separates the beam into components that are coupled to retarder 412 as described previously herein. Reflector 414, such as a mirror, directs the optical signal back through retarder 412, element 410 acting as a combiner, lens 408 and couples the modulated light into output fiber 404.

FIG. 14 shows the modulation characteristics of the device with a DC voltage driver. An InGaAsP/InP diode laser was used as a 1550 nm light source into fiber 301 and the output from fiber 302 was detected with an InGaAs photo detector. In this embodiment, the modulator is normally-on, but the light transmission is reduced to zero when the control voltage reaches V.sub..pi./2 which, in this case, is 150 volts. The actual transmission at zero volts was not 100% but showed an insertion loss of 0.8 dB which is still a large improvement over the 3 dB loss of previously described high speed devices. The actual transmission at V.sub..pi./2 was not zero but attenuation was 30 dB. It should be noted that this is one part per thousand. Very little scattering due to imperfections in the optical elements is required to cause this much light to be deflected into fiber 302. It was found that the sensitivity to different polarization directions of the input light was 0.07 dB.

The response time of the modulator was measured using the same 1550 nm InGaAsP/InP light source, but the DC driver was replaced with a model 828A high-voltage high-speed driver from Analog Modules, Inc. (Longwood, Fla.) and the InGaAs photo detector replaced with a small-area high-speed Ge photo detector. Although there should be no effect on response time, it was measured with a normally-off modulator constructed using a single piece half-wave plate 205, as illustrated in FIG. 8A. The V.sub..pi./2 (magnitude approximately 170 volt) fast-risetime voltage pulses were applied with a repetition rate of 1 kHz. FIG. 15 shows an oscilloscope display with the upper trace proportional to the light detected in fiber 302 and the bottom trace showing a sample of the voltage pulses. The light amplitude 10-90% risetime was about 40 ns. It was found that, due to heating in the enclosure, the modulator was running at about 6.degree. C. above room temperature which is know to decrease the response time and slightly increase the V.sub..pi./2 voltage. When kept at room temperature, a 100 ns risetime and a 150 volt V.sub..pi./2 were more typical. When speed is critical, a heater could be intentionally provided.

In addition to yttrium orthovanadate (YVO.sub.4), birefringent deflector plates can be made of other birefringence materials such as calcite, lithium niobate, or rutile. Rutile may be preferable because it has a larger difference between n.sub.e and n.sub.o, so that the thickness of the plate can be less. As a result, the beam diverges over less distance and a smaller electrode separation and drive voltage can be used. The same rationale applies to using rutile for the quarter and half-wave plates, but these are already so thin that commercial suppliers have difficulty in fabrication. Another well known method of making the equivalent of half- and quarter-wave plates is to use optically active materials such as quartz.

Still a different approach to making polarization separators is to use birefringent material, but in the form of wedges or tapered plates. These produce an angular deflection as opposed to a lateral separation. While more difficult to make and assemble than flat plates, they provide polarization directions after the first deflector which are at 45.degree. to the plane of deflection. This means that transverse fields can be used with a minimum gap without having to rotate the polarization with a half-wave plate.

In the reflection mode, in addition to the illustrated flat mirrors at 90.degree. and GRIN lens with reflector, the reflection function can be produced with a number of optical elements including corner cubes, lenses focused on flat transverse mirrors, planoconvex lenses with the plano side mirror coated and the convex side toward the input and output, etc.

The working example used a narrow band 1550 nm wavelength, but limitation on the wavelength is not so specific nor narrow. The primary limitation on a particular wavelength arises because of the need for material transparency. In addition, since the plates are a fixed thickness, the phase delay will change with the wavelength and, as a secondary effect, the index of refraction changes with wavelength. Thus, performance of the modulator will gradually degrade as wavelengths different from the designed for wavelength are used. It should also be understood that various orientation angles are given as ideals. To the extent that there is mis-orientation, of less than 5 degrees for example, the performance will not be ideal, but the modulator will still function.

While the preferred embodiments have been sufficiently described to enable one skilled in the art to make and use them, it should be appreciated that other obvious alternatives, modifications, or equivalents will be apparent to those in the field of electro-optics. In particular, even without applying a voltage, a strong external electric field will affect the phase retarder and thus the device can be used as an electric field sensor.