US 5,679,783 AGrant
DNA Encoding a Tissue Differentiation Affecting Factor
Issue Date:1997-10-21
•8 Claims
•12 Drawing Sheets
Abstract
A functional polypeptide designated "chordin" is described that is capable of inducing dorsal (and neural tissue) development in vertebrates, and which appears to be a secreted protein. There are substantial regions of conservation with Xenopus chordin with mouse chordin, and the human gene should also be similar in those regions. A full length Xenopus cDNA for chordin is illustrated by FIGS. 1A-1F, and contains a reading frame encoding a 941 residue, 105 kDa precursor protein.
Metadata
Assignee
- The Regents of the University of California
Inventors
- Edward M. De Robertis
- Yoshiki Sasai
Application Information
Application Number:US 3437604
Filing Date:1994-11-22
Priority Date:1994-11-22
Art Unit:182
Classifications
IPC:
C12N 1512C07K 1446
Field of Search:
53643551493553023.1;23.569.1;172.3;252.3;320.14411;22;27;29;31;32;66350
Patent Drawings (12 sheets)
Description
Field of the Invention
The invention generally relates to growth factors, neurotrophic factors, and their inhibitors, and more particularly to a growth factor with dorsal growth (and neural tissue) inducing activity, to complexes and compositions including the factor, and to DNA or RNA coding sequences for the factor, and to factors of the same family.
Background of the Invention
Growth factors are substances, such as polypeptide hormones, which affect the growth of defined populations of animal cells in vivo or in vitro, but which are not nutrient substances. Proteins involved in the growth and differentiation of tissues may promote or inhibit growth, and promote or inhibit differentiation, and thus the general term "growth factor" includes cytokines, trophic factors, and their inhibitors. Among growth, or neurotrophic, factors presently known are the transforming growth factors (TGF-.alpha., TGF-.beta., TGF-.gamma.)!. Transforming growth factor-.beta. appears to elicit a variety of responses in many different cell types.
Widespread neuronal cell death accompanies normal development of the central and peripheral nervous systems. Studies of peripheral target tissues during development have shown that neuronal cell death results from the competition among neurons for limiting amounts of survivor factors ("neurotrophic factors"). The earliest identified of these, nerve growth factor ("NGF"), is the most fully characterized and has been shown to be essential for the survival of sympathetic and neural crest-derived sensory neurons during early development of both chick and rat. Barde et al., U.S. Pat. No. 5,229,500, issued Jul. 20, 1993, describe nucleic acid sequences encoding brain derived neurotrophic factor ("BDNF"), as well as the BDNF protein. BDNF is suggested for treating Parkinson's Disease and Alzheimer's Disease. Additional uses (quite recently performed successfully) are for the identification of homologous regions between BDNF and NGF so as to identify and isolate additional members of the NGF family, and also to generate immunogen by antibodies directed toward BDNF or fragments.
Among TGF-.beta. members are the bone morphogenetic proteins (BMP). The BMPs have been indicated as useful in wound healing, tissue repair, and to induce cartilage and/or bone growth. For example, PCT Application 9309229, inventors Israel and Wolfman, published May 13, 1993, describes uses of proteins with bone stimulating activity such as bone fracture healing and possibly the treatment of periodontal disease and other tooth repair processes.
BMPs have potent effects during embryogenesis. One member, BMP-4, has been shown to have potent ventralizing effects in Xenopus embryos, leading to the differentiation of blood and mesenchyme and inhibiting the formation of dorsal tissues such as notochord, muscle, and nervous system. (See, e.g., Jones et al., Development, 115, pp. 639-647, 1991.) BMP-4 is expressed ventrally in the Xenopus embryo and its expression is increased by ventralizing treatments such as irradiation with ultraviolet light (UV), see Steinbeisser et al., EMBO J., in press, November 1994 issue. An inhibitor of ventralizing BMPs could have dorsalizing effects on tissue differentiation. There are precedents for such inhibitory interactions in the TGF-.beta. family, since activin, a dorsalizing factor, can be inhibited by a specific inhibitory protein designated inhibin in the Xenopus embryo. (See, e.g., Hemmati-Brivanlou et al., Cell, 77, pp. 283-295, 1994.)
Another family of neurotropic factors are the Wnts, which have dorsal axis-inducing activity. Most of the Wnt protein are bound to cell surfaces. (See, e.g., Sokol et al., Science, 249, pp. 561-564, 1990.) One member of the family, Xwnt-8, was described as to dorsal axis-inducing activity in Xenopus embryos by Smith and Harland in 1991, Cell, 67, pp. 753-765. The authors described using RNA injections as a strategy for identifying endogenous RNAs involved in dorsal patterning to rescue dorsal development in embryos that were ventralized by UV irradiation.
Uv ventralization is useful to probe the normal response of a gene to dorsal/ventral cell identity because UV treated embryos reproducibly lack obvious dorsal structures (e.g. somites, notochord, and neural plate). In addition, gastrulae that has become extreme ventralized tadpoles form a radial blastopore lip at the time of normal ventral blastopore lip formation. This suggests that the mesoderm is behaving as though it is ventral in identity. Lithium chloride treatment respecifies the fate of cells along the anterior-posterior axis of the early embryo by contrast to UV irradiation, which causes centralization of embryos.
Another member of the Wnt family was subsequently discovered and described by Harland and Smith, which they termed "noggin." (Cell, 70, pp. 829-840 (1992).)
Noggin is a good candidate to function as a signaling molecule in Nieuwkoop's center, by virtue of its maternal transcripts, and in Spemann's organizer, through its zygotic organizer-specific expression. Besides noggin, other secreted factors many be involved in the organizer phenomenon.
New growth and neurotrophic factors are being sought, particularly those that are secreted due to their ability to be used in physiologically active, soluble forms because these factors, their receptors, and DNA or RNA coding sequences therefore and fragments thereof are useful in a number of therapeutic, clinical, research, diagnostic, and drug design applications.
Summary of the Invention
In one aspect of the present invention, a peptide that can be in substantially purified form is encoded by SEQ ID NO:1. The Xenopus SEQ ID NO:1 codes for a functional polypeptide that we have designated "chordin," which is capable of inducing dorsal (and neural tissue) development in vertebrates when expressed, and whose deduced amino acid sequence is illustrated by SEQ ID NO:2. Since peptides of the invention induce dorsal and neural tissue differentiation in vertebrates, they should be able to be prepared in physiologically active form for a number of therapeutic, clinical, and diagnostic applications.
In another aspect of the present invention an oligonucleotide, such as cDNA, is provided having the complementary sequence to SEQ ID NO:1. This oligonucleotide can be single or double stranded, be formed of DNA or RNA bases, and can be in the antisense direction, as illustrated by SEQ ID NO:1.
Chordin or fragments thereof (which also may be synthesized by in vitro methods) may be fused (by recombinant expression or in vitro covalent methods) to an immunogenic polypeptide and this, in turn, may be used to immunize an animal in order to raise antibodies against a chordin epitope. Anti-chordin is recoverable from the serum of immunized animals. Alternatively, monoclonal antibodies may be prepared from cells to the immunized animal in conventional fashion. Immobilized anti-chordin antibodies are useful particularly in the diagnosis (in vitro or in vivo) or purification of chordin.
Substitutional, deletional, or insertional mutants of chordin and polypeptides derived from its sequence may be prepared by in vitro or recombinant methods and screened for immuno-crossreactivity with chordin and for chordin antagonist or agonist activity.
Chordin also may be derivatized in vitro in order to prepare immobilized chordin and labelled chordin, particularly for purposes of diagnosis of insufficiencies of chordin or its antibodies, or for affinity purification of chordin antibodies.
Brief Description of the Drawings
FIGS. 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E and 1F illustrates a cDNA clone (SEQ ID NO:1) for chordin derived from Xenopus. Sense strand is on top (5' to 3' direction) and the antisense strand on the bottom line (in the opposite direction);
FIGS. 2A, 2B, 2C, 2D, and 2E illustrates the predicted translated amino acid sequence (SEQ ID NO:2) of the FIGS. 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E and 1F cDNA clone for chordin; and
FIG. 3 illustrates the preliminary nucleotide sequence (sense strand) of a partial mouse chordin cDNA clone (SEQ ID NO:3). Nucleotides indicted by lower case letters are prone to errors, and N indicates that it was not possible to identify any particular nucleotides at this position in this preliminary automated nucleotide sequence determination.
Description of the Preferred Embodiments
We have discovered a novel dorsalizing and neural inducing factor that induces dorsal development in vertebrates that we have named "chordin." When referring to chordin, the present invention also contemplates the use of fragments, derivatives, agonists, or antagonists of chordin molecules.
Chordin is expressed in the Spemann organizer. In UV-treated embryos, a single injection of synthetic chordin mRNA can completely rescue axial development. This rescue is dose-dependent and sensitive to 2-fold differences in the amount of injected mRNA. In the UV rescue assay, the effect of chordin is similar to that of Xwnt-8 mRNA (Sokol et al., supra, 1990; Smith and Harland, supra, 1991) and noggin (Smith and Harland, supra, 1992). However, although the phenotypes are similar, Xwnt-8 is expressed in the ventral and lateral marginal zone but not in the organizer region, and therefore is unlikely to act as a dorsalizing signal in vivo. Chordin expression overlaps, in part, with that of noggin.
Thus, noggin and chordin are both dorsalizing factors with some similar phenotypic effects. Since noggin is expressed maternally and zygotically, the latter expression being localized in the organizer, noggin could function in the Nieuwkoop center, the Spemann organizer, or both. On the other hand, chordin is expressed only zygotically and exclusively in the organizer region, so that it could not function in vivo in the Nieuwkoop center. There are no sequence similarities between the two proteins; noggin encodes a secreted polypeptide of 222 amino acids while chordin is four times as large.
Chordin and noggin display clear cut differences in their modes of activation. Noggin is a primary response gene to activin induction, while chordin is a secondary response gene requiring de novo protein synthesis. In addition, chordin is activated by the organizer-specific homeobox genes gsc and Xnot2, while noggin is not. Thus, despite some phenotypic similarities in embryological assays, chordin and noggin appear to represent two parallel signalling pathways in Spemann's organizer.
To illustrate the mechanism underlying the biological activity of chordin, we studied mesoderm induction in animal cap explants. Injection of chordin mRNA did not induce mesoderm by itself, but promoted induction of notochord and neural tissues in animal caps treated with bFGF. Similar observations, in which dorsalizing agents cannot induce mesoderm in animal caps but can form dorsal mesoderm, in response to ventral mesoderm induction, have been reported, for example, with noggin and Xwnt-8 mRNA. Since the expression of chordin is zygotic and localized specifically in the organizer, this molecule, like noggin, appears to be a horizontal dorsalizing signal.
The amphibian organizer consists of several cell populations with region-specific inducing activities. On the basis of morphogenetic movements, three very different cell populations can be distinguished in the organizer. First, cells with crawling migration movements involute, fanning out to form the prechordal plate. Second, cells involute through the dorsal lip driven by convergence and extension movements, giving rise to the notochord of the trunk. Third, involution ceases and the continuation of mediolateral intercalation movements leads to posterior extension movements and to the formation of the tail notochord and of the chordoneural hinge. The three cell populations correspond to the head, trunk, and tail organizers, respectively.
Despite their different behaviors from the cell biological point of view, the three organizer regions share a common dorsalizing and neural inducing molecule, we call chordin, which is expressed at the right time and in the right place to participate in cell signalling by Spemann's organizer and is activated by organizer-specific homeobox genes.
Our studies were conducted in early embryos of the frog Xenopus laevis. The frog embryo is well suited to experiments, particularly experiments pertaining to generating and maintaining regional differences within the embryo for determining roles in tissue differentiation. It is easy to culture embryos with access to the embryos even at very early stages of development (preceding and during the formation of body pattern and differentiation) and the embryos are large. The initial work with noggin also had been in Xenopus embryos, and, as predicted, was highly conserved among vertebrates so that the predictions based on work with Xenopus as to corresponding human noggin were proven true and the ability to clone the gene for human noggin was readily accomplished. (See the description of Xenopus work and cloning information in PCT application, published Mar. 17, 1994, WO 9 405 800, and the subsequent human cloning based thereon in the PCT application, also published Mar. 17, 1994, as WO 9 405 791.)
Chordin therefore is believed to be a secreted protein, has 941 amino acids, and is expressed specifically in the head-, trunk-, and tail-organizer regions of the Xenopus embryo. The human counterpart is expected to have properties predicted from our recent isolation of a mammalian cDNA with similarity to Xenopus chordin. This cDNA was isolated from a gastrula cDNA library made in this laboratory from 61/2 to 71/2 day mouse embryos, by screening with the Xenopus probe under conditions of moderate stringency. Mouse chordin is expressed in the embryo in a region homologous to Spemann's organizer, the murine node. In the genome, this cDNA maps to mouse chromosome 16, within one centimorgan of marker D16MIT1. Because this region of the mouse genome is considered homologous, or synthenic, to specific regions of either human chromosomes 22 or 3, see Lyons and Searle, eds., Genetic Variants and Strains of the Laboratory Mouse, second ed., Oxford University Press (1989), p. 531, one can predict the genomic location of the human gene. While the sequence of the mouse cDNA is not complete at this time there are substantial regions of conservation with Xenopus chordin (FIG. 3, SEQ ID NO:3). For example, the mouse cDNA has predicted polypeptides of amino acid sequence SAQEPGFAEVLP, SCDVLQSVLCGGDAL, and AITLETNP, which have only two amino acid differences each with the Xenopus chordin sequence shown in FIG. 2A-E (SEQ ID NO:2). Such regions of high identity between Xenopus and mouse chordin predict that the human gene will also be similar in these regions. Further, it predicts that it should be very feasible to use these regions of high homology to isolate the human chordin gene by high or medium stringency hybridization, or by the polymerase chain reaction. Such conserved regions may also help to isolate not only the human homolog of chordin, but also other family members of the chordin family. Secreted signalling factors, such as the Wnts and BMPs discussed above, are frequently part of families of related proteins, which may have similar or divergent functions.
We have cloned a full length Xenopus cDNA for chordin. The chordin cDNA contains a reading frame encoding a 941 residue, 105 kDa precursor protein with a hydrophobic amino-terminal sequence. The sequence predicts a mature, carboxy-terminal, processed product of 103 kDa.
Chordin has the ability to modify mesoderm induction of embryonic cells, so that neural, muscle, and other tissues are induced. Thus, this entirely new molecule has demonstrated physiological properties that should prove useful in therapeutic, diagnostic, and clinical applications that require regeneration, differentiation, or repair of tissues, such wound repair, neuronal regenerational or transplantation, supplementation of muscle differentiation, bone tissue repair, and other applications in which embryonic cellular processes are to be induced.
Chordin nucleic acids, or oligonucleotides, encode a chordin polypeptide or hybridize to such DNA and remain stably bound to it under stringent conditions and are greater than about 10 bases in length. By "stringent conditions" we mean those which (1) employ low ionic strength and high temperature for washing, for example, 0.15M NaCl/0.015M sodium citrate/0.1% NaDodSo.sub.4 at 50.degree. C., or (2) use during hybridization a denaturing agent such as formamide, for example, 50% (vol/vol) formamide with 0.1% bovine serum albumin/0.1% Ficoll/0.1% polyvinylpyrrolidone/50 mM sodium phosphate buffer at pH 6.5 with 750 mM NaCl, 75 mM sodium citrate at 42.degree. C.
By "substantial similarity," when we are referring to a nucleotide sequence, is meant cross hybridization of sequences under conditions of moderate stringency using a probe greater than about 100 nucleotides long at 30.degree. C. in a standard buffer (Wahl et al., PNAS, 76, 3683) and washes at 37.degree. C. in 300 mM NaCl, 30 mM sodium citrate, 0.2% SDS at pH 7. Alternatively, one is able to isolate, by polymerase chain reaction, a fragment of DNA coding for chordin or chordin family members when using primers of degenerate sequence.
By "substantial similarity" when reference is made to proteins is that chordin from different species, or chordin family members within a species, have stretches of 10 consecutive amino acids or more having 80% identity in amino acid sequence.
Similarity at the protein level includes an ability of a subject protein to compete with chordin for binding to receptors or other interacting proteins and some (but not all) monoclonal antibodies raised against chordin epitopes.
The cloned cDNA for chordin (derived from frog) is designated herein as SEQ ID NO:1. We have used RNA transcripts from the SEQ ID NO:1 clone to rescue embryos and return them to substantially normal development when the chordin RNA is injected into ventralized embryos.
A number of applications for chordin are suggested from its pharmacological (biological activity) properties.
The chordin cDNA should be useful as a diagnostic tool (such as through use of antibodies in assays for proteins in cell lines or use of oligonucleotides as primers in a PCR test to amplify those with sequence similarities to the oligonucleotide primer, and to see how much chordin is present).
Without being bound by theory, we have formulated hypotheses about the embryological effects of chordin based on where it is expressed, and on the effects of RNA injection in embryos. Since chordin is expressed in the Spemann organizer, we believe chordin to be a mediator of the effects of the Spemann organizer, namely neural induction and dorsalization of the mesoderm. Since chordin is expressed in the notochord and head mesoderm, we believe chordin to influence either the dorsal-ventral pattern or anterior-posterior pattern of the neural plate. Since chordin is expressed in the branchial arch neural crest, we believe it may therefore influence whether neural crest cells deposit cartilage and also to influence later branchial arch growth and remodelling. Chordin is expressed in the tail fin neural crest, and since neural crest is required for growth of the fin, chordin may act as a growth factor for epidermis or mesenchyme.
Since chordin is able to modify the action of FGF so that differentiation of many tissues is induced, such as somite and its derivatives (muscle, cartilage, and at later stages bone) and neural tissue and its derivatives (neural crest and sensory placodes), we believe that chordin may influence the differentiation and growth of many tissues. Clinical uses to regulate cartilage and bone regeneration, wound healing, and neural regeneration and transplantation are suggested. In these processes, cells adopt the properties of embryonic cells, and chordin may be especially useful in therapeutic compositions including other growth factors active in embryogenesis.
One hypothesis that is particularly attractive is that chordin, which is expressed dorsally, may antagonize the activity of BMP-4, or other growth factors, that are expressed ventrally. BMP-4 has such potent ventralizing activity, see Fainsod et al., supra, (1994), that interfering with its activity may result in dorsal development. Further support for this hypothesis comes from the recent observation that dominant-negative receptors that interfere with signalling of multiple BMPs in the Xenopus embryo lead to some dorsal development (muscle) in ventralized embryos. (See, Graft et al., Cell, 79, pp. 169-179, 1994.) If such a negative action of chordin on signalling by BMPs of other growth factors existed, it could act at many different levels, by binding directly to BMPs, or by modifying the proteolytic processing or transport of BMPs in the extracellular matrix, or by interfering with BMP receptors. These might be properties of the entire chordin molecule or of shorter peptides derived from it by proteolysis.
Chordin, of course, might act upon its target cells via its own receptor. Chordin, therefore, provides the key to isolate this receptor. Since many receptors mutate to cellular oncogenes, the chordin receptor should prove useful as a diagnostic probe for certain tumor types. Thus, when one views chordin as ligand in complexes, then complexes in accordance with the invention include antibody bound to chordin, antibody bound to peptides derived from chordin, chordin bound to its receptor, or peptides derived from chordin bound to its receptor or other factors. Mutant forms of chordin, which are either more potent agonists or antagonists, are believed to be clinically useful. Such complexes of chordin and its binding protein partners will find uses in a number of applications.
Practice of this invention includes use of an oligonucleotide construct comprising a sequence coding for chordin and for a promoter sequence operatively linked to chordin in a mammalian or a viral expression vector. Expression and cloning vectors contain a nucleotide sequence that enables the vector to replicate in one or more selected host cells. Generally, in cloning vectors this sequence is one that enables the vector to replicate independently of the host chromosomes, and includes origins of replication or autonomously replicating sequences. The well-known plasmid pBR322 is suitable for most gram negative bacteria, the 2.mu. plasmid origin for yeast and various viral origins (SV40, polyoma, adenovirus, VSV or BPV) are useful for cloning vectors in mammalian cells.
Expression and cloning vectors should contain a selection gene, also termed a selectable marker. Typically, this is a gene that encodes a protein necessary for the survival or growth of a host cell transformed with the vector. The presence of this gene ensures that any host cell which deletes the vector will not obtain an advantage in growth or reproduction over transformed hosts. Typical selection genes encode proteins that (a) confer resistance to antibiotics or other toxins, e.g. ampicillin, neomycin, methotrexate or tetracycline, (b) complement auxotrophic deficiencies.
Examples of suitable selectable markers for mammalian cells are dihydrofolate reductase (DHFR) or thymidine kinase. Such markers enable the identification of cells which were competent to take up the chordin nuclei acid. The mammalian cell transformants are placed under selection pressure which only the transformants are uniquely adapted to survive by virtue of having taken up the marker. Selection pressure is imposed by culturing the transformants under conditions in which the concentration of selection agent in the medium is successively changed. Amplification is the process by which genes in greater demand for the production of a protein critical for growth are reiterated in tandem within the chromosomes of successive generations of recombinant cells. Increased quantities of chordin can therefor be synthesized from the amplified DNA.
For example, cells transformed with the DHFR selection gene are first identified by culturing all of the transformants in a culture medium which contains methotrexate (Mtx), a competitive antagonist of DHFR. An appropriate host cell in this case is the Chinese hamster ovary (CHO) cell line deficient in DHFR activity, prepared and propagated as described by Urlaub and Chasin, Proc. Nat. Acac. Sci., 77, 4216 (1980). The transformed cells then are exposed to increased levels of Mtx. This leads to the synthesis of multiple copies of the DHFR gene and, concomitantly, multiple copies of other DNA comprising the expression vectors, such as the DNA encoding chordin. Alternatively, host cells transformed by an expression vector comprising DNA sequences encoding chordin and aminoglycoside 3' phosphotransferase (APH) protein can be selected by cell growth in medium containing an aminoglycosidic antibiotic such as kanamycin or neomycin or G418. Because eukarotic cells do not normally express an endogenous APH activity, genes encoding APH protein, commonly referred to as neo resistant genes, may be used as dominant selectable markers in a wide range of eukaryotic host cells, by which cells transformed by the vector can readily be identified.
Expression vectors, unlike cloning vectors, should contain a promoter which is recognized by the host organism and is operably linked to the chordin nucleic acid. Promoters are untranslated sequences located upstream from the start codon of a structural gene (generally within about 100 to 1000 bp) that control the transcription and translation of nucleic acid under their control. They typically fall into two classes, inducible and constitutive. Inducible promoters are promoters that initiate increased levels of transcription from DNA under their control in response to some change in culture conditions, e.g. the presence or absence of a nutrient or a change in temperature. At this time a large number of promoters recognized by a variety of potential host cells are well known. These promoters can be operably linked to chordin encoding DNA by removing them from their gene of origin by restriction enzyme digestion, followed by insertion 5' to the start codon for chordin.
Nucleic acid is operably linked when it is placed into a functional relationship with another nucleic acid sequence. For example, DNA for a presequence or secretory leader is operably linked to DNA for a polypeptide if it is expressed as a preprotein which participates in the secretion of the polypeptide; a promoter or enhancer is operably linked to a coding sequence if it affects the transcription of the sequence; or a ribosome binding site is operably linked to a coding sequence if it is positioned so as to facilitate translation. Generally, operably linked means that the DNA sequences being linked are contiguous and, in the case of a secretory leader, contiguous and in reading phase. Linking is accomplished by ligation at convenient restriction sites. If such sites do not exit then synthetic oligonucleotide adapters or linkers are used in accord with conventional practice.
Transcription of chordin-encoding DNA in mammalian host cells is controlled by promoters obtained from the genomes of viruses such as polyoma, cytomegalovirus, adenovirus, retroviruses, hepatitis-B virus, and most preferably Simian Virus 40 (SV40), or from heterologous mammalian promoters, e.g. the actin promoter. Of course, promoters from the host cell or related species also are useful herein.
Chordin is clearly useful as a component of culture media for use in culturing cells, such as nerve cells, in vitro. We believe chordin will find use as an agent for enhancing the survival or inducing the growth of nerve and muscle cells. It may, therefore, be found useful in the therapy of degenerative disorders of the nervous system ("neurodegenerative diseases"), including such diseases as Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's chorea, ALS, peripheral neuropathies, and other conditions characterized by necrosis or loss of neurons, whether central, peripheral, or motorneurons. In addition, it may be useful for treating damaged nerve cells, e.g., nerves damaged by traumatic conditions such as burns and wounds, diabetes, kidney dysfunction, and the toxic effects of chemotherapeutics used to treat cancer and AIDS.
Practice of this invention includes preparation and uses of a diagnostic or therapeutic agent comprising a nucleotide sequence preferably having at least about 15 DNA or RNA bases analogous to all or a portion of either SEQ ID NO:1 or SEQ ID NO:3. That is, chordin preparations are useful as standards in assays for chordin and in competitive-type receptor binding assays when labelled with radioiodine, enzymes, fluorophores, spin labels, and the like. Therapeutic formulations of chordin are prepared for storage by mixing chordin having the desired degree of purity with optional physiologically acceptable carriers, excipients or stabilizers, in the form of lyophilized cake or aqueous solutions. Acceptable carriers, excipients or stabilizers are nontoxic to recipients at the dosages and concentrations employed, and include buffers such as phosphate, citrate, and other organic acids; anti-oxidants including ascorbic acid; low molecular weight (less than about 10 residues) polypeptides; proteins, such as serum albumin, gelatin or immunoglobulins. Other components can include glycine, blutamine, asparagine, arginine, or lysine; monosaccharides, disaccharides, and other carbohydrates including glucose, mannose, or dextrins; chelating agents such as EDTA; sugar alcohols such as mannitol or sorbitol; salt-forming counterions such as sodium; and/or nonionic surfactants such as Tween, Pluronics or PEG.
Polyclonal antibodies to chordin generally are raised in animals by multiple subcutaneous (sc) or intraperitoneal (ip) injections of chordin and an adjuvant. It may be useful to conjugate chordin or a fragment containing the target amino acid sequence to a protein which is immunogenic in the species to be immunized, e.g., keyhole limpet hemocyanin, serum albumin, bovine thyroglobulin, or soybean trypsin inhibitor using a bifunctional or derivatizing agent, for example, maleimidobenzoyl sulfosuccinimide ester (conjugation through cysteine residues), N-hydroxy-succinimide (through lysine residues), glutaraldehyde, succinic anhydride, SOCl.sub.2, or R.sup.1 N.dbd.C.dbd.NR.
Animals can be immunized against the immunogenic conjugates or derivatives by combining 1 mg or 1 .mu.g of conjugate (for rabbits or mice, respectively) with 3 volumes of Freund's complete adjuvant and injecting the solution intradermally in multiple sites. One month later the animals are boosted with 1/5 to 1/10 the original amount of conjugate in Fruend's complete adjuvant by subcutaneous injection at multiple sites. Seven to 14 days later animals are bled and the serum is assayed for anti-chordin titer. Animals are boosted until the titer plateaus. Preferably, the animal is boosted with the conjugate of the same chordin polypeptide, but conjugated to a different protein and/or through a different cross-linking agent. Conjugates also can be made in recombinant cell culture as protein fusions. Also, aggregating agents such as alum are used to enhance the immune response.
Monoclonal antibodies are prepared by recovering spleen cells from immunized animals and immortalizing the cells in conventional fashion, e.g. by fusion with myeloma cells or by EB virus transformation and screening for clones expressing the desired antibody.
Chordin antibodies are useful in diagnostic assays for chordin or its antibodies and to identify family members. In one embodiment of a receptor binding assay, an antibody composition which binds to all of a selected plurality of members of the chordin family is immobilized on an insoluble matrix, the test sample is contacted with the immobilized antibody composition in order to adsorb all chordin family members, and then the immobilized family members are contacted with a plurality of antibodies specific for each member, each of the antibodies being individually identifiable as specific for a predetermined family member, as by unique labels such as discrete fluorophores or the like. By determining the presence and/or amount of each unique label, the relative proportion and amount of each family member can be determined.
Chordin antibodies also are useful for the affinity purification of chordin from recombinant cell culture or natural sources. Chordin antibodies that do not detectably cross-react with other growth factors can be used to purify chordin free from these other family members.
Chordin encodes a putative secreted protein of 941 amino acids. It has four cys-rich domains similar to those found in extracellular proteins such as thrombospondin, the propeptide of alpha procollagen, and von Willebrand factor. The conservation is limited mostly to the spacing of the cysteine residues; it appears that the cys-rich domains define a novel family of secreted, extracellular matrix or cell surface proteins. Chordin, like other proteins containing cys-rich repeats, may be a matrix protein. A role for extracellular matrix proteins in patterning signals would not be unprecedented; recently one of the signals involved in axon guidance by the floor plate has been identified as netrin, a protein with homology to laminin B2.
Most of the chordin protein sequence shows no significant homology to known proteins. Although the function of cys-rich domains is unknown, they have been implicated in protein multimerization. In the case of alpha-1 procollagen types I and III, a propeptide including the cys-rich domain has been proposed to be involved in negative feedback of collagen expression. Thus, the cys-rich repeats could contain part of the biological activity of chordin, and may be released by proteolytic cleavage.
Experimental Results
To isolate dorsal-specific genes, duplicate filters of an unamplified dorsal lip cDNA library (Blumberg et al, Science, 253, pp. 194-196, 1991) were hybridized with probes synthesized either from dorsalized or ventralized gastrula mRNAs. To enrich for zygotically expressed genes, the probes were subtracted with maternal (8-cell embryo) mRNA. It is empirically known that many primary response genes to mesoderm induction in Xenopus are also expressed in egg mRNA, so this subtraction step should reduce the chance of recloning known genes such as gsc, Xlim, XFKH1 and Xnot, and increase the possibility of isolating downstream target genes. Screening of 25,000 plaques (see Experimental Procedures) yielded six independent groups of cDNAs enriched in LiCl-treated embryos.
To identify cDNAs of interest, further screening was performed with the longest clone of each group in three ways. 1) The ability of its sense RNA to induce secondary axes was explored by microinjection into ventral blastomeres. 2) Whole-mount in situ hybridization (Harland, 1991) using a mixture of embryos of different stages was used to identify clones expressed in areas of known organizing activity. 3) The activation of candidate genes by organizer-specific homeobox products was tested by whole-mount in situ hybridization of embryos microinjected with gsc mRNA at concentrations known to induce formation of secondary axes. In situ hybridization identified only one group, consisting of three clones which eventually proved not to be full-length, that was exclusively expressed in cells with Spemann's organizer activity. The gene encoding these cDNAs, chordin, was found to be activated by gsc and chosen for further study.
By in situ hybridization chordin transcripts are first detected one hour before gastrulation (stage 91/2) in nuclei scattered in the dorsal marginal zone. When the dorsal lip is first detected at stage 101/4, the chordin transcript is found exclusively on the forming lip and cytoplasmic staining can also be observed. Once the dorsal lip is fully formed (stage 103/4), chordin expression is intense both in superficial and involuted cells. By the mid gastrula stage, when a circular blastopore is formed (stage 11), most cells expressing chordin have involuted (explaining the more diffuse appearance of the chordin signal), except for cells in the dorsal half of the edge of the lip itself.
At early neurula (stage 13), strong chordin expression is detected in the prechordal plate (head mesoderm) and the notochord. At the early tailbud stage (stage 26), chordin is transiently expressed in the forebrain, fading from the prechordal plate and anterior notochord but remaining in the posterior notochord and tailbud hinge. Later on (stage 33, corresponding to 42 hours of development), the chordin signal is detected exclusively in the tailbud. Closer examination reveals that the expression is localized in a specific region in the tailbud, the chordoneural hinge. This is of interest because transplantation experiments have shown that the chordoneural hinge retains organizer activity at this stage. Expression continues in the tip of the tail in swimming tadpoles (stage 42, 72 hours after fertilization). In embryos dorsalized by LiCl treatment chordin expression is enhanced, forming a ring that spans the entire marginal zone; this explains why the gene was isolated in the differential screen. All observations mentioned above were confirmed in embryos rendered transparent by clearing solution and in histological sections.
Taken together, these descriptive studies show that chordin is expressed initially in the dorsal lip and then in tissues derived from the organizer. The expression in the dorsal lip and prechordal plate overlaps in part with that of the homeobox gene gsc. The later expression of chordin in the notochord and chordoneural hinge does not coincide with that of gsc but does overlap with the expression of another homeobox gene, Xnot2. These data led to the hypothesis that the chordin gene might be positively regulated (directly or indirectly) by both homeodomain proteins.
To test this hypothesis, synthetic gsc or Xnot2 mRNAs were microinjected radially into all blastomeres of 4-cell embryos, and hybridized with a chordin probe at the gastrula stage. Both gsc mRNA and Xnot2 mRNA were able to induce ectopic patches of chordin mRNA in the ventral and lateral marginal zone. We also tested whether chordin could be activated in embryos lacking an organizer. In UV-treated embryos, chordin expression is eliminated in keeping with the dorsal character of this gene. When UV-treated embryos were injected diagonally into two blastomeres at the 4-cell stage, two patches of chordin expression could be induced both by gsc and Xnot2 mRNAs.
The activation by these homeobox genes appears to be specific for chordin. Radial injection of gsc or Xnot2 mRNA did not cause ectopic expression of the organizer-specific gene noggin. In addition to providing a convenient negative control, the inability of gsc to activate noggin in this assay suggests that noggin is unlikely to mediate the non-cell-autonomous effects of gsc. As a further control, a biologically active homeobox mRNA of the Antennapedia-type (XlHbox 1); was injected and found not to activate chordin expression (even at 5-fold higher concentrations than those used for gsc and Xnot2 mRNA). An unrelated control synthetic mRNA (human prolactin) also failed to activate chordin.
We conclude that expression of chordin, but not that of noggin, can be activated by the gsc and Xnot2 homeobox gene products. The expression patterns of these transcription factors partially overlap with that of chordin; the effects of Xlim-1 and XFKH1, which also overlap in expression with chordin, were not tested in this study.
Activin is a potent inducer of dorsal mesoderm. Several genes can be activated by this growth factor even in the absence of de novo protein synthesis. Such Xenopus primary response genes include Mix-1, Brachyury, gsc, Xlim-1, XFKH1, and Xnot. Since gsc and Xnot2 can induce ectopic expression of chordin mRNA, it was of interest to test whether chordin is also a primary response gene to mesoderm induction or whether it is activated subsequent to the expression of organizer-specific homeobox genes.
Northern blot analysis was used to compare the temporal expression patterns of gsc and chordin. As noted previously, gsc has a maternal component and zygotic transcripts become detectable at stage 9, two hours before gastrulation starts. In contrast, chordin expression is not detectable until stage 91/2, one hour before gastrulation starts. Thus, while gsc transcripts accumulate shortly after zygotic transcription starts at mid-blastula, those of chordin accumulate one hour later.
To test whether chordin is a primary or a secondary response gene, animal cap explants were incubated with activin in the presence or absence of cycloheximide (CHX), which inhibited protein synthesis by 95% (see Experimental Procedures). Chordin was induced by activin, but this induction was significantly decreased by CHX. In contrast, gsc induction by activin was somewhat increased by CHX, in agreement with previous observations. As noggin is an organizer-specific secreted factor, it was important, in the wider context of this study, to determine whether noggin is a primary response gene. Results indicate that noggin, like gsc, is a primary response gene because noggin transcripts were induced by activin in the presence of CHX (even to a higher level than in its absence).
Together with the time course, the animal cap studies indicate that the induction of chordin by activin treatment involves intermediate steps requiring de novo protein synthesis. Thus, the induction mechanism of chordin differs from that of other organizer-specific genes described to date, including noggin.
The three chordin cDNAs isolated in the initial screen were partial clones resulting from reverse transcriptase priming within an A-rich stretch within the coding sequence. These clones failed to reveal any biological activity in extensive microinjection experiments performed before sequence information was available. We re-screened the cDNA library and a full-length 3.8 kb chordin cDNA was isolated and sequenced (FIGS. 1A, 1B, 1C, 1D, 1E, and 1F SEQ ID NO:1). The deduced protein sequence of the longest open reading frame, chordin, encodes a large protein (predicted molecular weight of 105 kDa) of 941 amino acids (FIG. 2A-E). Hydropathy analysis showed a single hydrophobic segment comprising the 19 N-terminal amino acids, followed by a putative signal sequence cleavage site. The presence of a signal peptide and the lack of possible transmembrane segments suggest that chordin is a secreted protein. There are four possible N-glycosylation (NXS/T) sites. When compared to its own sequence by dot matrix alignment, the chordin protein was found to contain four internal repeats of 58 to 74 residues. Each repeat contains 10 cysteine residues at conserved positions as well as four other conserved amino acids.
When the cys-rich repeats were used to search the BLAST network databases, it was found that similar cys-rich repeats are present in several extracellular proteins. The conservation is restricted primarily to the spacing of Cys residues. Thrombospondin-1 and -2 and alpha-1 procollagen types I and III are extracellular matrix proteins that contain a single cys-rich domain near the amino terminus. Interestingly, these proteins are trimeric and the cys-rich domains may be involved in their multimerization. von Willebrand factor, a protein that facilitates adhesion of platelets during blood clotting, contains two cys-rich domains at its carboxy terminus (Hunt and Barker, BBRC, 144, pp. 876-882, 1987). More divergent cys-rich repeats of this type are found in extracellular proteins encoded by a growth factor-regulated gene (Simmons et al., PNAS USA, 86, pp. 1178-1182, 1989) and a Drosophila developmental gene (Schonbaum et al., Dev. Biol., 151, pp. 431-445, 1992).
Further, a just published report of the sequence of the Drosophila gene short gastrulation describes a protein of 1038 amino acids that, like chordin, has one cys-rich repeat at the amino terminus and three at the carboxy-terminus. (Francois et al., Genes and Development 8, pp. 2602-2616, Nov. 1, 1994.) While the overall structure is somewhat like that of chordin, the longest stretches of amino acid identity with chordin are one of six consecutive amino acids and another of five amino acids, both within the first cys-rich domain. Using the BESTFIT program, the two protein sequences are only 28.7% identical over the entire Sequences. Interestingly, short gastrulation is a putative negative growth factor that antagonizes the activity of decapentaplegic (dpp). (Ferguson and Anderson, Development, 114, pp. 583-597, 1992.) Dpp is a Drosophila protein of the BMP family. Thus, this finding reinforces the view that chordin may function as an antagonist of BMP function. While short gastrulation might be a fruit fly homolog of chordin, the sequence homology is too law to make this assumption without functional studies. Short gastrulation has the predicted structure of a type II transmembrane protein, which would have an intracellular stretch of 55 amino acids followed by a hydrophobic transmembrane domain. Chordin has a hydrophobic signal sequence at the amino terminus and thus has the characteristics of a typical secreted protein. In addition, the cys-rich repeats are found in extracellular proteins and chordin contains such repeats at the both termini, the presence of these structural motifs supports the view that chordin is a secreted protein.
Outside of the cys-rich repeats, the rest (681 amino acids) of the chordin protein does not have significant homology to any sequences in the databases. Therefore, chordin mRNA encodes a novel putative secreted protein. Because chordin is specifically expressed in regions of the embryo that have organizer activity, we also tested whether this molecule is active in inductive signalling.
For phenotypic analysis, the chordin cDNA was subcloned into an expression vector (Amaya et al., Cell, 66, pp. 257-270, 1991) and RNA synthesized with SP6 polymerase was injected into a single blastomere of Xenopus embryos. As shown in Table 1, chordin mRNA induced secondary axes at substantial frequencies when injected into ventral-vegetal blastomeres. When injected into dorsal or animal (top) blastomeres, a high proportion of dorsalized embryos resulted. Embryos injected with a control mRNA encoding an unrelated secreted protein (human prolactin in the same vector) were unaffected.
Immunostaining with a notochord marker showed that this secondary axis contained a notochord and lacked anterior structures such as eyes and cement glands, but had auditory vesicles, implying that the axis extended anteriorly at least as far as the hindbrain. Of 37 twinned embryos (injected at the 8-cell stage) stained with this antibody, 64% had a notochord in the secondary axis and 54% had secondary auditory vesicles. In Xenopus, the absence of a differentiated notochord in experimentally manipulated embryos is not uncommon. Many axes were similar to those induced by ectopic expression of gsc or activin, but differences were also noted. In particular, embryos with double tails were found in 11% of the twinned embryos (n=223), suggesting that chordin can induce tail-organizing activity in some cases. Twinned embryos with duplicated anterior structures were observed at a low frequency (15% with double cement glands and 4.5% with extra eyes). On the other hand, enlarged head structures, such as cement glands, were commonly observed in dorsalized embryos caused by chordin mRNA injections into dorsal or animal blastomeres.
To examine the fate adopted by injected and uninjected cells, single blastomeres were injected at the 32-cell stage with a mixture of chordin and .beta.-galactosidase (lineage tracer) mRNAs. It appears that chordin mRNA has both long- and short-range effects. When chordin in mRNA was injected into the A4 blastomere, the injected cells remained in the ectoderm and did not contribute to the secondary axis. When a ventral-marginal blastomere, C4, was injected, almost all embryos with secondary axes displayed labeling in part of the secondary axis itself, suggesting that the chordin-injected cells had their fate changed into that of Spemann's organizer.
To further test whether chordin can cause cell fate changes, we microinjected blastomere D4, whose normal fate is to form endodermal tissue. The progeny of D4 cells injected with chordin mRNA can undergo a change in cell fate so that instead of remaining in the endoderm they form part of the secondary axis mesoderm. This is what is expected when a secondary Spemann organizer is formed. This change in cell fate was obtained in 43% (n=30) of embryos with secondary axes; in the rest the label was found in the endoderm and not in the induced axis. When the same D4 experiment was performed with noggin mRNA, secondary axes were formed but in every case (n=23) the injected cells were found in the endoderm.
These results may be interpreted as an indication that in this experiment noggin formed a secondary Nieuwkoop center, while chordin caused vegetal cells to form Spemann organizer tissue in some cases. Another interpretation of these data is that both factors have similar inducing activities but that noggin is more diffusible in the embryo. One observation perhaps supporting the second interpretation is that at high doses noggin mRNA, unlike chordin mRNA, has a strong tendency to radially dorsalize the entire embryo in D4 injections, instead of inducing secondary axes.
The results suggest that in some embryos chordin can produce secondary axes by changing the fate of the injected cells, inducing them to form part of Spemann's organizer. In other embryos, the chordin-injected cells do not contribute to the secondary axis at all, and may remain entirely in the endoderm of embryos injected into the D4 cell. These non-cell-autonomous effects of chordin are in agreement with the observation that it encodes a secreted protein, while the cell-autonomous effects on injected cells may be explained by autocrine and/or short-range paracrine mechanisms. We conclude that cells injected with chordin mRNA acquire axis-inducing activity and that they can recruit uninjected cells into secondary axes.
To further test the axis-forming activity of chordin a UV-rescue assay was used. This method is frequently favored in Xenopus embryology due to its high level of sensitivity. Ventralized embryos resulting from UV treatment, lack axial structures as indicated by a Dorso-Anterior Index, DAI, of 0.1. (In this scale, a DAI of 0 corresponds to embryos with no axis, and a value of 5 to a normal embryo). When 75 pg of synthetic chordin mRNA were injected into a single vegetal blastomere of UV-treated embryos at the 8-cell stage, substantial rescue of trunk and tail structures occurred, although the embryos still lacked the most anterior head structures (DAI=2.1). These phenotypes were similar to those observed in rescue experiments with gsc or activin mRNA. When 150 pg of chordin mRNA were injected, the entire axis was rescued (DAI=4.2), including eyes and cement glands. When the amount of chordin RNA was doubled, embryos with exaggerated dorso-anterior structures, such as multiple cement glands (indicated by arrowheads), resulted (DAI=6.2).
When UV-treated embryos were microinjected into a blastomere of the C-tier region with a mixture of chordin and .beta.-galactosidase mRNAs as a lineage tracer, the labeled chordin-injected cells were located in the dorsal axis (n=19), usually in anterior regions, or in endodermal cells (n=5). Histological analysis showed that the injected cells contribute preferentially to dorsal tissues, i.e., notochord and somites. This implies that expression of chordin changes the fate of the injected cells into organizer-like tissue. Most of the dorsal axis, however, was recruited from uninjected cells, including most of the somite and all of the neural tissue. Some rescued axes, particularly at low chordin mRNA concentrations, lacked a notochord and the somites were fused. In such cases, the injected cells were found in the somite, principally in the midline underlying the neural tube, indicating that chordin can rescue axial structures even in the absence of notochord tissue.
Thus chordin mRNA can completely rescue axis formation in ventralized embryos. The injected cells preferentially give rise to organizer derivatives and are able to recruit neighboring cells to form multiple dorsal tissues, including notochord.
We tested whether chordin can dorsalize mesoderm induced by bFGF. When animal caps were injected with either control prolactin or chordin mRNA and treated with bFGF, the control caps formed ventral mesoderm (blood and mesothelium), while chordin-injected caps formed dorsal mesoderm (notochord and muscle) as well as dorso-anterior ectodermal inductions such as cement glands and blocks of neural tissue. We conclude that chordin mRNA is able to synergize with bFGF, leading to the dorsalization of ventral mesoderm.
Synthetic chordin or control prolactin mRNA were microinjected into a single blastomere of embryos with clear dorso-ventral polarity. The amount of injected RNA was 150 pg for 16-32 cell embryos or 200 pg for 4-8 cell embryos. Combined results from two experiments are summarized here. Ten independent experiments were performed, and all gave similar results. Secondary axes were scored morphologically and include partial axes lacking anterior structures, complete axes and embryos with double tailbuds. Dorsalized embryos corresponded at least to a DAI 7 according to the criteria of Kao and Elinson, Dev. Biol., 127, pp. 64-77, (1988).
Animal caps (AC) were explanted at stage 8, incubated with or without 50 ng/ml of bFGF in 0.3.times. MBS solution containing 0.1 mg/ml BSA for 2 hours, and cultured in 0.3.times. MBS for 2 days. Microinjection of chordin mRNA did not produce elongation of animal cap explants by itself, but did cause elongation of most of the explants in the presence of bFGF. Ventral marginal zones (VMZs) were excised at stage 101/2 and the explants were cultured for 2 days. Microinjection of chordin mRNA caused extensive elongation of VMZs. In the animal cap experiments, 300 pg of synthetic chordin mRNA were injected radially into each of the four animal pole blastomeres at the 8-cell stage. In the VMZ experiments, 200 pg of chordin mRNA were injected radially into each of the four vegetal blastomeres of 8-cell embryos. In both experiments, explants were fixed when sibling embryos reached stage 42. All explants were stained in whole-mount with the MZ-15 antibody marker, scored for notochord, and then embedded in paraffin, sectioned and scored by histology. The frequency of each type of tissue in the explants is shown. The data indicate that chordin per se is not a mesoderm inducer but acts as a modifier (dorsalizer) of mesoderm differentiation. AtEp, atypical epidermis; B1, blood; Mst, mesothelium; Mus, skeletal muscle; Noto, notochord; Neur, neural tissue.
Experimental Procedures
Embryo manipulation
UV treatment was performed 30 min after fertilization for 60 sec with an UVG-11 lamp (UV-Products Inc). LiCl treatment was carried out in 0.12M LiCl in 0.1.times. modified Barth solution (MBS, Gurdon, 1976) for 40 min starting at the 32 cell stage. For ventral marginal zone (VMZ) experiments, an explant comprising 60.degree. of the VMZs opposite to the dorsal lip was excised from stage 101/4-101/2 embryos and cultured in 0.3.times. MBS until the stage indicated. For animal cap assays, animal caps devoid of marginal zone cells were explanted at stage 8, and incubated in 0.3.times. MBS containing 0.1 mg/ml BSA with or without 50 ng/ml human basic FGF (Promega) for three hours and subsequently cultured in 0.3.times. MBS for two days. Histological sections of embryos and explants were carried out using Paraplast at 10.mu.m thickness and stained with hematoxylin-eosine.
Differential screening
RNA was isolated from LiCl-treated or UV-treated Xenopus gastrula embryos at stage 101/2 as described (Cho et al., 1991). The poly A.sup.+ fraction was purified with oligo (dT) latex (QIAGEN) and used to synthesize first-strand cDNA. After alkaline lysis of template RNA, the single-stranded cDNA was hybridized with an 5-fold excess of biotin-labeled maternal RNA (8-cell stage) followed by addition of streptavidin and phenol extraction as described (Sive and St John, 1988). Single-stranded cDNA enriched in zygotic genes was recovered from the aqueous phase. After a second identical subtraction, the cDNA was labeled with .alpha.-32P! dCTP by the random primer labeling method (Prime-It II kit, Stratagene) and was used as a probe (LiCl or UV probe ).
2.5.times.10.sup.4 pfu of unamplified Xenopus dorsal lip cDNA (stage 101/2) ZAP phage library (Blumberg et al., 1991) were plated and lifted onto two replica nitrocellulose filters. Duplicate filters were hybridized with the LiCl or UV probes. Those plaques that gave a much stronger signal with the LiCl probe than with the UV probe were taken as positive clones. Twenty-two clones were positive after the second purification. These clones were classified into six groups by cross-hybridization using dot blot analysis. Whole-mount in situ hybridization analyses were performed using the longest insert in each group as a probe.
From the differential screening three chordin cDNAs were isolated, the longest of which was 2.3 kb (clone #59). Preliminary sequencing, the size of mature transcript in Northern blots (about 4 kb) and the lack of biological activity of microinjected synthetic RNA indicated that these clones were not full-length. After re-screening the dorsal lip library with clone #59 as a probe, 44 additional chordin cDNAs were isolated, of which five contained 3.8 kb inserts which were full-length and showed biological activity. DNA sequencing (of clone pBluescript chd-F11) was carried out on both strands using Sequenase ver. 2 (UBS) and the data analyzed using the Wisconsin GCG program on a VAX computer.
In situ hybridization and immunohistochemistry
Whole-mount in situ hybridization was performed as described previously (Harland, 1991) except for the use of a new substrate for alkaline phosphatase (BM purple AP-substrate, Boehringer). Much better signals were obtained with this substrate than with the conventional BCIP/NBT. The probe was synthesized using T7 RNA polymerase in the presence of digoxygenin-UTP using as a template a partial chordin clone, clone #59 (in pBluescript SK-) linearized with EcoRI. The probes for gsc and Xnot2 RNA were prepared as described previously (Cho et al 1991; Gont et al 1993). A fragment spanning the coding region of noggin cDNA was obtained by RT-PCR using stage 11Xenopus embryo mRNA as a template, and subcloned into the Hind III- Xba I site of pBluescript KS-. Sequencing analysis showed no base changes to the previously reported nucleotide sequence (Smith and Harland, 1992). The noggin antisense probe was synthesized with T7 polymerase using this plasmid linearized with Nco I (the Nco I site was introduced at the initial Met site by PCR).
Immunohistochemistry for notochord staining was carried out with MZ-15 antibody as described (Smith and Watts, 1985; Dent et al, 1989). In lineage tracing experiments, .alpha.-galactosidase activity was visualized using X-gal in a conventional method (Sanes et al., 1986) except that the reaction mixture was adjusted to pH 6.8.
Synthetic mRNAs
The protein coding regions of chordin and noggin were amplified by PCR and the amplified fragment was subcloned into pSP35T, an expression vector that contains an SP6 promoter and .beta.-globin 5' leader and 3' trailer sequences as well as a polyadenylate tail (Amaya et al., 1991). These expression vectors were named pSP35-chd and pSP35-noggin, respectively.
mRNA was synthesized in vitro in the presence of cap analogue and GTP (ratio 5:1) using the Megascript kit (Ambion) from pSP35-chd linearized with Xba I or pSP35-noggin linearized with EcoRI as a template. The mRNAs for gsc, Xnot and XlHbox 1 were synthesized as described previously (Niehrs et al., 1994; Gont et al., 1993; Wright et al., 1989). For control experiments, sense .beta.-galactosidase RNA (from pCDM8-.beta.-gal; Sasai et al 1992) or prolactin RNA (from pSP35T; Amaya et al., 1991) was injected. Microinjection into a Xenopus blastomeres was as described (Cho et al., 1991). In the case of noggin mRNA injection, 75 pg or less was used to induce secondary axes since we found that microinjection of more than 100 pg of noggin mRNA synthesized from this construct had a strong tendency to produce radially dorsalized embryos.
Activin treatment of animal cap explants and RNA blotting analysis
Activin and cycloheximide (CHX) treatments of animal cap explants were performed as described previously (Rosa, 1989; Cho et al., 1991). Animal caps were excised at stage 8, preincubated in 1.times. MBS with or without 5 .mu.g/ml CHX for 30 min, and treated with 30 ng/ml recombinant human activin A (Genentech) for 150 min in the presence or absence of CHX. Total RNA was isolated from these explants and embryos of several early stages with RNA-STAT 60 kit (Tel-Test "B", Inc). Ten .mu.g of total RNA was separated by formaldehyde agarose gel electrophoresis, transferred to Gene Screen Plus (Du Pont) and hybridized with full-length chordin, gsc or noggin probes in 5.times. SSPE, 1% SDS, 150 .mu.g/ml heat-denatured salmon sperm DNA and 50% formamide at 42.degree. C. as recommended by the manufacturer.
It is to be understood that while the invention has been described above in conjunction with preferred specific embodiments, the description and examples are intended to illustrate and not limit the scope of the invention, which is defined by the scope of the appended claims.
Claims
It is claimed:
1. An isolated DNA encoding a functional protein, and having the nucleotide sequence of SEQ ID NO:1.
2. An isolated DNA encoding a functional protein having the amino acid sequence of SEQ ID NO:2.
3. A construct comprising DNA of claim 1 or 2 operatively linked with an expression vector.
4. The construct as in claim 3 wherein the expression vector is mammalian, viral, bacterial, or baculoviral.
5. A transformant obtained by introducing the construct of claim 3 into a host.
6. The DNA as in claim 1 or 2 wherein the protein encoded thereby induces dorsal development in vertebrates.
7. The DNA as in claim 1 or 2 wherein the protein encoded thereby induces neural development in vertebrates.
8. The DNA as in claim 1 or 2 wherein the protein encoded thereby induces endodermal differentiation in vertebrates.
Patent Citations (4)
| Patent | Date | Inventor | Cited By |
|---|---|---|---|
| US5229500 | 1993-07-01 | Barde et al. | |
| WOX93/09229 | 1993-05-01 | ||
| WOX94/05791 | 1994-03-01 | ||
| WOX94/05800 | 1994-03-01 |
Non-Patent Literature (19)
- Sasai et al (1994) Cell, vol. 79, pp. 779-790.
- Hawley (1981) The Condensed chemical dictionary, Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, 10th edition, p. 759.
- Wahl, Stern and Stark, "Efficient Transfer of Large DNA Fragments from Agarose Gels to Diazobenzyloxymethyl-paper and Rapid Hybridization by Using Dextran Sulfate", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, vol. 76, No. 8, pp. 3683-3687, Aug. 1979.
- Urlaub and Chasin, "Isolation of Chinese Hamster Cell Mutants Deficient in Dihydrofolate Reductase Activity" Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, vol. 77, No. 7, pp. 4216-4220, Jul. 1980.
- Hunt and Barker, "Von Willebrand Factor Shares a Distinctive Cysteine-Rich Domain with Thrombospondin and Procollagen", Biochemical and Biophysical Research Communications, vol. 144, No. 2, pp. 876-882, Apr. 29, 1987.
- Kao and Elinson, "The Entire Mesodermal Mantle Behaves as Spemann's Organizer in Dorsoanterior Enhanced Xenopus Laevis Embryos", Developmental Biology, vol. 127, pp. 64-77, 1988.
- Simmons, Levy, Yannoni and Erikson, "Identification of a Phorbol Ester-Repressible V-Src-Inducible Gene", Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, vol. 86, pp. 1178-1182, Feb. 1989.
- Sokol, Wong and Melton, "A Mouse Macrophage Factor Induces Head Structures and Organizes a Body Axis in Xenopus", Science, vol. 249, pp. 561-564, Aug. 3, 1990.
- Blumberg, Wright, De Robertis and Cho, "Organizer-Specific Homeobox Genes in Xenopus Laevis Embryos", Science, vol. 253, pp. 194-196, Jul. 12, 1991.
- Amaya, Musci and Kirschner, "Expression of a Dominant Negative Mutant of the FGF Receptor Disrupts Mesoderm Formation in Xenopus Embryos", Cell, vol. 66, pp. 257-270, Jul. 26, 1991.
- Smith and Harland, "Injected Xwnt-8 RNA Acts Early in Xenopus Embryos to Promote Formation of a Vegetal Dorsalizing Center", Cell, vol. 67, pp. 753-765, Nov. 15, 1991.
- Ferguson and Anderson, "Localized Enhancement and Repression of the Activity of the TGF-.beta. Family Member, Decapentaplegic, is Necessary for Dorsal-Ventral Pattern Formation in the Drosophila Embryo", Development, vol. 114, pp. 583-597, 1992.
- Schonbaum, Organ, Qu and Cavener, "The Drosophila Melanogaster Stranded at Second (sas) Gene Encodes a Putative Epidermal Cell Surface Receptor Required for Larval Development", Developmental Biology, vol. 151, pp. 431-445 (1992).
- Jones, Lyons, Lapan, Wright and Hogan, "DVR-4 (Bone Morphogenetic Protein-4) as a Posterior-Ventralizing Factor in Xenopus Mesoderm Induction", Development, vol. 115, pp. 639-647, 1992.
- Smith and Harland, "Expression Cloning of Noggin a New Dorsalizing Factor Localized to the Spemann Organizer in Xenopus Embryos", Cell, vol. 70, pp. 829-840, Sep. 4, 1992.
- Fainsod, Steinbeisser and De Robertis, "On the Function of BMP-4 in Patterning the Marginal Zone of the Xenopus Embryo", The EMBO Journal, vol. 13, No. 21, pp. 5015-5025, 1994.
- Fran.cedilla.ois, Solloway, O'Neill, Emery and Bier, "Dorsal-Ventral Patterning of the Drosophila Embryo Depends on a Putative Negative Growth Factor Encoded by the Short Gastrulation Gene", Genes & Development, vol. 8, pp. 2602-2616, 1994.
- Hemmati-Brivanlou, Kelly and Melton, "Follistatin, an Antagonist of Activin, is Expressed in the Spemann Organizer and Displays Direct Neuralizing Activity", Cell, vol. 77, pp. 283-295, Apr. 22, 1994.
- Graff, Thies, Song, Celeste and Melton, "Studies with a Xenopus BMP Receptor Suggest that Ventral Mesoderm-Inducing Signals Override Dorsal Signals in Vivo", Cell, vol. 79, pp. 169-179, Oct. 7, 1994.