Load Cell

1. Field of the Invention

This invention is related to load cells and to such cells used in measuring materials. In one aspect this invention is directed to triaxial test apparatuses and methods employing ultrasonic transducers to measure ultrasonic velocities of low permeability rocks during a triaxial test.

2. Description of Related Art

A conventional triaxial test apparatus for rock testing is shown in FIG. 1. With such an apparatus, a test is performed inside an enclosed housing or hydraulic cell. A confining fluid is pumped into the test cell to provide a confining pressure on a rock sample specimen. The sample is placed on a bottom end cap for support. Hydraulic pressure is applied around the sample during the test to generate an isostatic confining stress. Then an axial load is applied (e.g. by a load piston) to a top end cap to generate a deviatoric (shear) stress.

Ultrasonic transducers have been used within end caps near opposite sides of a rock sample during tests. Ultrasonic waves from such transducers must pass through the end cap material, a material (usually metal) which alters the ultrasonic waves and affects them differently from the manner in which they are propagated through the material to be tested. This results in errors in measurement of velocity.

Applicants are unaware of any prior art disclosing test apparatuses and methods for materials which employ ultrasonic transducers adjacent the material to be tested to measure ultrasonic velocity in the material during a test.

There has long been a need for test apparatuses and methods for accurately measuring ultrasonic velocities of materials in which ultrasonic waves are not attenuated when going through material other than the material to be tested. There has long been a need for triaxial test apparatuses and methods which effectively and accurately measure ultrasonic velocities while simultaneously measuring pore pressure of a sample.

Our invention includes a new design of triaxial test apparatus which includes end caps and test procedures to measure ultrasonic velocities while simultaneously measuring pore pressure in a material, e.g. but not limited to rock, composites, soils, concrete, and granular masses. The end caps have an ultrasonic transducer partially disposed therein with an exposed portion adjacent a material to be tested which provides sending or receiving capacity for ultrasonic waves (both p-wave and s-wave).

In one embodiment of a triaxial test apparatus according to the present invention, a rock sample mounting apparatus is provided which has a bottom end cap and a top end cap, each with a flat planar face for mounting below (bottom end cap) or above (top end cap) the flat face of the sample. In each end cap at the flat face is an ultrasonic transducer which, during testing, is adjacent the rock sample. One transducer is a transmitter and one is a receiver (either can receive or send). A pore pressure channel may extend from a surface of an end cap (either top or bottom) to a pore pressure port or chamber in the end cap so that sample fluid expelled from the rock sample during testing (e.g. water or some other fluid) flows into the pore pressure channel. It is inhibited from flowing out of the channel and, even if some minute amount of fluid would escape from the face of the sample adjacent the end cap surface, one or more impermeable flexible jackets covering the side wall of the sample and extending slightly over the end cap to which it is secured prevents sample fluid from exiting from the end-cap-face-of-the-rock-sample interface and into the continuing fluid.

Sample fluid expelled into the pore pressure channel contacts a pore pressure fluid (preferably a fluid not miscible with the sample fluid) and compresses it somewhat. That compression is sensed by a pore pressure transducer in the pore pressure port and it is conveyed in analog form (a change in voltage) via wiring from the pore pressure transducer to a monitor system (e.g. a computer which can also record data).

Deformations in the sample due to the load on it are measured using strain indicators; preferably linear variable differential transformers, for indicating vertical axial deformation and cantilevered strain gauges for indicating radial deformation. In one embodiment, the pore pressure channel and pore pressure port are very small and relatively little sample fluid is expelled from the sample (e.g. a shale) so that the sample-fluid content of the sample changes very little during the test, providing conclusive usable data.

In one embodiment utilizing a high pressure fluid generator or microaccumulator in communication with the pore pressure port, fluid can be withdrawn from a sample during testing by withdrawing pore pressure fluid from the pore pressure port during testing. In one embodiment, the top end cap also has a pore pressure channel with a port and in which is mounted a pore pressure transducer, the transducer having the associated wiring connectible to an external monitor-recording system. Thus, the fluid content of the sample can be adjusted and controlled during a test, thereby varying and controlling a sample's effective stress during testing. The end caps are, preferably, made from high strength material, e.g. hardened steel or titanium.

The traveling velocities (v) of ultrasonic waves, both compression (p-wave) and shear (s-wave) waves, through a rock sample are measured by sending waves from one side of the sample and receiving wave information from the other side of the sample. The ultrasonic wave measurements are performed, preferably, during a triaxial test, a compression test, or at the end of each stage of a multi-stage test, e.g. as described in the co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 07/576,692 entitled "Apparatuses And Methods For Adjusting A Material's Fluid Content And Effective Stresses" a copy of which is submitted herewith and incorporated herein along with the materials incorporated therein. The ultrasonic velocities increase with effective mean stress applied on the sample. Consistent correlation between these two parameters (velocity and stress) can be observed.

In one embodiment, smaller transducers may be used if space is a consideration or if the rigidity of the end cap surface around an opening for a transducer is a consideration. In another embodiment, a relatively large transducer may be used which occupies a major portion of the end cap surface. In this embodiment, a pore pressure channel may extend through the transducer.

It is, therefore, an object of the present invention to provide new, useful, unique, efficient and nonobvious apparatuses and methods for measuring ultrasonic velocities in materials.

A further object of the present invention is the provision of new, useful, unique, efficient and nonobvious test apparatuses and methods for determining ultrasonic velocities in materials using members mountable in contact with the materials, the members having an ultrasonic transducer therein which is in contact with the material during the test.

The present invention recognizes and addresses the previously-mentioned long-felt needs and provides a satisfactory meeting of those needs in its various possible embodiments. To one of skill in this art who has the benefits of this invention's teachings and disclosures, other and further objects and advantages will be clear, as well as others inherent therein, from the following description of presently-preferred embodiments, given for the purpose of disclosure, when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings. Although these descriptions are detailed to insure adequacy and aid understanding, this is not intended to prejudice that purpose of a patent which is to claim an invention no matter how others may later disguise it by variations in form or additions of further improvements.

So that the manner in which the above-recited features, advantages and objects of the invention, as well as others which will become clear, are attained and can be understood in detail, more particular description of the invention briefly summarized above may be had by reference to certain embodiments thereof which are illustrated in the appended drawings, which drawings form a part of this specification. It is to be noted, however, that the appended drawings illustrate preferred embodiments of the invention and are therefore not to be considered limiting of its scope, for the invention may admit to other equally effective equivalent embodiments.

FIG. 1 is a schematic view of a prior art triaxial test apparatus.

FIG. 2 is a side cross-sectional view of a triaxial test end cap according to the present invention.

FIG. 3 is a side schematic view of a triaxial test apparatus according to the present invention.

FIG. 4 is a side cross-sectional view of a triaxial test end cap according to the present invention.

FIG. 5 is a side cross-sectional view of a triaxial test end cap according to the present invention.

FIG. 6 is a top view of an end cap according to the present invention.

FIG. 7 is a side cross-sectional view of a triaxial test apparatus according to the present invention, including a top load cell.

Referring now to FIG. 1 a typical prior art triaxial test set-up is shown schematically. Mounting apparatus for a rock sample R include a top end cap and a bottom end cap. An impermeable membrane (e.g. a plastic or rubber jacket or jackets) is placed over the sample R. The jacket extends onto each end cap to which it is secured, e.g. by a wire rope, creating impermeable boundaries at each end of the sample R. Appropriate strain indicators are applied to the sample to indicate the extent of deformation of the sample during testing. The bottom end cap rests on a load cell (not shown) which indicates the amount of axial load applied to the sample R by a load piston (not shown). A confining fluid pumped into a sealed housing or test cell into which the mounted sample R is placed provides a desired confining pressure on the sample. This pressure is measured by a transducer (not shown) in the housing. Each end cap has an ultrasonic transducer therein, one of which transmits ultrasonic waves and one of which receives them. These waves pass through the metal of the end cap, through the sample R, and then through the metal of the opposite end cap.

An end cap 10 according to the present invention is shown in FIG. 2 in cross-section. The end cap 10 has a top portion 12 and a bottom portion 14 which are bolted together by bolts (not shown) extending through holes 13a, 13b, 13c, and 13d. An apex 16 of the top portion 12 has a groove 18 for receiving a portion of an impermeable flexible jacket or jackets (not shown) for enclosing the side of a rock sample.

A face 22 of the apex 16 is substantially flat for facing up against a flat surface of a rock sample; and it is preferred that the flatness of the face 22 vary only about 0.001 inch per inch of dimensional extent.

From the face 22 extends a pore pressure channel 24 in the end cap 10 which communicates with a pore pressure port 26 in the end cap 10. A pore pressure transducer 28 in the pore pressure port 26 senses changes in the pressure of a pore pressure fluid that fills the pore pressure port and the pore pressure channel. Sensed changes are conveyed via wiring 32 to a recorder or monitor (e.g. a digital data acquisition system or computer, now shown). The wiring 32 exits from the bottom portion 14 of the end cap 10 via a hole 34.

Sample fluid expelled from a rock sample mounted above the end cap 10 will move into the pore pressure channel 24 compressing a pore pressure fluid in the pore pressure channel 24 and in the pore pressure port 26. Preferably this pore pressure fluid is not miscible with the sample fluid; does not react with the sample or the sample fluid; is inert; and does not wet the sample. For example, if the sample fluid is water or oil, mercury is a preferred pore pressure fluid.

An ultrasonic transducer 50 is disposed in a recess 52 in the top portion 12 of the end cap 10. The ultrasonic transducer 50 is disposed at the face 22 of the apex 16 so that it is exposed and, during testing, is adjacent a portion of the surface of the sample being tested. A cup 42 surrounds the transducer 50 to inhibit electrical leakage from the transducer to the metal of the end cap and to prevent fluid from the sample from flowing into the channel 40. The cup 42 is preferably made from ceramic material because of its strength and rigidity and the fact that it is a nonconductor. To seal and secure the cup in place in the recess 52 a material such as epoxy may be used. Wiring 45 extends from the end cap through a channel 40 and into the hole 34 for interfacing with a monitoring/recording system (e.g. a computer).

FIG. 3 illustrates schematically, a test apparatus 100 according to the present invention which has a top end cap 102 and a bottom end cap 104 mounted to a rock sample specimen S to be tested in a triaxial test apparatus (e.g. like in FIG. 1).

Each end cap 102, 104 has an ultrasonic transducer 112, 114 respectively, disposed therein. These transducers and their related apparatus are like the transducer 50 of FIG. 2 and are located in their respective end caps as is the transducer 50 in the end cap 10. Wiring 132, 134 extends from the transducers for interfacing with a monitoring/recording system (e.g. a computer).

FIG. 4 illustrates an end cap 200 according to the present invention which is like the end cap 10 (FIG. 2) but which has no pore pressure channel nor pore pressure transducer. The end cap 200 has a top portion 212 and a bottom portion 214 which can be bolted together. An ultrasonic transducer 250 is disposed in a recess 252 in the top portion 212 of the end cap 200. The transducer 250 is disposed at a face 222 of an apex 216 of the end cap so that the transducer is exposed and, during testing, is in contact with a sample being tested. In this matter, ultrasonic waves from the transducer do not traverse any metal in the end cap (or anything else for that matter unless thee is something in a space between the transducer and the sample). Wiring 245 extends from the transducer 250 through a channel 240 in the end cap which communicates with a hole 234 into which the wiring extends and from which it exists for interfacing with a computer. A seal 242 acts as does the seal 42 (FIG. 1). When a dry sample is being tested, i.e., a sample with no fluid in it, no seal is needed. It should be noted that it is within the scope of the present invention to locate the transducer 250 anywhere on the face 222. One or both end caps are suitable for mounting to a load cell mounted within the housing, the load cell(s) for indicating the level of the load on the sample.

FIG. 5 illustrates an end cap 300 which is similar to the end cap 200 (FIG. 4) but which has a plurality of ultrasonic transducers 350, 351, and 352. Such an end cap may be used with another end cap having three ultrasonic transducers or it may be used with an end cap having one transducer or a plurality (two or more) transducers.

FIG. 6 shows an end cap 400 (similar to those previously described) according to the present invention with an array of ultrasonic transducers 402, 404, 406, and 408. Such an end cap is useful for testing sample homogeneity and for investigating failure mechanisms.

In one method according to the present invention a well preserved and undisturbed rock sample cored from a wellbore is mounted with end caps according to this invention. Then, a constant isostatic confining pressure, p, is applied on the rock sample in a triaxial cell. The sample's pore pressure is allowed to equilibrate, e.g. reach a constant value as the sample is consolidated under the cell's confining pressure. Pore pressure, u, is measured by a pore pressure sensor (e.g. pore pressure transducer 28, FIG. 2) in the pore pressure port and the effective (confining) stress, p', is defined as (p-u). The test can be performed in multi-stages. In each stage of a multi-stage test, a small amount of water is withdrawn from the sample by adjusting a high pressure generator or by adjusting a microaccumulator. This decreases the sample's water content by steps, thereby increasing its effective stress by steps, since lowering the sample's water content lowers its pore pressure. When one stage is completed and the water content has been reduced, time is again allowed for the sample's pore pressure to equilibrate. Once a substantially constant sample pore pressure is achieved, the next step of the loading is commenced. By calculating the sample water content and effective stress for each stage of the test, their relationship can be accurately defined in one multi-stage test.

The traveling velocity (v) of ultrasonic waves, both compression (p-wave) and shear (s-wave) waves, through the rock sample is measured by sending waves from one side of the sample and receiving wave information from the other side of the sample. The ultrasonic test is performed at the end of each stage of the compression test described above. The ultrasonic velocities increase with effective stress applied on the sample. Consistent correlation between these two parameters can be observed.

The present invention includes within its scope apparatuses (and methods using them) in which no high pressure generator or microaccumulator is used, but then the sample's fluid content cannot be adjusted or changed during the test, e.g., multi-stage step-wise tests on one sample are not done.

In one embodiment of this invention of a test method for triaxially testing rock sample, the sample is prepared and mounted by mounting a pore pressure transducer in a pore pressure chamber in a bottom end cap of a triaxial test apparatus, the pore pressure chamber in fluid communication with a pore pressure channel extending to a surface of the end cap for disposition contactingly adjacent the rock sample to be tested. The pore pressure channel is suitable for receiving sample fluid expelled from the sample during testing. Substantially all the air is evacuated from the pore pressure channel and from the pore pressure chamber and then they are filled with an inert fluid immiscible with the sample fluid. In a sealed chamber, a screen member is applied around the sample to facilitate the flow of sample fluid into the pore pressure channel and a flexible impermeable jacket is applied to the sample, other than to its ends. The bottom end cap is applied to the bottom end of the sample and a top end cap to the top end of the sample, each end cap having an ultrasonic transducer mounted in a recess therein with a portion of the transducer exposed and contacting the rock sample. Each ultrasonic transducer has transducer wiring leading therefrom connected to an exterior system for monitoring and recording signals from the sample. The test method includes: placing the sample in a confinement vessel of a triaxial test apparatus and sealing the vessel shut; isostatically loading the sample by introducing a confining fluid under pressure into the confinement vessel to provide a constant confining pressure on the sample; interconnecting the pore pressure transducer and the ultrasonic transducers with the exterior system; allowing the sample's pore pressure to equilibrate and reach a substantially constant level as the sample consolidates under the pressure of the confining fluid; applying a load piston to the top end cap to apply a known load on the sample, the piston sealingly extending through the confinement vessel to contact the sample; measuring and recording pore pressure of the sample continuously during the test; and measuring and recording ultrasonic velocity of ultrasonic waves transmitted from one ultrasonic transducer to the other through the sample continuously during the test.

This invention is directed to end caps with transducers which are not within the body of the end cap. Preferably, the transducers contact directly the material to be tested, but it is within the scope of this invention for the transducer to contact an intermediate material between the transducer and the material to be tested and the word "contact" or "contacting" in the appended claims may be so construed.

A triaxial test apparatus 500 as shown in FIG. 7 is like the apparatus 100 (FIG. 3) and like numerals indicate like parts. The apparatus 500 has a top load cell 506 mounted on a top end cap 102. The cell 506 has a self-centering steel ball 510 disposed partially within recess 522 in a cylindrical steel frame 512. The ball 510 puts little or no torque on a sample to be tested and provides a relatively high stress at a center point of the frame 512, permitting sensitive accurate load measurement. A diaphragm strain gauge 514 is attached in a slot 516 in the bottom of the steel frame 512 at a point beneath the point at which the ball 510 contacts the frame 512. A load piston (not shown) contacts the ball 510 to impart a load through the top end cap 102 to a sample 5. A plastic cap 516 fits snugly over the frame 512 and has a hole 518 in its top through which the ball 510 protrudes. The cap prevents the ball from coming out of the frame 512. A typical conventional diaphragm gauge (e.g. those provided by Micromeasurements Co.) may be used. Such gauges are accurate to about 2 to 10 psi in a load range of about 6000 to 8000 psi. The gauge's range can be increased to about 15,000 by changing the thickness of the cubical frame around the slot to (e.g. from 0.1 inch to 0.15 inch) and/or by using a diaphragm gauge with a higher range capability. Wiring 520 extends from the strain gauge, through a test cell housing (not shown), to interface with a monitoring and/or recording and/or controlling system (not shown).

In conclusion, therefore, it is seen that the present invention and the embodiments disclosed herein are well adapted to carry out the objectives and obtain the ends set forth at the outset. Certain changes can be made in the method and apparatus without departing from the spirit and the scope of this invention. It is realized that changes are possible and it is further intended that each element or step recited in any of the following claims is to be understood as referring to all equivalent elements or steps for accomplishing substantially the same results in substantially the same or equivalent manner. It is intended to cover the invention broadly in whatever form its principles may be utilized. The present invention is, therefore, well adapted to carry out the objects and obtain the ends and advantages mentioned, as well as others inherent therein.