Method and Apparatus for the Prevention of Fouling and/or Corrosion of Structures in Seawater, Brackish Water and Fresh Water

The present invention relates generally to methods and apparatus for preventing fouling and/or corrosion of structures, and more particularly to methods and apparatus for preventing fouling and/or corrosion of marine vessels, buoys, piping systems, filters, oil rigs, and other structures fully or partially submerged in seawater, brackish water, or fresh water.

Structures in contact with bodies of water suffer from fouling and/or corrosion damage. For example the shipping industry has long faced serious problems caused by the adherence of marine organisms to ship hulls. Such fouling of a ship's hull increases the operating cost of a ship and decreases its efficiency. Marine organisms which become attached to the hull must periodically be removed, thereby usually taking the ship out of operation for extended periods of time for dry dock maintenance. Also, if fouling is not prevented, aquatic organisms will continue to attach to the hull and will cause ever increasing operating costs associated with additional fuel requirements and decreased speeds. The pleasure boat market faces similar problems.

Several ways of removing marine organisms, including barnacle growth, from a ship are known. Barnacles can be mechanically scraped from the ship while in dry dock. Cleaning machines have been developed having rotating brushes which can remove barnacles and other marine organisms from the hull.

Another method of overcoming the fouling problems has been to use highly toxic paints on the hulls of ships. Such paints retard the buildup of marine growth on the hull. A toxic element in the paint, such as a compound of copper or mercury which is soluble in seawater, is controllably dissolved into the water to provide protection over several years. However, the leaching of toxic materials into esturine waters by a vast number of vessels, including the pleasure boat population, presents an increasing hazard to the environment.

For example U.S. Pat. No. 3,817,759 discloses the use of an antifouling coating comprising a polymeric titanium ester of an aliphatic alcohol. Titanium has good corrosion resistance and low water solubility which prevents premature leaching and exhaustion of the coating.

Another known antifouling method involves coating the hull of a ship with a metallic paint whose ions are toxic to marine life, i.e., copper, mercury, silver, tin, arsenic, and cadmium, and then to periodically apply a voltage to the hull to anodically dissolve the toxic ions into seawater thereby inhibiting marine life growth. This method is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,661,742 and in U.S. Pat. No. 3,497,434.

Antifouling systems which rely on dissolution of toxic substances into seawater have limited utility since the coating applied to the hull is depleted and the hull must be periodically repainted. The problem is made more severe in those systems which make the hull anodic to force dissolution since it increases the rate of dissolution. This poses a potentially serious problem since once the hull is exposed it too will be dissolved, resulting in pitting or puncturing of the hull.

Various other apparatus have been purposed which rely upon application of a voltage to the hull of the ship or provision for flow of current through the hull of the ship to retard growth of marina organisms on the hull. Some systems have proposed the electrochemical decomposition of seawater causing gases to be produced near the submerged surfaces of the hull.

Proponents of such systems maintain that the gases prevent the adherence of marine organisms such as barnacles, algae, etc. Others suggest that high current can cause shock and retard the growth of marine organisms on the hull. None of these systems, however, have proven commercially successful for reasons of cost and poor antifouling results. Examples of these systems are disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 4,196,064 and Russian Patent No. 3388.

Another problem related to fouling of a ship's hull which the shipping industry has long attempted to solve is corrosion. Corrosion normally occurs to underwater portions of a ship's hull because the seawater acts as an electrolyte and current will consequently flow, as in a battery, between surface areas of differing electrical potential. The flow of current takes with it metal ions thereby gradually corroding anodic portions of the hull.

Various techniques have been developed to prevent corrosion. Sacrificial anodes of active metals such as zinc or magnesium have been fastened to the hull. Such anodes, through galvanic action, themselves corrode away instead of the hull.

Other systems use cathodic protection by impressed current. Such systems utilize long-life anodes which are attached to the hull to impress a current flow in the hull. The result is that the entire hull is made cathodic relative to the anode, thereby shielding it from corrosion. Such systems operate at very low-voltage levels, see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 3,497,434.

One known cathodic protection system utilizes a titanium anode plated with platinum. The platinum acts as the electrical discharge surface for the anode into the electrolytic seawater. No current is discharged from any surface portions of the electrode comprising titanium. This particular system impresses high current densities on the anode on the order of 550 amps per square foot. Since there is a high current flow from the platinum on other non-soluble anode metal, there is a very low potential and essentially no current flow from the surface of the titanium. An example of such a system is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,313,721.

A final problem faced by those desiring to develop a successful antifouling system is hydrogen embrittlement of the ship's hull. When electrolytic action takes place close to the surface of the ship's hull, such as in some of those systems described above, hydrolysis of the seawater may occur. Such hydrolysis releases hydrogen ions which cause embrittlement of the ship's hull. Consequently, it is important in any antifouling system which is installed that the system not be operated at such high current as to cause hydrolysis of the water thereby releasing hydrogen.

There is therefore a strongly felt need for a better method, and corresponding apparatus, for preventing the corrosion and/or fouling of structures which are fully or partially submerged in water.

Accordingly, it is an object of the present invention to provide an electrochemical system which prevents fouling in seawater or brackish water or fresh water ("water" hereinafter), of the exposed surfaces of metallic or non-metallic, conductive structures exposed to the water.

Another object of the present invention is to provide an electrochemical system which applies a net negative potential to the exposed surfaces of such structures to avoid dissolution of a conductive zinc coating thereon thereby obviating the need for repainting the hull at periodic intervals.

Another object of the present invention is to provide an electrochemical system for preventing fouling and/or corroding, which eliminates the requirement of external anodes which are susceptible to damage.

Another object of the present invention is to provide an electrochemical system which utilizes low-current densities on the structure so as to avoid hydrogen embrittlement and reduce costs.

The present invention provides a method, and a corresponding apparatus, for preventing fouling and/or corrosion of the surface of a metallic or non-metallic conductive structure (e.g., the hull of a ship, a buoy, a piping system, a filter, an oil rig, etc.) in contact with (e.g., partially or fully submerged) seawater, brackish water, or fresh water. Such fouling includes fouling with barnacles and other marine organisms. This result is achieved by impressing and maintaining a net negative electrostatic charge or, in a preferred embodiment, by inducing and maintaining an asymmetric alternating electrostatic potential on the surface, which is coated with a conductive zinc-containing paint, and permitting only a small periodic current flow. This conductive zinc-coating paint has a resistance on the order of less than 1 ohm.

A more complete appreciation of the invention and many of the attendant advantages thereof will be readily obtained as the same becomes better understood by reference to the following detailed description when considered in connection with the accompanying figures, wherein:

FIG. 1 is an elevation of a ship equipped with the antifouling device of the present invention;

FIG. 2 is a perspective view of the condenser bank; used in the invention;

FIG. 3 is a Pourbaix diagram for zinc;

FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram showing the Helmholtz double layer which develops at the interface between the ship's hull and the water; and

FIG. 5 is a section view of the titanium electrode.

The present invention relates to an antifouling and anticorrosion system which applies either a net negative electrostatic charge or a faradic potential on the surfaces of the conductive structure to protect the structure from fouling and/or corrosion. In particular, the present invention prevents attachment of marine organisms such as barnacles and tubeworms on the exposed surfaces of marine structures, including the hulls of ships. The term "ship" used herein includes all and every known type of water crafts, including both submarines and surface vessels.

In one preferred embodiment, an induced periodic potential is used, providing an electrostatic charge on the zinc coating providing an oscillating Helmholtz plane thereon. In this embodiment, the resulting asymmetric potentials and small periodic currents in the submerged conductive surfaces prevent adherence of marine organisms to the surfaces while simultaneously preventing corrosion of submerged conductive structures more effectively than if a non-faradic negative electrostatic charge is applied.

Various plausible theoretical explanations of the results observed with the present invention are set forth in the text below. These explanations are provided to provide a thorough discussion of the present invention, but, being theories, should not be construed as limiting the invention.

The invention is also illustrated below with reference being made to the Figures. These Figures are also only illustrative of the invention and are not intended to limit the same.

This embodiment is an object of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 07/145,275, filed Jan. 19, 1988, which is hereby incorporated by reference.

In this embodiment, the present invention prevents corrosion and/or fouling of the surface of a conductive structure in contact with water by barnacles and/or other aquatic organisms by impressing and maintaining a net negative electrostatic charge on the surface of the conductive structure (e.g., on the hull of a ship), which surface is coated with a conductive zinc-containing paint and at least partially submerged in water, permitting only a small current flow. Because of the presence of charge on the zinc coating, a Helmholtz double layer forms at the zinc/water interface. The innermost Helmholtz plane contains a high concentration of positively charged ions, most notably zinc and sodium. The outer Helmholtz plane consists of negatively charged ions, a relatively high concentration of which are hydroxyl ions. The negative hydroxyl ions in the outer Helmholtz plane are attracted to the positively charged zinc and sodium ions in the inner Helmholtz plane to form a caustic solution which destroys and/or repels the lower organisms of the fouling community. This prevents succession and attachment of higher organisms such as barnacles and tubeworms.

The antifouling system described herein has many advantages over prior systems, including the following. First, a negative potential is applied to the conductive surface rather than a positive potential so that there is only negligible dissolution of the coating. This eliminates the necessity for repainting the surface periodically. Second, while cathodic protection systems for preventing corrosion are known, they always employ external anodes. (See, e.g., the systems disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 3,497,434 and U.S. Pat. No. 4,767,512). The present invention incorporates an internal electrode which was not previously thought to be practical, and does not require an external anode (i.e., an anode in contact with the water). Third, prior devices using current to prevent fouling have typically involved high current densities so they cause hydrogen embrittlement of the hull and are expensive to operate. The present invention avoids these problems since it utilizes extremely low current densities with relatively high potential difference between the surface and the titanium electrode.

This preferred embodiment of the present invention is illustrated hereinbelow in terms of its application to a ship's hull. This application to a ship's hull is provided for purposes of illustrating the present invention without intending to limit the application of the present invention to any other structure which, in use, is in contact with (e.g., fully or partially submerged in) seawater, brackish water or fresh water. As noted supra, the present invention is readily applied to marine vessels, buoys, oil rigs, and any other metallic or non-metallic conductive structure which is fully or partially submerged in seawater, brackish water or fresh water including piping systems, filter systems, cooling systems, desalination systems, etc.

Further, although the present invention can be used with metallic structures, various methods of rendering non-metallic structures conductive are currently available and utilization of the present invention with such structures is equally effective as when used with metallic structures, and thus within the scope of this invention.

This embodiment of the present invention is illustrated hereinbelow in terms of its application to the hull of a ship. FIG. 1 provides a view of the ship's hull [10] which is at least partially submerged in seawater, brackish water, or fresh water [12]. The exposed surface of the ship's hull [10] below the water line [14] is susceptible to fouling and/or corrosion.

Fouling appears to occur as a succession. First, dissolved nutrients in the water aggregate by Vander Waals forces upon the exposed surface. Bacteria in the aquatic environment are chemotypically attracted to the adsorbed nutrients and form a bacterial slime layer of discernible thickness. The bacterial slime layer is then infiltrated by diatoms, algae, and other single celled organisms. Sessile organisms, such as barnacles and tubeworms, feed upon the diatoms, algae, etc., and attach permanently to the nutrient-rich surface. These last animals and plants, which are large in volume, are commonly thought of as the "fouling" on ship's hulls, buoys, and other submerged structures.

The present invention appears to prevent fouling by breaking the chain from dissolved nutrients to higher plants and animals. The exposed surface of the ship's hull [10] is coated with a conductive zinc-containing coating [16] upon which is impressed a small negative current. A Helmholtz double layer forms at the surface/water interface which would appear to preclude the lower organisms of the fouling community from adhering to the exposed surfaces.

In a particularly preferred aspect of this embodiment, the ship's hull [10] is first sandblasted to white steel to remove oxides and produce a reactive surface. While in a reactive state, a conductive zinc rich paint, which may be a zinc rich inorganic paint, is applied to the steel hull [10] to form a predominantly zinc coating [16], which may be from 2.8 mils to 4.1 mils thick. A dry film coat having a zinc content of 82 to 97 weight percent is preferred, but zinc contents outside of this range, i.e., 70 to 99 weight percent, are also useful as long as a conductive zinc coating is obtained. The zinc coating [16] forms an interfacial layer between the water [12] and the ship's hull [10] and is bonded to the iron in the ship's hull [10].

Inorganic zinc coatings suitable for use with the present invention are of the alkyl silicate or the alkali hydrolyzed type which are commercially readily available. One such commercially available paint is Carbozinc 11.RTM. manufactured by Carboline, Inc., 1401 South Hanley Road, St. Louis, Mo. (USA) 63144.

In a preferred embodiment of the invention, one or more titanium electrodes [18] are disposed within the ship's hull [10], and capacitatively coupled to form a large electrolytic capacitor in which the ship's hull [10] functions as a negative plate. In the invention it is important that these titanium electrodes be protected from contact by the water [12]. As seen in FIGS. 2 and 5, the titanium electrodes [18] are mounted on insulators [32] within a conductive hollow body [20] filled with a liquid electrolyte [22]. The electrolyte may be, e.g., a mixture of ethylene glycol and water containing Na.sub.3 PO.sub.4, borax, and sodium mercaptobenzothiazole. For example, the electrolyte may contain 1 to 10 wt. %, preferably 5 wt. % H.sub.2 O, 0.1 to 10 wt., preferably about 0.3 wt. %, Na.sub.3 PO.sub.4, 2 to 10 wt. %, preferably about 4 wt. % borax, 0.1 to 1 wt. %, preferably 0.5 wt. %, mercaptobenzothiazole, the balance being ethylene glycol. The hollow body [20] is secured to the ship's hull [10] by a conductive mount [24].

An insulated thru-hull fitting [26] penetrates the hollow body [20] and forms a water tight seal. .The fitting [26] provides an insulated conduit through the hollow body [20]. A titanium rod [28] of similar alloy as the titanium electrode [18] extends through the fitting [26] and is connected to the electrode [18].

A power supply means [30] is connected to the titanium rod [28] and the conductive surface of the ship's hull [10]. In this embodiment, power supply means [30] preferably provides a potential difference of eight or more volts DC. The positive terminal of the power supply is connected to the titanium rod [28] externally of the hollow body [20] and the negative terminal is connected to the ship's hull [10]. When the submerged surface area of the hull [10] is large, a plurality of contacts from the negative terminal of the power supply [30] to spaced apart points on the hull [10] may be required to assure a proper potential gradient across the entire surface.

Upon imposition of a positive charge, a titanium oxide film forms on the surface of titanium electrode [18], which film is only several angstroms thick and in intimate contact with the titanium electrodes [18]. This oxide film can have a dielectric constant of up to 100.

It is known that aluminum and magnesium also will form an oxide film in a manner similar to titanium. However, such oxide films are much thinner and consequently, fail to operate as effectively to limit current. If a titanium electrode [18] is used, liquid electrolytes containing small ions such as bromides, chlorides, and fluorides should be avoided since they may pierce the oxide film.

As embodied herein, the entire system acts as a large electrolytic capacitor. The titanium electrode [18] functions as the positive plate with an impressed positive charge. The ship's hull [10] and the electrolyte [22] act as the negative plate with an impressed negative charge. The electrolyte [22] effectively moves the ship's hull [10] into close proximity to the titanium oxide dielectric creating a capacitative relationship between the electrode [28] and the ship's hull [10].

The oxide film which is formed on the titanium electrode [18], functions as the dielectric of the capacitor. Because of the dielectric effect of the oxide film, a relatively high potential difference can be applied between the ship's hull [10] and the titanium electrode [18] while permitting only a small controllable current leakage.

In this system the potential difference between the titanium electrode and the ship's hull [10] is approximately 8 to 10 volts. A half-cell voltage of approximately 0.9 to 1.2 negative volts DC measured from the ship's hull [10] to a silver-silver chloride reference cell is achieved. Current densities in the range of 4 to 8 mA ft.sup.-2 are preferred. At these levels, there is sufficient energy to ionize water without evolving sufficient free hydrogen at the zinc/water interface to cause hydrogen embrittlement of the hull.

The negative charge impressed upon the ship's hull [10] and the conductively coupled zinc coating [16] causes limited electrolytic disassociation of water into hydrogen ions and hydroxyl ions. The hydroxyl ions combine with zinc ions oxided from the zinc coating [16] but are prevented from escaping by the pH level and the impressed charge. The resultant, zinc hydroxide, raises the pH level of the water from 7 to somewhere between 8 and 11 which is in the passivity range of zinc as shown in the Pourbaix diagram of FIG. 3. This effectively prevents dissolution of the zinc coating [16] into the water.

At the zinc/water interface there is developed a Helmholtz double layer, illustrated in FIG. 4. Within the innermost Helmholtz plane is a concentration of positively charged metallic ions disassociated from the adjacent water, i.e., calcium, magnesium, sodium, and zinc. Within the outermost Helmholtz plane, there is a concentration of negatively charged ions which are also disassociated from the water including hydroxyls in chloride. The hydroxyl ions in the outermost Helmholtz plane are chemically attracted to the zinc and sodium ions in the innermost Helmholtz plane and appear to form a caustic solution that prevents adherence of fouling organisms.

The present invention appears to prevent the development of the bacterial slime in two ways; one chemically oriented and one tropism oriented. It has been demonstrated that most bacterial cells possess a negative surface charge which, when placed in an electrical field, causes them to migrate away from the negative end. In the system embodied herein, the negative surface charge of the outer Helmholtz plane repels not only bacteria but many higher organisms in the food chain. Such organisms are not harmed by the negative charge, but are simply repelled and avoid the area in which they sense the effects.

The chemical effect upon fouling organisms has three major facets: saponaceous, osmotic, and poisonous. In the first case, the surface of the zinc is maintained at a pH level approaching 11. At this level of hydroxyl concentration, the lipid content of the bacterial cell reacts with sodium hydroxide, thus, destroying the bacterial capsule and killing the bacteria and other similar one-celled organisms. Secondly, there is a concentration of positive ions tightly bound to the zinc coating [16] as a result of the negative attraction of the coating [16]. This results in higher concentrations of metallic ion salts. When a microorganism enters the inner Helmholtz plane, the salts have a negative osmotic effect and withdraw cellular fluid, thus, "salting out" the cell proteins and causing death of the organism. While some organisms in seawater can tolerate high osmotic pressures, they are not usually in the fouling community. Lastly, as salts of a heavy metal, zinc salts are capable of combining with and poisoning cellular protein. The toxic effect of zinc, however, is somewhat speculative since zinc has never been proven to be toxic as a coating in seawater.

The antifouling system described in this embodiment, which is quite similar to the above-described system and primarily distinguished therefrom by its use of an asymmetric alternating electrostatic potential instead of simply using a net negative capacitive charge, also has many advantages over currently available devices, including the following. First, the faradic potential applied to the conductive structure is skewed sufficiently negative so that there is negligible dissolution of the inorganic zinc coating. This eliminates the necessity for periodically repainting the conductive structure. Second, while cathodic protection system for preventing corrosion are known, they always employ external anodes in contact with the seawater or brackish water. The present invention, incorporates an induced electrostatic charge which was not previously thought to be practical, advantageously not requiring external anodes (i.e., anodes in contact with the water). Third, currently available devices using current to prevent fouling of ship hulls have typically involved high current densities which cause hydrogen embrittlement of the hull and are expensive to operate. The present invention avoids these problems since it utilizes extremely low current densities with relatively high potential differences between the conductive structure and the seawater or brackish water.

In this embodiment, the antifouling system comprises (a) a metallic or non-metallic conductive structure which is capable of being in contact with water, (b) a conductive zinc-containing coating applied to and conductively coupled with the submersible portion of said structure, with the zinc coating forming an interfacial layer between the water and the structure, and (c) means for inducing and maintaining an asymmetric alternating electrostatic potential on the zinc-containing coating, sufficient to prevent fouling and/or corrosion of the surface. In this embodiment, an oscillating Helmholtz double layer is created and maintained at the interface between the zinc-containing coating and the water.

The means for inducing the asymmetric alternating electrostatic potential on the zinc-containing coating may comprise:

(c1) a means for interposing a dielectric between a first and a second conductor means, wherein the first conductor means is a power source of asymmetric alternating current attached conductively to a condenser bank so arranged with alternately directed diodes that the supplied current is converted to an asymmetric alternating electrostatic potential, with the second conductor being the structure; and

(c2) means for generating a potential difference between the first conductor means and the second conductor means, with the second conductor means being negative with respect to the first conductor means.

Advantageously, the first conductor means is mounted internally, within the structure where it is protected from contact by the water. The system may also further include a faradic inductor system to convert an equipotential galvanic current source to an asymmetric alternating electrostatic potential mounted within the structure. The first conductor means may be a power source of asymmetric alternating current attached conductively to a condenser bank so arranged, with alternately directed diodes, that the supplied current is converted to an asymmetric alternating electrostatic potential. The means for impressing the net negative electrostatic charge may include means for maintaining a current density on the structure sufficient to cause limited dissociation of the water and form zinc hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and hydrogen peroxide at the oscillating Helmholtz double layer, without evolution of free hydrogen.

The antifouling system may be used on a structure which is at least partially submerged in water, with the zinc coating being applied to and conductively coupled to the submerged portion of the water structure with the zinc coating forming an interfacial layer between the water and the structure.

The means for impressing the asymmetric electrostatic potentials comprises a faradic, electrostatic conductor mounted internally within the water structure and means for creating an electrostatic potential between the water and the structure, while having a net negative charge with respect to the water. The means for impressing the net negative electrostatic charge can further comprise a means for maintaining a current density sufficient to dissociate water into its basic components and form zinc hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, and hydrogen peroxide at the Helmholtz double layer without evolution of free hydrogen. The means for impressing the net negative electrostatic charge can further comprise an inductor apparatus for generating an asymmetric alternating electrostatic potential, with the apparatus being insulatively mounted within the structure to which it is conductively coupled. The conversion from galvanic to faradic potentials may be achieved by diode switching of current to condenser banks.

A power supply generator producing an asymmetric alternating polarity galvanic current may be used, connected conductively to a diode, condenser couple such that the galvanic current is converted to faradic electrostatic potential.

As with the embodiment discussed supra. FIG. 1 provides a view of a ship's hull [10] on which the antifouling coating of the present invention is at least partially submerged in water [12]. The exposed surface of the ship's hull [10] below the water line [14] is susceptible to fouling by various marine organisms, including bacteria (which form a bacterial slime layer of discernible thickness), diatoms, algae, or other single-celled organisms, and more sessile organisms, such as barnacles and tubeworms.

In this embodiment, the exposed surface of the ship's hull [10] is also coated with a conductive zinc-containing coating [16] upon which is induced a faradically oscillating Helmholtz double layer at the surface/seawater interface which precludes the lower organisms of the fouling community from adhering to the exposed surface.

In one preferred embodiment here also the ship's hull [10] is first sandblasted to white metal to remove oxides and produce a reactive surface. While in a reactive state, a surface coating, termed inorganic zinc-rich paint, comprised of zinc powder or zinc oxide, and a "vehicle", e.g. a silicate-based "vehicle", which may be from 2.8 mils to 4.1 mils thick is applied by spray or brush. The resultant dry film coating, which is chemically covalently bonded to the metallic hull [10], can contain from 70 to 99, preferably 85 to 97, percent by weight zinc. Inorganic zinc coatings suitable for practicing the present invention are the alkyl silicate or the alkaline hydrolyzed type which are commercially available. One such available paint is Carbozinc 11.RTM. manufactured by Carboline, Inc.

In this embodiment of the invention, one or more power supply means [30] and condenser bank means [18] are disposed within the ship's hull [10]. It is one important aspect of the invention that the one or more condenser bank means [18] are disposed in a manner preventing contact with the water [12]. The one or more power supply means [30] and condenser bank means [18] are attached to the hull in such a manner that the hull [10] becomes a faradic conductor for the induced charges of the condenser banks. The power supply mean [30] is connected between the condenser banks and the ship's hull providing an asymmetric alternating potential to each at a potential of from 1.0 to 10.0 volts. A half-cell voltage of approximately 0.9 to 1.2 negative volts DC measured from the ship's hull [10] to a silver-silver chloride reference cell in the water is achieved. Current densities of no more than 4 to 8 mA ft.sup.-2 are preferred. At these levels, there is sufficient energy to protect the hull. When the submerged surface area of the hull [10] is large, a plurality of contacts from the negative terminal of power supply [30] to spaced apart-points on the hull [10] may be advantageously used to assure a proper potential gradient for the full length of the hull.

As embodied herein the entire system appears to act as a large Faradic Cage with the hull as the external screen from which induced charges may go to ground. In use, the effectively prevents dissolution of the zinc coating [16] into the seawater.

Although various theories have been advanced supra, whatever the antifouling mechanism, it is apparent that a conductive zinc coated surface submerged in water is resistant to fouling when impressed with a net negative potential contrary to prior teachings. Zinc alone has no antifouling affect. This was demonstrated in experiments where a test structure was coated with a zinc rich-paint and submerged in seawater. The test structure, without any negative charge impressed, fouled heavily.

Having generally described this invention, a further understanding can be obtained by reference to certain specific examples which are provided herein for purposes of illustration only and are not intended to be limiting unless otherwise specified.

A buoy was constructed from a section of black, rolled steel covered with zinc-rich paint. A titanium electrode similar to that shown in FIGS. 2 and 5 was housed within. An eight-volt potential difference between the titanium electrode and the external pipe was impressed upon the assembly which was placed in the water in Bogue Sound at Morehead City. Extensive fouling was noted on cables used to secure the buoys; however, no appreciable fouling was found on the zinc-coated surfaces.

A control buoy was installed, which, although zinc coated, had no titanium electrode and no impressed potential. The control buoy was placed in the water at the same location as the assembly described in Example 1 and was left for the same period of time. The control buoy was extensively fouled when placed in the water at the same period of time. The control buoy was extensively fouled when placed in the water at the same period of time. The control buoy was extensively fouled proving that inorganic zinc-rich paint itself is not an antifoulant.

In this experiment a test buoy was constructed identical to that described in Example 1 except the buoy was not coated. The test buoy was placed in the water at the same location as the previous two assemblies and was left for the same period of time. Although a negative potential between the electrode and the surface of the buoy was impressed, the buoy was extensively fouled indicating that a charge on a metal surface alone will not prevent fouling.

Obviously, numerous modifications and variations of the present invention are possible in light of the above teachings. It is therefore to be understood that within the scope of the appended claims, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described herein.