US 4,676,641 AGrant
System for Measuring the Size Distribution of Particles Dispersed in a Fluid
Issue Date:1987-06-30
•20 Claims
•4 Drawing Sheets
Abstract
An apparatus and method which provides a measure of the size distribution of particles dispersed in a fluid based upon an optimum combination of CLS measurements and DLS measurements. The measurement is characterized by relatively high resolution particle sizing. DLS data representative of the autocorrelation function, or power spectrum, of the detected intensity of scattered light at a plurality of angles about a sample, is optimally combined with CLS data representative of the average total detected intensity at those angles, to provide an angle-independent, high resolution size distribution v(r). The size distribution may be expressed in terms of the continuous function v(r) or the histogram v, and may represent distributions weighted by mass, volume, number, surface area, or other measures.
Metadata
Assignee
- Coulter Electronics of New England, Inc.
Inventor
- Steven E. Bott
Application Information
Application Number:US 8170487
Filing Date:1986-01-08
Priority Date:1986-01-08
Art Unit:255
Classifications
IPC:
G01N 1502G01N 2149
Field of Search:
356250336;338;340;341;343564;565;574
Patent Drawings (4 sheets)
Description
Field of the Invention
This invention relates to light scattering instrumentation and more particularly to light scattering systems for measuring the size distribution of particles dispersed in a fluid.
Background of the Disclosure
There are several prior art techniques for measuring the distribution of the particle size in a sample by using light scattering. Generally, to measure the sizes of individual particles, for example, in a flowing stream of a liquid or gas, the particle-containing sample is illuminated by a constant light source and the intensity of light scattered by the particle is detected. A particle scatters the light by an amount directly related to the particle size; in general, bigger particles scatter more light than smaller particles. The relation between the amount of scattering and particle size may be determined either from theoretical calculations or through calibration process. With knowledge of this relation, for a single particle at a time, the detected scattered light intensity provides a direct measure of the particle size. The distribution of particle sizes in a sample may be determined by individually passing each particle in the sample, or a suitable portion of the sample, through the scattered light detection apparatus and tabulating the sizes of the various particles. In practice, this method is generally restricted to particles greater than 0.5 microns. Moreover, this method is relatively slow since particles must be detected individually. This technique is referred to in the prior art as optical particle counting (OPC).
A second prior art technique of particle sizing by light scattering is referred to as static or "classical" light scattering (CLS). This method is based upon illumination of a sample containing the particles-to-be-sized followed by the measurement of the intensity of scattered light at several predetermined angles. Because of intra-particle destructive interference, the intensity of light scattered from a particle depends on both the size and composition of the particle and the angle at which the measurement is made. This method of particle sizing based on the angular dependence of the scattered intensity can be used to measure the size distribution of a group of particles, as opposed to the first method noted above which is restricted to individual particles.
To implement the CLS measurement method, a sample of particles dispersed in a fluid is illuminated along an input axis, and the intensity of scattered light is measured at several predetermined angles. The scattered light intensity at each angle may be measured simultaneously with a multitude of detectors or consecutively, by moving a single detector around the sample to permit measurement of the intensity at each desired angle.
For large particles, for example, having diameters greater than 1 micron, the scattered light flux is concentrated in the forward direction relative to the input axis. Instruments for sizing large particles are referred to as laser diffraction devices. For sizing of smaller particles, for example, having diameters as low as 0.2 microns, the scattered light flux has significant magnitude both at lower and higher scattering angles relative to the input axis. The angular intensity measurements used on smaller particles are termed total integrated, or average, intensity measurements and may be displayed in a form known as Zimm plots.
A third prior art technique for particle sizing by light scattering is dynamic light scattering (DLS), also known as photon correlation spectroscopy (PCS) or quasi-elastic light scattering (QELS). See B. E. Dahneke, "Measurement of Suspended Particles by Quasi-Elastic Light Scattering," John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1983. This technique is based on measuring the time-fluctuations of the intensity of light scattered from an illuminated sample containing a group of particles which are diffusing through a fluid, that is, randomly moving due to collisions with solvent molecules and other particles. For example, the particles may be macromolecules dissolved in a liquid, where the macromolecules may be ionized by the loss of a small number of charged atoms.
In accordance with the DLS technique, scattered light intensity is measured as a function of time at a selected angle with respect to an illumination input axis. The light intensity detected at any instant at the detector is dependent on the interference between the light scattered from each illuminated particle in the scattering volume. As the particles randomly diffuse through the solution, the interference of the light scattered from them changes and the intensity at the detector therefore fluctuates. Since smaller particles diffuse faster, the fluctuations resulting from the motion of relatively small particles vary faster than those resulting from the motion of larger particles. Thus, by measuring the time variation of the scattered light fluctuations at the detector, information representative of the distribution of particle sizes is available. More particularly, the autocorrelation function of the measured intensity is related to the distribution of particle sizes in the fluid. Conventional DLS instruments such as the Model N4 photon correlation spectrometer manufactured by Coulter Electronics, Inc., Hialeah, Fla., provide autocorrelation signals for the detected intensity suitable for measuring distributions including particle sizes as low as 0.003 microns. Accordingly, such devices have a size measuring range extending considerably below the above-noted individual particle and CLS methods.
Particle sizing measurements by the known DLS techniques are generally made in the following manner. The particles-to-be-sized are suspended or dissolved in a fluid, forming a sample. The sample is illuminated by a laser beam directed along an input axis. Although a laser is generally used to generate the beam, a non-coherent light source may alternatively be used.
The light scattered from the particles in the sample is detected by a photodetector, such as a photomultiplier, which is positioned at a predetermined angle. The particular angle may be selected by the operator, but usually only one angle is measured at a time. The photodetector produces a signal which varies with time as the scattered light intensity incident on the photodetector varies. This time-varying signal is applied to an autocorrelator analyzer, to compute the autocorrelation function of the photodetector signal. Typically, the autocorrelator computes the value of the autocorrelation function of the detected scattered light at as many as one hundred discrete time points. This autocorrelation function contains the information about the fluctuations in the detected scattered light, from which information about the distribution of particle sizes in the sample can be extracted. Thus, the autocorrelation function (acf) is the raw data of a DLS measurement. While most conventional DLS measurements are performed using this autocorrelation step, it is known that the acf of the intensity signal corresponds to the Fourier Transform of the power spectrum of that signal. Accordingly, a spectrum analyzer may be used in place of the autocorrelator to generate a power spectrum signal including the same information representative of the particle size distribution as is resident in the autocorrelation function. The frequency domain information resident in the power spectrum signal can be used to determine the particle size distribution.
In the prior art, there are several techniques for extracting the particle size distribution from the acf. For use with these techniques, the relationship between the acf and the size distribution can be expressed as:
where g(t) is the acf (or a function closely related to the acf), x(r) is the sought distribution of particle sizes (x is a function of r, the particle radius), and K is a function (or operator, linear or non-linear) which relates particle size to the acf. Thus, given the exact form of K, the autocorrelation function resulting from any distribution, x(r), of particle sizes would be known.
Since the acf, g(t), is what is actually measured in practice, the above relation must be inverted to yield the particle size distribution:
Accordingly, for the measured acf for a sample of particles, the size distribution for those particles can be extracted by applying the operator K.sup.-1 to the measured acf, g(t). The operator K.sup.-1 is the generalized inverse of the operator K. In practice however, the acf is "ill-conditioned" so that the inversion process is generally difficult and complex, although there are a number of known techniques for performing the inversion.
An example of the form K.sup.-1 for one particular commonly used prior art extraction technique is:
In this example, x is a vector whose components are the proportions of the particles of each size, g is a vector whose components are the values of the acf at different points in time, as computed by the autocorrelator, K is a matrix relating x to g, and H is a matrix which increases the conditioning of the inversion. K.sup.t is the transpose of the matrix K. Alpha (.alpha.) controls the amount of conditioning imposed on the solution. The inverse operator K.sup.-1 in this case can be written K.sup.- =(K.sup.t K+.alpha.H).sup.-1 K.sup.t, where alpha (.alpha.) is a smoothing parameter determined conventionally. The inversion is usually performed along with some non-negativity constraints imposed on the solution; these constraints are formally part of the inverse operator K.sup.-1. Other known methods for inversion are the histogram method, the singular value decomposition method, the delta function method, and the cubic spline method.
The size distribution, x(r), obtained from this extraction or "inversion" process can be expressed either as a continuous distribution as implied by (r), where the distribution is defined for particles of any size, or as a discrete size histogram expressed by the vector x where the distribution of particle sizes is defined at only a set number of particle sizes. The vector x is representative of a group of numbers (x(r.sub.1), x(r.sub.2), . . . , x(r.sub.n)) giving the relative proportion of scattered light intensity from particles of size r.sub.1, r.sub.2,. . .,r.sub.n, respectively. The size distribution (r) is referred to as a size histogram x herein below.
The size distribution x(r) and size histogram, x, are "intensity weighted" functions since these are representative of the relative proportion of particles as characterized by the relative amount of scattering intensity from particles of each size. However, these intensity weighted functions are dependent on the angle at which the measurement of scattered light was made. That is, the apparent proportion of particles of each size, as evidenced by the scattered light intensity contribution of particles of different sizes, depends on the angle at which the measurement is made. Thus, size distributions made at different angles cannot be directly compared using the intensity weighted distribution x(r) or histogram x.
Accordingly, if the amount of light scattered per particle, as a function of the scattering angle, is known, either through theoretical calculations or by an empirical method, the intensity weighted size distributions x(r) and histogram x at each angle can be directly compared by first converting those functions to corresponding mass, volume, or number weighted size distributions. For example, the intensity weighted histogram x may be converted in accordance with:
In this expression, v is the mass, volume or number weighted size histogram and C is the conversion matrix between the intensity weighted histogram, x, and the mass, volume or number weighted histogram, v. Similarly, the size distribution x(r) may be converted into a corresponding mass, volume or number distribution function v(r). Since all of these converted histograms and distribution functions provide the desired angle-independent information about the size distribution particles, they are referred to generally below as v and v(r), respectively.
A volume weighted histogram and distribution function provide a measure of the proportion of the total volume of particles in a sample as a function of particle size. For example, 50% of the volume of a sample of particles might come from particles of size 0.1 micron and the remaining 50% from particles of size 0.3 microns. Similarly, the mass weighted histograms and distributions provide a measure of the mass of particles in a sample as a function of size and the number weighted histograms and distribution of the numbers of particles in a sample as a function of size. For particles of the same density, the mass and volume weighted histograms and functions are the same. Vblume, mass and number weighted size histograms and distributions are generally more useful than the corresponding intensity weighted size histograms or distributions since the former relate to quantities which can be directly measured by other means.
All of the prior art light scattering measurement techniques are characterized by low resolution and poor reproducibility, the principal drawbacks of such methods. With respect to DLS sizing measurements, efforts have been made to try to increase the resolution. The general methods used to increase resolution either attempt to improve the signal-to-noise ratio of the measurement by collecting intensity data over a long period or over a large number of short periods and then averaging the results, or by using intensity data collected at several angles.
With the latter method, the data collected at different angles are substantially independent, and therefore data collected at one angle complement those collected at other angles. For example, data collected at lower scattering angles are generally more sensitive to the presence of large particles in the sample while, conversely, data collected at large scattering angles are more sensitive to the presence of smaller particles. A sample containing both large and small particles can therefore be accurately sized by using the data from two or more angles, where relatively lower angle or angles provide information about the larger particles and relatively high angle or angles provide information about the smaller particles. In contrast, measurement at a single low angle would provide relatively little and possibly obscured information about the smaller particles and hence the sizing resolution would be poor.
The prior art method of using several angles to enhance the sizing resolution involves simply making measurements at two or more angles and averaging the volume weighted histograms resulting from the measurements made at the two or more angles. Symbolically, the process of combining information obtained at several scattering angles by averaging results can be expressed by: ##EQU1## where the subscripts 1,2, . . . m refer to measurements made at the scattering angles .theta..sub.1 through .theta..sub.m. The inclusion of .theta. as an argument of the operator K.sup.-1 indicates that the inversion process, that is, the operator K.sup.-1, depends on the scattering angles. Each of the m intensity weighted histograms, x.sub.1, . . . ,x.sub.m, may be converted to an angle-independent volume weighted histogram, v.sub.1, . . . , v.sub.m, and then the m volume weighted histograms may be averaged to produce the "enhanced" resolution result, v:
However, this volume weighted distribution, v, is not necessarily the solution which is the best fit to all the data. The size resolution obtainable for a single measurement at a single angle is quite low and the presence of particles of some sizes may not be detected at some angles. Thus, even when the intensity histograms are converted to volume histograms, the histograms obtained at different angles may give very different and apparently contradictory information.
It is an object of the present invention to provide an improved apparatus and method for measuring the distribution of particle sizes dispersed in a fluid.
Another object is to provide a particle sized distribution measuring apparatus and method characterized by relatively high resolution.
Summary of the Invention
Briefly, the present invention is an apparatus and method which provides a measure of the size distribution of particles dispersed in a fluid based upon an optimum combination of CLS measurements and DLS measurements, providing a resultant measurement characterized by relatively high resolution particle sizing. More particularly, in accordance with the invention, DLS data representative of the autocorrelation function, or power spectrum, of the detected intensity of scattered light at a plurality of angles about a sample, is optimally combined with CLS data representative of the average total detected intensity at those angles, to provide an angle-independent, high resolution size distribution v(r). The size distribution may be expressed in terms of the continuous function v(r) or the histogram v, and may represent distributions weighted by mass, volume, number, surface area, or other measures.
By way of example, in combining the DLS and CLS data, an angle independent volume weighted histogram may be determined from:
where g.sub.1 (t), . . . , g.sub.m (t) are the determined autocorrelations of the detected light intensities at m scattering angles .theta..sub.1, . . . , .theta..sub.m, and where i(.theta..sub.1), . . . , i(.theta..sub.m), i(.theta..sub.m+1), . . . ,i(.theta..sub.m+n) are the detected average intensities at the respective m scattering angles; .theta..sub.1, . . . ,.theta..sub.m as well as n additional angles .theta..sub.m+1, . . . ,.theta..sub.m+n, where m is an integer equal to or greater than one and n is an integer equal to or greater than zero. In this form of the invention, the DLS measurements are made at m angles and the CLS measurements are made at m+n angles, including the same angles at which DLS measurements are made. J.sup.-1 is a single operator which acts simultaneously on all of the autocorrelation functions and average intensity values to provide the "best fit" to all the data. This is in contrast to the m separate K.sup.-1 operators, one for each angle, set forth in equations (4) above. With the present invention, the operator J.sup.-1 incorporates the information from the CLS measurements as well as the independent information from the DLS measurements, in a manner appropriately normalizing the autocorrelation functions measured at the different scattering angles.
The resultant distribution, v, based upon the J.sup.-1 transformation of the autocorrelation functions and the classical scattered intensities, simultaneously in a single procedure, provides an increase in the sizing resolution of the determined particle distributions compared to the prior art techniques which are based upon either the autocorrelation functions of the classical scattering intensities, but not both.
Briefly, according to the invention, a system is provided for measuring the size distribution v(r) of particles dispersed in a fluid sample, where r is representative of particle size. The system includes means for illuminating the sample with a light beam directed along an input axis. Either a coherent or a non-coherent light source may be used.
A light detector detects the intensity of light from the light beam at m points angularly dispersed from said input axis at a plurality of angles .theta..sub.1, . . . ,.theta..sub.m, where m is an integer equal to or greater than one. The detector generates m intensity signals, each of the intensity signals being representative of the detected intensity of the light from the light beam as a function of time at a corresponding one of the m points. In various forms, the invention may be embodied in a homodyne or a heterodyne configuration. In the homodyne form, only scattered light is detected at the m points during the intensity signal measurements, while in the heterodyne form, a portion of the beam is directly incident on the detector at the m points, so that the intensity signal corresponds to a beat signal resulting from both scattered and non-scattered portions of the light beam.
In one form, an autocorrelation processor generates m correlation signals each of the correlation signals being representative of the autocorrelation function of a corresponding one of the intensity signals. Each of the correlation signals equals an associated transformation J.sub.i of the distribution v(r), where i=1, . . . ,m. The transformations may be linear or non-linear. Since the autocorrelation functions for the intensity signals are the Fourier Transforms of the power spectra of those signals, the autocorrelation processor is, in one form of the invention, an autocorrelator which directly generates the m correlation signals as m time domain autocorrelation signals g.sub.i (t), where t is time and i=1, . . . , m. In other forms, the autocorrelation processor includes a spectrum analyzer which generates the m correlation signals as m frequency domain power spectrum signals G.sub.i (f), where f is frequency and i=1, . . . , m. Since the power spectrum signal is the Fourier Transform of the autocorrelation signal, the power spectrum signals G.sub.i (f) may be used to provide the same information as the autocorrelation signals g.sub.i (t).
A light detector also detects the time average intensity of scattered light from the light beam at the m points as well as n additional points angularly displaced from the input axis, where n is an integer greater than or equal to zero. The latter detector generates average signals representative of the time average of the intensity of scattered light detected at the respective m+n points.
A size processor, responsive to the correlation signals and the average signals, generates a signal representative of the distribution v(r). The size processor generates a composite correlation signal representative of a weighted direct sum of the m correlation signals. The size processor determines a composite transformation operator J.sup.-1 which is related to the transformations J.sub.i and the n average signals.
The size processor transforms the composite correlation signal in accordance with the determined composite transformation operator thereby providing a resultant signal which incorporates the size distribution information of both the CLS and DLS data and is representative of the size distribution v(r). In accordance with the invention, either the composite correlation signal or the composite transformation operator is substantially scaled to the average intensities of the scattered light at the respective ones of the m points. This scaling, or normalization, permits the DLS data represented by the composite correlation signal to be optimally combined with the CLS data represented by the average signals.
In one form of the invention, the transformations J.sub.i are linear transformations and the composite transformation operator J.sup.-1 is the generalized inverse of the operator corresponding to the direct sum of the operators for the associated transformations J.sub.i. The inverse transformation operator J.sup.-1 may correspond to the inverse of the matrix corresponding to the direct sum of the associated transformations J.sub.i. Alternatively, the operator J.sup.-1 may correspond to [J.sup.t J+.alpha.H].sup.-1 J.sup.t where J is the matrix corresponding to the direct sum of the matrices coresponding to the associated transformations J.sub.i, J.sup.t is the transpose of the matrix J, H is a conditioning matrix, and alpha (.alpha.) is a smoothing parameter. Further, all components of the vector representative of the distribution v(r) may be constrained to be greater than or equal to zero.
In another form, the associated transformations are non-linear, with the size distribution being characterized by v(r,p), where p is a characterization parameter vector having k components. In this form, the composite transformation operator J.sup.-1 is the p solution algorithm for ##EQU2## where i is an inteqer 1, . . . , m, j is an integer 1, . . . , q, l is an integer 1, . . . , k, p.sub.e is the l.sup.th component of pand where g.sub.i (t.sub.j) is the autocorrelation function of the intensity signal for the i.sup.th of said angle at the j.sup.th time interval and J.sub.ij is an operator related to the associated transformations. The model size distribution v(r,p) may for example be characterized in terms of parameters r and .sigma., the mean particle size of the actual size distribution, and the standard deviation of the actual size distribution, respectively. The solution algorithm for the p.sub.l minimizes the squares of the residuals J.sub.ij [v(r,p)]-g.sub.i (t.sub.j) for the various points in time t.sub.j for the various acf's g.sub.i. More particularly, v(r,p) may have the form: ##EQU3## where the J.sub.ij operator has the form: ##EQU4## where .GAMMA.(r.sub.i .theta..sub.i) has the form: ##EQU5## where n is the refractive index of the sample, .lambda. is the wavelength of the light illuminating the sample, k.sub.B is Boltzman's constant, .sigma. is the viscosity of the sample and T is absolute temperature.
In another form, the composite correlation signal operator controls the weighted direct sum of the m correlation signals to be unity normalized and the composite transformation operator is substantially scaled to the average intensities of light scattered from the light beam at the respective ones of the m points. In yet another form, the composite correlation signal generator controls the weighted direct sum of the m correlation signals to be substantially scaled to the average intensities of light scattered from the light beam at the respective ones of the m points.
In other forms of the invention, the general method of using informtion exacted from measurements at two or more scattering angles can be applied to determine size and shape information about particles which are rod-like, ellipsoids or other forms, including "Gaussian coils".
In other forms of the invention, instead of making CLS and DLS measurements at two or more scattering angles, such measurements may be made at one angle under different sets of conditions, for example, different temperatures or hydrodynamic solution characteristics or polarization of the light beam, providing complementary information which is processed to yield enhanced particle characteristic resolution for a wide variety of dynamic systems.
Brief Description of the Drawings
The foregoing and other objects of this invention, the various features thereof, as well as the invention itself, may be more fully understood from the following description, when read together with the accompanying drawings, in which:
FIG. 1 shows in schematic form, an exemplary system embodying of the present invention;
FIG. 2 shows, in block diagram form, an embodiment of the detector and signal processor of the system of FIG. 1;
FIG. 3 shows, in block diagram form, another embodiment of the detector and signal processor of the system of FIG. 1;
FIG. 4 shows a flow chart illustrating the operation of the system of FIGS. 1 and 2;
FIGS. 5-7 show detailed flow charts for three implementations of the data processing step of the flow chart of FIG. 4; and
FIGS. 8 and 9 illustrate the mass weighted size distribution determined by an embodiment of the present invention for an exemplary sample of polystyrene latex spheres dispersed in water.
Description of the Preferred Embodiment
FIG. 1 shows an exemplary system 10 in accordance with the invention. The system 10 provides an output signal representative of the size distribution of particles v(r) dispersed in a fluid sample 12, where r is representative of particle size. The sample may, for example, include discrete particles or macromolecules suspended in a liquid, or may include ionized macromolecules in a solvent, or may include discrete particles in an aerosol, or any configuration wherein the particles-to-be-sized are dispersed in a fluid, and are subject to Brownian motion in that fluid.
In the embodiment of FIG. 1, the sample 12 is positioned within a bath chamber 14 filled with a temperature-controlled index of refraction matching medium. The system 10 includes a light source 18 which provides a collimated light beam 20 directed along an input axis 24 and focussed by lens 16 onto the sample 12. In the presently described embodiment, the light source 18 is a laser, although in other forms of the invention, a non-coherent light source may be used. The present embodiment is a homodyne configuration in which substantially no non-scattered light is permitted to reach detector 30. In a heterodyne form of the invention, portion of the light beam from source 18 may be coupled directly to the sensor 30, for example, by a fiber optic link indicated by the broken line 22 in FIG. 1.
A light detector 28 includes a sensor 30 having a sensing axis 32 which is positionable at a plurality of points equidistant from and dispersed angularly about the sample 12 along an arc 36. As shown, the input axis 32 is displaced by an angle .theta. with respect to axis 24. In various forms of the invention, a detector may be successively positionable along arc 36, or alternatively, a plurality of light detectors might be fixedly positioned at discrete points along the arc 36. The detector 28 provides output signals along lines 28a to a signal processor 40. In the present embodiment, aperture defining devices 37 and 38 are positioned with respect to sensor 30 and the axis 32 in a manner restricting the light detected at sensor 30 to be within a predetermined coherence area.
In addition, the present embodiment includes a pair of polarizers 39a and 39b positioned along the axis 24 before the sample and along the axis 32, respectively. The filters 39a and 39b permit passage only of portions of the light beam and scattered light, respectively, having predetermined polarization. By selectively controlling the polarization angle of these filters, substantially independent intensity signals may be generated for a single angle .theta. for each orthogonal polarization angle. For example, in one form, the filter 39a passes right circularly polarized light and the filter 39b may be selectively adapted to pass right circularly polarized light or left circularly polarized light. Alternatively, the filter 39a passes vertically polarized light and the filter 39b may be selectively adapted to pass light characterized by one of two different orthogonal polarizations.
FIG. 2 shows one form for the detector 28 and the signal processor 40 in which the detector 28 includes a photomultiplier 44 and associated pulse discriminator 46 and an integrator 48. In this form, the signal processor 40 includes an autocorrelator 50, a signal analyzer 52 and a controller 54.
FIG. 3 shows an alternate form in which the detector 28 includes an interferometer 60 and a photomultiplier 62, which provide a signal representative of the power spectrum of the light intensity at the detector 30, and a photomultiplier 63 and an integretor 64, which provide a signal representative of the time average of the light intensity at detector 30. The signal processor 40 includes a signal analyzer 66 and a controller 68. In FIGS. 2 and 3, the signal analyzers provide the output signal representative of the size distribution v(r).
In operation, briefly, the light source 18 illuminates the sample 12 along the input axis 24 and the sensor 30 of detector 28 detects the intensity of the light scattered by the sample at a plurality of points along arc 36. The intensity measured at the detector 28 is an interference pattern resulting from the in phase contributions of the light scattered from each molecule in the scattering volume of sample 12. In liquid or gaseous samples, the molecules are in motion and the interference pattern at the detector 28 is modulated by the motions of the scattering particles. In the absence of external fields, the motions of the particles are random, and are due just to thermal fluctuations. The fluctuations in scattered electric field at the detector caused by these random motions comprise a stationary random process. The second moment of the process is defined by ##EQU6## where e(.tau.) is the electric field of the scattered light at the detector 28 at time .tau.. g(t) is the autocorrelation function (hereinafter abbreviated "acf") of the process. The acf is a measure of the correlation between the configuration of the scattering molecules at a given time compared to that at any later time, e.g. at very short delay times, the configuration of particles as well as the scattered electric field measured at the detector 28 closely resembles the original configuration; as time passes, that resemblance diminishes. Because the degree of correlation depends on the speed with which and the mechanism by which the configurations change, the acf provides characterization of the dynamics of the particles in the sample. In the configuration of FIG. 2, the acf of the scattered light is determined by a digital correlator 50. Alternatively, in the configuration of FIG. 3, the photomultiplier-discriminator- autocorrelator elements of FIG. 2 are replaced by the interferometer 60 and photomultiplier 62. In the latter configuration, the power spectrum, which is the Fourier Transform of the acf is measured. In both the configuration of FIG. 2 and that of FIG. 3, the information obtained is equivalent and both the acf and power spectrum signals are referred to herein as the DLS data. In practice, the choice between the two forms is determined by the rapidity of fluctuations in the light scattered by the sample 12. Preferably, fluctuations decaying on a time scale slower than 0.01 microseconds are measured by autocorrelation and those faster than 0.01 microseconds are measured by interferometry.
The photomultiplier 44 and integrator 48 of FIG. 2 and the photomultiplier 63 and integrator 64 of FIG. 3 provide signals representative of the average detected intensity at the detector 30. Those signals are referred to herein as the CLS data.
The elements 18, 28, 44, 46, 48 and 50 of the system 10 of FIGS. 1 and 2 may be implemented in part by commercially available devices, such as the Model LSA2+ photon correlation spectrometer and Model 1096 Correlator, manufactured by Langley Ford Instruments, division of Coulter Electronics of New England, Inc., Amherst, Mass. Alternatively, these elements may be implemented by the Coulter Model N4 photon correlation spectrometer, or by the System 4700 spectrometer manufactured by Malvern Instruments, Inc., Framingham, Mass. or Series MM1000 spectrometer manufactured by Amtec, Villeneure-Loubet, France, together with a Coulter Model 1096 correlator.
FIG. 4 shows a flow chart illustrating the general operation of the system of FIGS. 1 and 2, including a data collection phase, denoted A, and a data processing or analysis phase, denoted B. In accordance with the invention, as shown in FIGS. 1 and 2, the data collection phase A is performed with elements 18 and 28 in two modes. In the first mode, DLS measurements are made an m different angles and the autocorrelator 50 provides m autocorrelation functions, denoted acf 1 . . . acf m in FIG. 4. In the second mode, the CLS measurements are made at the same m angles, where m is an integer greater than or equal to one, and at n additional angles, where n is an integer greater or equal to zero and the integrator 48 provides m+n integrated intensity values, denoted int 1, . . . , int m+n in FIG. 4. These acf and integrated intensity measurements may be made at the same time or sequentially since the resultant data for each measurement is substantially independent. In various forms of the invention, rather than different angles, successive pairs of acf and average intensity measurements can be made at the same angle, but under different conditions, for example, temperature, hydrodynamic solution characteristics, or polarization angles, which establish independent intensity characteristics at the sensor 30. Also, successive pairs of acf and average intensity measurements can be made at various combinations of angles and these conditions.
For any of the combinations of angles and conditions at which the CLS and DLS data is measured, FIGS. 5, 6 and 7 illustrate three different signal processing methods which can be implemented by the signal analyzer 52 under the control of controller 54. Each method includes a Normalization Phase, denoted A, and Model Phase, denoted B, and Analysis Phase, denoted C.
In each of the forms of FIGS. 5-7, in the Normalization Phase, the m acf's are first normalized with the angular intensity (CLS) data so that those autocorrelation signals are scaled to the values of the average detected intensities at the m points of detection, forming m normalized acf's. A composite acf is then formed from the direct sum of the m normalized acf's.
In the Model Phase, an analytic, or discrete, model is constructed for use in the Analysis Phase so that the inversion of the equation
may be performed. Each of FIGS. 5, 6 and 7 indicates a different exemplary and known form for constructing the model in a conventional manner for ill-conditioned functions.
In FIG. 5, a model size distribution is generated as a histogram having all non-negative components and a kernel J is formed for the transform. To find the size distribution v(r) using this kernel, a programmed digital computer using Non-Negative Least Squares (NNLS) techniques performs a "best fit", see C. Lawson and R. Hanson, "Solving Least Square Problems", Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1974.
In FIG. 6, a model size distribution is generated as a smoothed histogram with all non-negative components. A kernel J and a smoothing martrix H are formed and a characteristic alpha (.alpha.) is generated. Then matrix operations are performed on J, H and alpha to reduce the problem to determining the residual vector having the minimum norm subject to linear constraints. To find the size distribution v(r) using J, H and alpha, a programmed digital computer using Least Distance Programming techniques, minimizes the norm of the residuals, [J.sub.i v].sub.j -g.sub.i (t.sub.j), subject to linear constraints, and matrix operations are then performed to determine v(r); see C. Lawson and R. Hanson, "Solving Least Square Problems", Prentice Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J., 1974.
In FIG. 7, the model size distribution is determined in terms of a parameterized distribution D(p1, p2, . . . pk), where the parameters p1, p2 . . . pk determine the size distribution. Then an analytical form is determined for derivatives of D with respect to the {P.sub.i }, i=1, . . . K. A programmed digital computer uses Non-Linear Least Squares fitting techniques to determine the best values of the {Pi} characterizing v(r) using the program GRADLS; see P. R. Bevington, "Data Reduction and Error Analysis for the Physical Sciences", McGraw Hill Book Co., New York, 1969.
In all of the forms of the invention shown in FIGS. 5-7, the acf's are normalized and then a composite acf is formed. However, in alternate forms of the invention, the acf's may be unity normalized and then used to form the composite acf. Then the kernel J may be normalized and the normalized transformation operator may be used to generate the size distribution. Moreover, the composite acf's in FIGS. 5 and 6 are direct sums of the normalized acf's (and the CLS intensities), where linear transforms are used. In other forms of the inventions, as in FIG. 7, non-linear transforms are used.
Additionally, as described above, the scattered light for the sample is measured alone, forming the basis for a homodyne analysis. Alternatively, the measurement may be made on the scattered light as augmented by non-scattered light from the source, so that a beat signal is in effect produced as the basis for a heterodyne analysis. In those forms, the signals g(t) may be the true autocorrelation of the detected intensity, or may be merely "closely related", for example, where a background level is subtracted out and the square root of the resultant signal is taken. The latter is particularly appropriate for gaussian light in a homodyne configuration.
In the preferred embodiment of FIGS. 1 and 2, the light source 18, detector 28 (including elements 44, 46 and 48) and the autocorrelator 50 are provided by a Langley Ford Model LSA2+ photon correlation spectrometer and a Langley Ford Model 1096 correlator. The signal analyzer 52 and controller 54 are in the form of a Model Universe 137/T digital computer manufactured by Charles River Data Systems, Natick, Mass., having a UNOS operating system with a Fortran 77 Compiler, as produced by Absoft Corporation, Royal Oak, Mich., programmed in accordance with the program set forth in Appendix B. With this configuration, acf and CLS data is collected at two angles, for example, 90.degree. and 30.degree.. As the, data is collected, it is automatically stored in the internal memory of the 1096 correlator. After the data at two angles has been collected and stored, the data is transferred to the 137/T computer through a serial (RS-232) port. The 1096 correlator is set to send the data in its `five channels per line` format. The data, received through the RS-232 port, is directly stored to a disk file on the 137/T computer.
The format of the data from the 1096 correlator, as stored in the 137/T computer disk file, is changed into the correct format for the signal processing program, cont2ang.fm, included in Appendix B. This format conversion is accomplished by processing the two data sets (one for each angle) using the 137/T computer programmed in accordance with the program condense.fm shown in Appendix C. Under control of the program, condense.fm, the 137/T computer reads the acf data along with the sample times used in the measurements (also contained in the data sets from the 1096 correlator) and condenses the 256 channels of data for each angle into two sets of 60 channels of data, by combining several channels of the original data into one channel of condensed data. The processed data is written out to a new disk file on the 137/T computer. This process of condensing the data is done only to speed the subsequent data processing, it has no material affect on the sizing results obtained. Under the control of the condense.fm program, the 137/T computer then writes out the 60 acf time points for the first angle, corresponding to the 60 condensed acf points at which the data is measured. The data is written out in the FORTRAN format 5e15.6. Following the acf time points for the first angle are written out the 60 acf time points for the second angle in the same format. This is followed by the 60 condensed acf points for the first angle and then the 60 condensed acf points for the second angle. The acf points are written out in the FORTRAN format 4e17.11.
At this point, a new disk file contains reformatted and condensed data equivalent to the original data collected by the 1096 correlator. This new data file, which contains only time points and acf points for the two angles, is prefixed by a header which informs the signal processing program cont2ang.fm how the data should be handled and gives the program some other information, such as the temperature and viscosities of the sample, the scattering angles, and the like. The contents of the header are described in the first page of the listing in Appendix B and in CONTIN Users Manual, Postfach 10.2209,D-6900 Heidelberg, BRD. For illustrative purposes, a sample header is included in Appendix D. The header is prefixed to the file using the 137/T computer editor, ted.
Once the header is prefixed to the data file containing the condensed two angle data, cont2ang.fm is called to process the data and provide the size distribution of the particles contained in the sample. FIGS. 8 and 9 shows the mass weighted size distribution, v(r) generated with this configuration where the sample comprised a mixture of 450 A and 850 A (radius) polystyrene latex spheres (from Seragen Diagnostics) dispersed in water. The measurements were made at scattering angles of 144.degree. (300 second measurement) and 63.2.degree. (900 second measurement) at a temperature of 20.degree. C. FIG. 8 shows a portion of the data output from the cont2ang.fm program for this example, and FIG. 9 shows a graph representative of this data.
The larger sized particles in this sample are less than twice as large as the smaller ones; for light scattering measurements, such relatively closely space peaks are extremely difficult to resolve. The enhanced resolution resulting from combining DLS and CLS data allows clear separation of the two peaks, as shown in FIG. 9.
The invention may be embodied in other specific forms without departing from the spirit or essential characteristics thereof. The present embodiments are therefore to be considered in all respects as illustrative and not restrictive, the scope of the invention being indicated by the appended claims rather than by the foregoing description, and all changes which come within the meaning and range of equivalency of the claims are therefore intended to be embraced therein.
Claims
What is claimed is:
1. System for measuring the size distribution v(r) of particles dispersed in a fluid sample, where r is representative of particle size, comprising: A. illumination means for illuminating said sample with a light beam directed along an input axis, B. detector means for detecting the intensity of light from said light beam at m points angularly displaced from said input axis at a plurality of angles .theta..sub.1, . . . , .theta..sub.m, where m is an integer equal to or greater than one, said detector means including: i. means for generating m intensity signals, each of said intensity signals being representative of the detected intensity of said light from said light beam as a function of time at a corresponding one of said m points, ii. means for detecting the intensity of scattered light from said light beam at said m points and means for generating m average signals, each of said m average signals being representative of the average intensity of said scattered light from said light beam at the corresponding one of said m points, and iii. means for detecting the intensity of scattered light from said beam at n points different from said m points and angularly displaced from said input axis at n angles, where n is an integer equal to or greater than zero, said detector means further including means for generating n average signals, each of said n average signals being representative of the average intensity of said scattered light at the corresponding one of said n points, C. autocorrelation means for generating m correlation signals where each of said correlation signals being representative of the autocorrelation function of a corresponding one of said intensity signals and being equal to an associated transformation of said distribution v(r), D. size processing means responsive to said correlation signals and said average signals, including: i. means for generating a composite correlation signal representative of a weighted direct sum of said m correlation signals, ii. means for determining a composite transformation operator J.sup.-1 related to said associated transformations and said n average signals, wherein one of said composite correlation signal and said composite transformation operator is substantially scaled to the average intensities of said light beam at the respective ones of said m points, iii. means for transforming said composite correlation signal in accordance with said determined composite transformation operator J.sup.-1 to generate a size distribution signal representative of said distribution v(r).
2. System according to claim 1 wherein said illumination means includes means for directly illuminating said m points with a portion of said light beam.
3. System according to claim 1 wherein said illumination means includes means for preventing any of said beam from directly illuminating any of said m points.
4. System according to claim 1 wherein said autocorrelation means includes an autocorrelator means for generating said m correlation signals as time domain autocorrelation signals g.sub.i (t) where t is time and i=1, . . . , m, each of said m autocorrelation signals corresponding to the autocorrelation of a corresponding one of said m intensity signals.
5. System according to claim 1 wherein said autocorrelation means includes a power spectrum means for generating said m correlation signal as frequency domain power spectrum signals G.sub.i (f) where f is frequency and i=1, . . . , m, each of said m power spectrum signals corresponding to the power spectrum of a corresponding one of said m intensity signals.
6. System according to claim 1 wherein said associated transformations are linear transformations and wherein said composite transformation operator J.sup.-1 is the generalized inverse of the operator corresponding to the direct sum of the operators for said associated transformations.
7. System according to claim 6 wherein said inverse transformation operator J.sup.-1 corresponds to the inverse of the matrix corresponding to the direct sum of the matrices of said associated transformations.
8. System according to claim 6 wherein said inverse transformation operator J.sup.-1 corresponds to [J.sup.t J+.alpha.H].sup.-1 J.sup.t where J is the matrix corresponding the direct sum of the matrices corresponding to said associated transformations, J.sup.t is the transpose of the matrix J, H is a conditioning matrix, and alpha (.alpha.) is a smoothing parameter.
9. System according to claim 6 wherein said inverse transformation operator J.sup.-1 corresponds to [J.sup.t J+.alpha.H].sup.-1 J.sup.t where J is the matrix corresponding the direct sum of the matrices corresponding to said associated transformations, J.sup.t is the transpose of the matrix J, H is a conditioning matrix, and alpha (.alpha.) is a smoothing parameter and where all components of the vector representative of said distribution function v(r) are constrained to be greater than or equal to zero.
10. System according to claim 1 wherein said associated transformations are non-linear and wherein said size distribution is characterized by v(r,p), where p is a characterization parameter vector having k components, and wherein said composite transformation operator J.sup.-1 is the p solution algorithm for ##EQU7## where i is an integer 1, . . . , m, j is an integer 1, . . . ,q, l is an integer 1, . . . , k, p.sub.l is the l.sup.th component of p and where g.sub.i (t.sub.j) is the autocorrelation function of the intensity signal for the i.sup.th of said angle at the j.sup.th time interval and J.sub.ij is an operator related to the associated transformations.
11. A system according to claim 1 wherein said composite correlation signal generating means includes means for controlling said weighted direct sum of said m correlation signals to be unity normalized, and wherein said composite operator determining means includes means for controlling said composite transformation generator to be substantially scaled to the average intensities of light scattered from said light beam at the respective ones of said m points.
12. A system according to claim 1 wherein said composite operator generating means includes means for controlling said composite correlation signal to be substantially scaled to the average intensities of light scattered from said light beam at the respective ones of said m points.
13. System for measuring the size distribution v(r) of particles dispersed in a fluid sample, where r is representative of particle size, comprising: A. illumination means for illuminating said sample with a light beam directed along an input axis, B. detector means for detecting the intensity of light from said light beam for m measurements under m associated measuring conditions, where m is an integer equal to or greater than one, said detector means including: i. means for generating m intensity signals, each of said intensity signals being representative of the detected intensity of said light from said light beam as a function of time at the corresponding one of said m measurement conditions, ii. means for detecting the intensity of scattered light from said light beam for said m measurements and means for generating m average signals, each of said m average signals being representative of the average intensity of said scattered light from said light beam at the corresponding one of said m measurement conditions, and iii. means for detecting the intensity of scattered light from said beam for n measurements at n associated measurement conditions different from said m measurement conditions, where n is an integer equal to or greater than zero, said detector means further including means for generating n average signals, each of said n average signals being representative of the average intensity of said scattered light at the corresponding one of said n measurement conditions, C. autocorrelation means for generating m correlation signals where each of said correlation signals being representative of the autocorrelation function of a corresponding one of said intensity signals and being equal to an associated transformation of said distribution v(r), D. size processing means responsive to said correlation signals and said average signals, including: i. means for generating a composite correlation signal representative of a weighted direct sum of said m correlation signals, ii. means for determining a composite transformation operator J.sup.-1 related to said associated transformations and said n average signals, wherein one of said composite correlation signal and said composite transformation operator is substantially scaled to the average intensities of said light beam at the respective ones of said m measurement conditions, iii. means for transforming said composite correlation signal in accordance with said determined composite transformation operator J.sup.-1 to generate a size distribution signal representative of said distribution v(r), and E. means for controlling said measurement conditions whereby said intensity signals are mutually independent and said average signals are mutually independent.
14. System according to claim 13 wherein said measurement condition controlling means comprises means for controlling the position of said detector means whereby one or more of said m intensity signals is representative of the intensity of light from said light beam at points angularly displaced from said input axis, and the corresponding one or more of said average signals is representative of the average intensity of said scattered light at said corresponding points angularly displace from said input axis.
15. System according to claim 13 wherein said measurement condition controlling means comprises means operative during at least one of said m measurements for selectively controlling the polarization of light from said beam incident on said sample to have a first predetermined polarization, and for selectively controlling the polarization of light scattered from said sample incident on said detector to have said first polarization.
16. System according to claim 15 wherein said measurement condition controlling means comprises means operative during at least one of said m measurements for selectively controlling the polarization of light from said beam incident on said sample to have a second predetermined polarization, and for selectively controlling the polarization of light scattered from said sample incident on said detector to have said second polarization, and wherein said second predetermined polarization is orthognal to said first predetermined polarization.
17. System according to claim 16 wherein said second predetermined polarization is circular.
18. System according to claim 16 wherein second predetermined polarization is linear.
19. System according to claim 15 wherein said first predetermined polarization is circular.
20. System according to claim 15 wherein first predetermined polarization is linear.
Patent Citations (3)
| Patent | Date | Inventor | Cited By |
|---|---|---|---|
| US3621220 | 1971-11-01 | Ford | |
| US4158234 | 1979-06-01 | Grandchamp | |
| DEX2453832 | 1975-10-01 |
Non-Patent Literature (7)
- Hercher, "Virometer-an Instrument for the Measurement of the Size of Viruses Using an Optical Microscope", Proc. SPIE, vol. 126, pp. 17-22, 1977.
- Pinder et al., "A Method of Measuring the Light Scattering of Solutions Containing Dust Particles", J-Phys. E. Sci. Instrum., vol. 10, No. 4, pp. 400-403, 4/77.
- Product Brochure: "Fast Automatic Measurement of Submicron Particles", Coulter Electronics Inc., 1982.
- Product Brochure: "Model N4-Automation & Accuracy Down to 30 Angstroms", Coulter Electronics Inc., 1984.
- Product Brochure: "Un Nouvel Instrument Francais", Amtec, date unknown.
- Product Brochure: "System 4700", Malvern Instruments Limited, Feb., 1985.
- B. E. Dahneke, "Measurement of Suspended Particles by Quasi-Elastic Light Scattering", John Wiley & Sons, New York, 1983.