Heat Exchanger or Solar Collector

The rate of heat transfer in a heat exchanger is a function of several factors, regardless of whether the exchanger is for cooling purposes, for heating purposes, for transfer between fluids, or for collection and transfer of radiant energy. The rate of heat transfer is determinative of the efficiency, as well as the level or quality of performance of the heat exchanger for its intended purpose.

The conversion of radiant energy to heat involves the absorption of as many wave lengths of the radiation as possible by a black (or grey) body and transfer of heat from the black body to a working fluid such as water or air.

The rate of heat conduction, dQ/dt, from the transfer body of a heat exchanger to the working fluid is governed by the equation: ##EQU1## where Q is energy units, t is time, K is the limiting heat conductivity constant of either the fluid or the exchanger body, whichever is less, A/L is a fraction in which A is the area of contact between the transfer body and fluid, L is the length or distance between the hot surface of the heat absorbing and exchanging material and the coolest or median portion of the adjacent body of working fluid; Ta is the temperature of the contact surface of the transfer body; and Tf is the temperature of the fluid at the aforesaid median portion. The fraction A/L is of particular interest in connection with the present application.

Specifically, for a given value of Ta-Tf, K is a constant characteristic of the fluid and therefore the rate of conduction, (dQ/dt) is directly proportional to A/L. Consequently, a main objective of heat exchanger design is to make A as large as possible and L as small as possible. This has resulted in elaborate tubular flow arrangements, a common example being the conventional automobile radiator. In the usual case, when water or air is the working fluid, K is small and the heat exchangers rely not only on conduction, but also on natural or forced convection of the fluids to induce heat transfer.

A common feature or element of such heat exchangers is illustrated schematically in FIG. 1 of the accompanying drawings which are part of the present application, and in which the fluid is made to circulate within a metallic tube or conduit 1 which is attached to the surface of a metallic member or fin 2. Heat exchange, in this instance, depends on conduction of heat to or from the fluid to the surface of the transfer member or fin 2. It will be understood that, for industrial use, many hundreds or thousands of such tubes would be utilized. When such an exchanger is used as a solar collector, the surfaces facing the sun are made black by painting, oxidizing, etc. Thermal insulation for such an exchanger from its surroundings is provided by one or more transparent covers 3, 4 and a backing 5.

Another prior art form of tubular heat exchanger is schematically illustrated in FIG. 2 of the drawings. In this form the heat transfer takes place between fluids circulating in the inner conduit 6 and the coaxial outer conduit 7. When this form is used as a solar collector, the working fluid circulates within a blackened inner conduit 6, made of metal, which is placed within a transparent tube 7; the space between the conduit 6 and tube 7 being evacuated to reduce heat loss by conduction and convection.

Typically, the radii of tubes used in solar collectors are of the order of 1 cm. Therefore, A amounts to approximately 6 cm.sup.2 for each linear centimeter of tube. Since L is approximately 1 cm, A/L is 6 cm per unit length of tube.

The art has also addressed itself to non-metallic heat exchangers or solar collectors. Representative of the current state of the art is the recently issued Rice et al, U.S. Pat. No. 4,310,747 and the prior art Harvey U.S. Pat. Nos. 4,082,082 and 4,129,117.

Rice et al disclose a heat transfer device in which the heat source is either an electrical resistance element or, alternatively, solar energy, or possibly both in combination. The same heat exchanging material is utilized for both sources of energy and consists of a baked, skeletal, porous, vitreous carbon structure containing multi-directional, inter-connected carbon strands having electrical continuity. The starting material for this skeletal network is a flexible polyurethane resin reticulate structure which is transformed into non-crystalline amorphous carbon. Rice et al describe this porous body as having a density of about 0.05 g/cc. Inasmuch as amorphous carbon has a density of about 2.0 g/cc, it is evident that the composite body is highly porous and would have a ratio of carbon to space (or flow passages) on the order of 1:40 providing a relatively small carbon mass and contact area for heat transfer contact with the working fluid, although, conversely, providing a relatively large area of flow passageways for the fluid.

It is also to be noted that vitreous amorphous carbon, such as utilized by Rice et al, not only has significant electrical resistivity to achieve the patentee's objective of providing an electrical resistance heating element, but also has a relatively low value of thermal diffusivity or conductivity on the order of 1.0.times.10.sup.-3 cm.sup.2 /sec, which is significantly lower than the thermal diffusivity of the metals, such as copper, used in tubular heat exchangers, which is on the order of 1.0 cm.sup.2 /sec.

The two Harvey patents, disclose a solar collector utilizing a particulate or fibrous blackened exchanging material which is characterized by the patentee as having "high solar energy absorption and low thermal diffusivity (e.g. preferably below 2.5.times.10.sup.-3 cm.sup.2 /sec)". A variety of materials are listed, with carbon filled high density polyethylene being a preferred example. The particle size is described as a mean diameter in the range of 1 to 10 mm, preferably 3 to 4 mm. The particles are deliberately loosely packed to permit them to move or circulate freely in response to flow of the working fluid, presumably to permit sequential exposure of the particles to the uni-directional solar radiation, as they are not packed to be thermally conductive with each other.

Neither Harvey nor Rice et al disclose any performance data for their solar collectors, but both mandate very low values of thermal conductivity for the absorber material, as this characteristic is necessary to achieve the result the patentees seek. In Harvey, low thermal diffusivity of the particles is desirable to localize heat absorption at the surface of the moving particles and increase the exposed particle skin temperature by inhibiting heat transfer to the interior of the particle. In Rice, very low thermal diffusivity is taught to achieve a carbon strand having high electrical resistivity for resistance heating.

The prior art tubular metal heat exchangers, particularly those used industrially or in chemical processing, utilize solid metal heat exchange bodies which have relatively high thermal diffusivity, but are unduly restricted in area of contact with the working fluid by reason of mechanical design limitations.

The prior art non-metallic collector of the Harvey patents attempts to enhance the area of heat transfer contact by the use of carbon-containing particles for the heat exchange medium, but deems it necessary and desirable to sacrifice good thermal diffusivity to do so. The same is true of the more recent Rice disclosure. Both of these disclosures could have limited usefulness in intermittent, low-demand situations where a low rate of heat transfer is acceptable and adequate, as for supplementary hot water heating for home use.

The present invention is directed to overcoming the limitations of prior art heat exchangers, both the metallic tubular and non-metallic, by significant and radical improvement of the rate of heat transfer, particularly in the continuous, high-demand industrial and nuclear applications, regardless of whether the heat source be solar radiant or fluid conductive in character.

The invention has as its primary object the provision of a heat exchanger or solar energy collector which radically enhances the rate of heat transfer, and achieves improved efficiency.

Another object of the invention is to provide a heat exchanger or solar energy collector of the character described which has high constancy or consistency, i.e., maintenance of uniformly high efficiency under all operating conditions.

Another object of the invention is to provide a heat exchanger or solar energy collector of the character described which, per unit of mass or size, has a significantly improved response to energy input, i.e., low "thermal inertia".

Another object of the invention is to provide a heat exchanger or solar energy collector of the character described which is lower in cost than exchangers of the prior art.

A further object of the invention is to provide a heat exchanger or solar energy collector of the character described, which is highly durable, can be operated virtually free of maintenance costs and utilizes durable materials, such as glass and elemental carbon in its construction.

A further object of the invention is to provide a heat exchanger or solar energy collector of the character described which is of simple construction and which embodies system simplification, i.e., elimination of other components, such as additional heat exchangers and regulating equipment in an overall heating system.

A still further object of the invention is to provide a heat exchanger or solar energy collector of the character described in which the use of additives such as anti-freeze, corrosion inhibitors, etc., is eliminated.

The foregoing objectives are attained by a novel thermodynamic concept which achieves unexpectedly great increases in the rate of heat transfer by means of a structure which combines enhancement of both the contact transfer area and the thermal conductivity of the heat exchanger unit, with improved initimacy of contact in the heat transfer function.

Other objects, advantages and novel features of the invention will become apparent from the following description of the invention when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

The present invention may be better understood and the numerous objects and advantages thereof will become apparent to those skilled in the art by reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:

FIG. 1 is a schematic or diagrammatic illustration of a tubular metallic heat exchanger representative of the prior art;

FIG. 2 is a schematic or diagrammatic illustration of another form of tubular metallic heat exchanger representative of the prior art;

FIG. 3 is a schematic or diagrammatic illustration of a heat exchanger or solar collector embodying one form of the invention;

FIG. 4 is a schematic or diagrammatic illustration of a heat exchanger or solar collector embodying a modified form of the invention of FIG. 3;

FIG. 4A is a schematic or diagrammatic illustration of a heat exchanger or solar collector embodying the invention in a modified form of the prior art tubular exchanger of FIGS. 1 or 2.

FIG. 5 is a graph showing the performance of the collector of FIG. 4 of the present invention as a function of the rate of water flow in ml/min at solar incidence normal to the collector surface and amounting to 77-80 calories per square centimeter per hour, and illustrates maintenance of constant high efficiency of heat transfer over a broad range of flow rates;

FIG. 6 is a graph showing the behavior of the collector of FIG. 4 of the present invention under typical working conditions over an entire day at constant collector orientation and constant water flow, and indicates the uniformity of heat transfer efficiency at varying heat input values;

FIG. 7 is a graph showing the performance of the collector of FIG. 4 of this invention as compared to the performance indicated by curves 1 and 2 in FIG. 7, under conditions of varying fluid flow rate and varying radiation energy input.

Referring more particularly to FIG. 3 of the drawings, there is shown a thin radiation-absorbing layer 8 composed of particles of crystalline carbon having relatively high thermal diffusivity, preferably graphite, compressed or packed between a radiation-transmitting cover 9 such as tempered glass, and an insulation backing 10 of glass or other rigid insulating material. The surface 9 is adapted to be exposed to solar radiation.

In assembly, the layer 8 is subjected to pressure sufficient to immobilize the particles at the operation conditions to which it will be subjected, as well as to maintain the particles in thermally-conductive contact with each other. For example, if the unit is to be used for water at ordinary house pressure, a particle pack pressure of about 100 lbs/sq. in. would be used; or if higher operating pressures or forces are anticipated, the pack pressure would be increased to a value sufficient to prevent movement of the particles relative to each other at such higher working fluid forces.

The mean diameter of the particles is in the range of 750 microns down to about 50 microns, with 500 microns mean diameter being a preferred maximum. The objective is to use particles which are as small as practicable commensurate with the maintenance of ample fluid passageway interstices and with the maintenance of discrete particles at the pack pressure value to which the particles are subjected. The working fluid, such as water, flows through the spaces between the non-contacting portions of the particles of the layer 8.

The particles in addition to functioning as heat absorbers, serve as excellent thermal conductors. This thermal conductivity extends throughout the particle mass by reason of the pressure contact maintained between all particles. The thermal conductivity or diffusivity of graphite in the basal crystallographic plane is about 1.0 cm.sup.2 /sec, which is of the same magnitude as that of the heat exchanger conduit metals, such as copper or aluminum, which are conventionally considered most desirable from a practical and economic standpoint. The heat diffusivity constant is preferably at least 0.8 cm.sup.2 /sec at 20.degree. C., but should not be less than 0.5 cm.sup.2 /sec at 20.degree. C. to achieve the objectives of the invention.

The surface area of the particles is typically 1 to 40 m.sup.2 per gram, depending on the particle size selected within the given range. For an overall (projected) surface area of collector of 1 cm.sup.2 and a particle layer thickness of 0.1 to 0.4 cm, typically containing on the order of 0.1 grams of graphite particles, the surface area of particles in direct contact with the fluid, and therefore the value A in the equation, is then on the order of 10.sup.3 to 10.sup.4 cm.sup.2, while L, which is herein the average locus of the adjacent fluid between the small particles, is of the order of a few microns or 10.sup.-3 to 10.sup.-4 cm. Regardless of the particular particle size selected within the given size range, the maximum value of L is one-half of the mean diameter of the particle.

Accordingly, the value of the critical factor A/L in the foregoing equation (1) for the described embodiment is on the order of 10.sup.6 to 10.sup.8 cm, and would be no less than 10.sup.5 cm at the high end of the range of particle size. This unexpectedly high value is a resultant of the several factors previously mentioned: (a) the particle size of the graphite transfer material is small, so as to establish an extremely high ratio of exposed surface area to mass; (b) the particles are immobilized and packed to maintain contact with each other throughout the mass, despite the pressures or forces of fluid flow which would otherwise tend to disrupt this inter-particle continuity of contact; (c) the fluid-filled spaces or interstices between contiguous particles is of very small magnitude, so that the distance from the heat transfer surface of any particles to the median point or locus of the immediately adjacent body of fluid in contact therewith, which defines L in the equation (1), is correspondingly of very small value; (d) the thermal diffusivity of the graphite pack is relatively high, thus transferring and conducting the absorbed input heat to all particles throughout the particle pack, even though only some of the particles are directly exposed to the radiation energy; and, consequently (e) all of the surface area of all of the particles presents an effective area of heat transfer contact with the fluid passing through the small passageways of the particle pack, thus significantly increasing the value of A in the equation (1) beyond that which exist if only the surfaces of those particles directly exposed to and heated by the radiation energy were operatively effective for heat transfer to the adjacent fluid.

Inasmuch as the value of K in the equation (1) is the heat conductivity constant of water in all the comparative analysis herein made, and the value of (Ta-Tf) is only variable within relatively narrow limits, the rate of heat transfer, represented by (dQ/dt), is influenced almost entirely by the quantity A/L. The corresponding value (dQ/dt) is of the order of 10.sup.6 to 10.sup.8 .multidot.K cal/cm.sup.2 .multidot.sec based upon the foregoing values, when Ta-Tf is 1.degree. C. and where K is the established heat diffusivity constant of water at the attained temperature of the transfer fluid. This compares to a heat transfer rate of 6.multidot.K cal/cm.sup.2 .multidot.sec for the copper tube heat exchanger of FIG. 1 or FIG. 2, using tubes of 2 cm internal diamater for purposes of calculation, so that L would have a value of 1 cm. The value of K would be the same in both instances. The heat transfer rate for a prior art copper tube cluster of extremely small individual internal diameter, e.g. 5 mm, might be as great as 1000.multidot.K cal/cm.sup.2 .multidot.sec.

It also compares to a calculated heat transfer rate of 0.1 to 10.0.multidot.K cal/cm.sup.2 .multidot.sec for the non-metallic solar collector of Harvey or Rice et al, taking into account the limited area of hot exchanger surfaces for heat transfer in both of these disclosures.

It can be conservatively stated that the inventive embodiment hereinabove described has a heat transfer rate at least 1000 times greater than that of the most efficient prior art tubular metallic heat exchangers and at least 100,000 times greater than that of the Harvey or Rice disclosures. Thus, the inventive embodiment has such a high rate of heat transfer that it appears to transfer heat instantaneously, when compared to the other known forms of heat exchangers above-described.

The basic embodiment of FIG. 3 lends itself readily to many configurations and applications, as will be presently explained, with special emphasis to those which can be assembled readily from commonly available durable materials.

Referring more particularly to FIG. 4, a flat plate solar collector is shown, which although it is not optimized with respect to construction, and represents a minimum of performance, proved to fulfill all of the objectives of the invention, which have hereinabove been stated.

In FIG. 4, reference numeral 8 designates a thin layer of graphite particles tightly packed between a cover 9 and a backing 10, the cover and backing being made of tempered glass panels, approximately 20 inches long, 7 inches wide and 3/16 inch thick.

In assembling the aforesaid structure, a thin bead of black silicone sealant 15 was applied to the marginal edges of three sides of the panel 10. At each corner, a small object of desired thickness, such as a piece of a copper coin or a copper sphere, as for example, a BB gun pellet, was embedded in the silicone bead in order to establish the spacing between the panels.

The cover panel 9 was then attached by pressing it down upon the silicone bead and the assembly was left to cure overnight.

The graphite particles 8 were available as recovered scrap from graphite electrode manufacturers, or as commercial products intended for a variety of purposes. These graphite particles were screened for a size of 500 microns mean diameter, washed with a degreasing liquid, such as acetone, and then poured into the space between the panels 9 and 10 and packed in place by applied pressure. The marginal edges of the fourth side of the panels were then sealed with silicone sealant.

Alternatively, particularly when higher particle pack compression is desired, the sealant 15 is applied to all four marginal edges of the panel 10; the cover panel 9 is attached, using it as a platen for the desired pressure to be imposed on the contained particle pack, while, at the same time, using any form of suitable fixture or rigid retaining frame around the periphery of the assembly to prevent escape of the sealant; and then permitting the sealant to cure.

Inlet and outlet tubes for the fluid should consist of corrosion resistant materials, preferably glass or synthetic resin. In this instance, however, these were provided by inserting through the cured silicone sealant 15, air needles 14 such as commonly used for inflating footballs and which, in turn, were connected to input and output polyethylene tubing (not shown).

A backing 11 of insulating material was provided consisting of a sheet of polystyrene foam approximately 1/2 inch thick and spot glued to the back of the back panel 10 by means of a few drops of silicone sealant.

A rectangular frame consisting of hardwood dowel stock 13, 3/8 inch in diameter and coated with silicone 16, was attached to the panel 9 and a transparent cover 12 of insulating material was attached to the silicone coating 16 of the frame 13, the silicone serving both as a preservative coating for the frame and as a sealant between the frame and the covers 12 and 9.

The distance between the panels 9 and 10 was approximately 0.4 cm.

The performance characteristic of the embodiment shown in FIG. 4 in comparison with the prior art is graphically depicted in FIGS. 5, 6 and 7 of the drawings.

The test data in FIGS. 5, 6, and 7 was obtained by using water as the fluid. The water was contained in a reservoir approximately 1 meter higher than the collector, and the water flow was controlled or adjusted by means of a common stop-cock or valve. The inlet and outlet water temperatures were measured with mercury thermometers, as were the temperatures of the panel 10 and the cover 12.

The incident solar energy was measured at the plane of the collector by placing on cover panel 12 a calibrated solar meter (Dodge Products, Houston, Tex., Model 776). The area of the collector was measured and found to be approximately 860 cm.sup.2.

FIG. 5 shows the performance of the collector as a function of the rate of water flow in ml/min at solar incidence normal to the collector surface and amounting to 77-80 cal/cm.sup.2 .multidot.hour. It is seen that the efficiency, calculated as: ##EQU2## rises rapidly to 80% at the minimum design flow rate of approximately 15 ml/min and remains substantially constant thereafter in a broad range of flow rates within the experimental error indicated by the error bars. This is in marked contrast with the behavior of typical collectors of the prior art in which the efficiency is maximum at zero flow and decreases continuously thereafter (see FIG. 7). The initially low percentage of efficiency below the design limit of 15 ml/min is due to the fact that at these low flow rates the water is not distributed over the entire surface of the collector but prefers to follow clearly visible random channels. In applications where such relatively slow flow rates are sufficient, channeling can be prevented by the use of smaller graphite particles and/or a thinner layer of graphite.

It is further seen in FIG. 5 that in this model, temperatures approaching 90.degree. C. can be obtained, and the design temperature of 60.degree. C. (household hot water temperature) can be obtained under these conditions at 30 ml/min.

FIG. 6 shows the behavior under typical working conditions over an entire day at constant collector orientation and constant water flow.

The collector was oriented parallel to the house roof facing southwest at an inclination to the horizontal plane of 20-25 degrees. The flow rate was set at 19-20 ml/min and monitored continuously.

The test date in FIG. 6 demonstrates that collector efficiency is substantially constant also with varying angle of solar incidence, and therefore with the amount of solar energy incident on the collector, as plotted, except at times of extremely low angles of incidence, namely at 0900 and 1800 hours. The irregularities in the temperature and incident solar energy curves after 1530 hours are due to intermittent cloudiness occurring after this time.

It is noted that the efficiency is less than 100%. It was determined, by measuring the incident solar energy with and without panels 9 and 12 in front of the solar meter, that this reduction in efficiency is due almost entirely to reflection-absorption by the panels. This is rather surprising because normally, appreciable loss is caused by convection-conduction to the surroundings from the hot collector. Apparently, this is minimized in this collector by the thin configuration of the heat-exchanging absorber and this is corroborated by the fact that the efficiency does not vary with the temperature of the collector, as seen in FIGS. 5 and 6.

In scientific and technical literature it is customary to express the characteristic performance of the collectors by plotting efficiency on the ordinate versus the fraction ##EQU3## on the abscissa, where Tf=fluid outlet temperature .degree.C.

Ta=fluid inlet temperature .degree.C.

I=rate of solar energy input in watts/m.sup.2

resulting in efficiency expressed as a function of ##EQU4## Such plots are then used in order to compare various collectors as in FIG. 7.

In order to compare the collector of this invention with those of prior art, authoritative plots of this kind are used and reproduced in FIG. 7. These were obtained for well known commercial collectors by the National Bureau of Standards and published in Solar Energy, volume 18, page 421 (1976). Further work on comparing collectors by means of these plots is described in the same issue of that journal, page 451 by NASA Lewis Research Center.

In FIG. 7 the best performance is reported in the above publications for (a) a two-cover glass collector with a Mylar honey comb insert, curve 1 in FIG. 7, representing an elaboration of FIG. 1 in this disclosure and (b) an evacuated cylindrical collector with a selective coated absorber, curve 2 in FIG. 7, representing an elaboration of FIG. 2 in this disclosure.

Numerous publications and advertisements since 1976 (not reproduced in FIG. 7) show little if any improvement over those of curves 1 and 2 in FIG. 7.

In comparison to the performance indicated by curves 1 and 2, the performance of the collector of FIG. 4, curve 3 in FIG. 7, shows two striking differences: (1) the efficiency is substantially constant and (2) the efficiency is substantially higher.

Another unit or model similar to the one described above was placed in the freezer compartment of a household refrigerator after it had been filled with water and exposed to the sun. The water froze but there was no cracking or other damage to the unit. Apparently, the elasticity of the silicone sealant and/or the flat glass panel is adequate to allow sufficient expansion to accommodate the increase of volume of water upon freezing. Therefore, for this collector, it will not be necessary to use an anti-freeze, as is necessary for collectors of the prior art.

Various modifications may be made in the collectors described above, as indicated in the following examples.

For example, the tempered glass for these units was high in iron content (green glass). Using iron-free tempered glass will increase transmission to approximately 90%.

The backing 11 of the collector can be made of concrete foam, as disclosed in applicant's U.S. Pat. No. 4,267,021 on solar desalination. This should eliminate the need for using less durable insulation, such as that made of organic materials.

The life of the silicone sealant was found to be between 5 and 10 years. The front and back panels can be joined by fusing a glass shim on the panels in order to eliminate the organic sealant.

These units can be joined together to constitute part of the house roof, instead of resting on the shingles.

The cover 12 can be a common surface for all of the units instead of being attached to each individual unit. The distance between the covers 9 and 12 can be optimized, as taught in U.S. Pat. No. 4,267,021, to which reference has been made above.

The heat exchangers or collectors of the present invention render possible the elimination of other heat exchangers and equipment used therewith.

The water pressure in solar collectors of the prior art is much lower than that of normal city water pressure. The heated water is circulated by a pump through the collector and then down to a heat exchanger immersed in the hot water tank of the house.

It was found that the embodiments or model of the present invention, as described above, will withstand normal city water pressure (exceeding 40 lbs/in.sup.2 in the locale of the residence of the applicant) if they are clamped at the edges by U-Shaped aluminum alloy conduits. This makes it unnecessary to use the additional heat exchanger. If it is necessary to use glass of lesser thickness than the 3/16 inch thick glass used here, the backing of these units can be made to be the top of a thin metallic box also filled with graphite particles, through which the high pressure city water can circulate with efficient heat exchange occurring between the low pressure water in the collector and the high pressure water in the lower metallic box. Finally, if it becomes necessary to retain the heat exchanger in the hot water tank, this heat exchanger can be identical with the metallic box described above, but operating in series with the collector, i.e., containing the heating water at the reduced pressure.

Instead of glass members 9 and 10 as in FIG. 4, porous firebrick could be used, the surfaces of which are made impermeable by a coating of appropriate cements. The cement coating facing the sun is made black by incorporating in it common cement plus a dye or carbon black. In this case, although the fraction A/L of equation (1) is still very large, the value of K for the firebrick is low and the "thermal inertia" of the system isalso very large. Such an embodiment serves the function o thermal storage because once the system is heated it reains hot for days. Alternatively, or additionally, the waer heated by embodiments such as that of FIG. 4, can be onducted to and circulated through a bed of porous firebrck which thus functions as a means of storing heat for extended periods of time, e.g., weeks.

As shown in FIG. 4A heat exchanger configurations of the tubular metallic type, such as shown in FIG. 1 and 2 for example, also lend themselves to radical improvement in the rate of heat transfer through use of my inventive concept. Instead of using the conventional approach of utilizing the interior of conduit 1 or conduit 6 solely as a fluid passageway, these passageways are packed with particulate graphite in particle sizes and at packing pressures in the range previously discussed. This structure provides a thermally conductive mass within the conduit whose thermal diffusivity is of substantially the same magnitude as the copper or aluminum in which it is encased in heat transfer contact. This heat exchanger mass provides a significantly larger area of heat transfer contact between the particles and the fluid passing through the mass, as well as a multiplicity of minute flow channels to direct the fluid into intimate contact with adjacent heat transfer particles.

As a consequence, the value of the quantity A in the equation (1) is greatly enlarged and the value of the quantity L is greatly diminished to enlarge the value of A/L. This results in a rate of heat transfer at least 1000 times greater than could be obtained without the introduction of the particles in the flow conduit.

Similarly, the annular space between conduits 6 and 7 of FIG. 2 is packed with graphite particles having a thermal diffusivity which is of comparable magnitude to that of the encasing metal tube. Such an arrangement further improves the rate of heat transfer through the counter-flow fluid passing through the annular space, for the reasons above mentioned.

The use of small diameter tube sizes in heat exchangers has been considered desirable primarily to enhance the area of heat transfer contact with the fluid. Inasmuch as the packed particles can be relied upon for that desirable characteristic, it is no longer necessary for excellent and improved heat transfer to minimize the metal conduit diameters. These diameters can be enlarged to accommodate the desired rate of fluid flow through the particle pack, without doing any noticeable injury to the radical and unexpected improvement obtained in the rate of heat transfer and in efficiency.

In those applications where corrosion is not a significant problem, metallic particles, such as copper or aluminum may be utilized instead of and in the same manner as described above for graphite, to achieve improved results of the same magnitude. There also may be circumstances where the graphite and the metal particles are desirably used in combination. For convenience and simplicity the foregoing disclosure has been directed principally to solar heat exchangers or collectors, but it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to radiant or solar energy heat exchange, but is adapted for general use in heat exchangers for fluids utlizing conduction and/or convection heat input or output, as well as radiation. Banks or arrays of multiple inter-connected units may be utilized to achieve the quantitative result desired.

It is to be understood that the forms of my invention, herewith shown or described, are to be taken as preferred examples of the same, and that various changes in the shape, size and arrangement of parts may be resorted to, without departing from the spirit of my invention, or the scope of the subjoined claims.