SYSTEMS AND METHODS RELATING TO POLYMER FOAMS

[0001] This application claims priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/236,314 filed Aug. 24, 2009, titled “Systems and Methods Relating to Polymer Foams”, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application Ser. No. 61/368,095 filed Jul. 27, 2010, titled “Fiber Composite Structure”, which is incorporated by reference herein for all purposes.

[0002] Systems and methods relating to polymer foams are generally described.

[0003] Early stabilization of body fluid loss can be important in the treatment of wounds.

[0004] For example, many injuries are treatable if effective hemorrhage control and operative surgical intervention are undertaken rapidly. However, in many situations, immediate access to surgical care is not available. Internal wounds may be particularly difficult to treat in such situations, as traditional treatment techniques (e.g., application of pressure to stop bleeding, etc.) are difficult to implement with such wounds.

[0005] The use of polymers in the treatment of wounds is well known in the art. However, previous materials and methods for treating wounds with polymers have suffered from a variety of drawbacks. For example, many polymers irritate skin and/or internal tissues, or are not sufficiently biodegradable to be suitable for use inside a body cavity. Moreover, many polymers also lack suitable mechanical properties to be useful inside the body; polymers that are too stiff may lead to discomfort or further injury, while polymers that are too soft may fail to provide adequate support for internal tissues.

[0006] Finally, polymers can be difficult to place within a body cavity.

[0007] Systems and methods relating to polymer foams are provided. The subject matter of the present invention involves, in some cases, interrelated products, alternative solutions to a particular problem, and/or a plurality of different uses of one or more systems and/or articles.

[0008] In one aspect, a method is described comprising cross-linking a biodegradable synthetic polymer within a body cavity, foaming the synthetic polymer or the cross-linked product within the body cavity to produce an elastomeric polymer foam, and preventing or limiting bleeding within the body cavity, relative to an amount of bleeding that would occur under essentially identical conditions in the absence of the elastomeric polymer foam. In another aspect, a method is described comprising placing a biodegradable polymer between two tissues to prevent tissue adhesion.

[0009] In some instances, the method can comprise cross-linking a biodegradable condensation polymer of a polyol and a polyacid within a body cavity, foaming the biodegradable condensation polymer or the cross-linked product within the body cavity to produce an elastomeric polymer foam, and preventing or limiting movement of a bodily fluid within the body cavity, relative to an amount of movement of bodily fluid that would occur under essentially identical conditions in the absence of the elastomeric polymer foam.

[0010] The method can comprise, in some cases, cross-linking a polymer comprising poly(lactate-co-caprolactone) or poly(glycolate-caprolactone) within a body cavity, foaming a polymer comprising poly(lactate-co-caprolactone), or poly(glycolate-caprolactone) or the cross-linked product within the body cavity to produce an elastomeric polymer foam, and preventing or limiting movement of a bodily fluid within the body cavity, relative to an amount of movement of bodily fluid that would occur under essentially identical conditions in the absence of the elastomeric polymer foam.

[0011] The method can comprise, in some cases, cross-linking a polymer comprising poly(trimethylene carbonate) within a body cavity, foaming a polymer comprising poly(trimethylene carbonate) or the cross-linked product within the body cavity to produce an elastomeric polymer foam, and preventing or limiting movement of a bodily fluid within the body cavity, relative to an amount of movement of bodily fluid that would occur under essentially identical conditions in the absence of the elastomeric polymer foam.

[0012] In some embodiments, the method can comprise cross-linking, within a body cavity, a polymer comprising the formula (I):

wherein R1 and Z can be the same or different and each is an alkyl, heteroalkyl, alkenyl, heteroalkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocycle, acyl or carbonyl group, any of which may be optionally substituted, wherein n is an integer greater than 1. In some embodiments, the method can further comprise foaming the polymer or the cross-linked product within the body cavity to produce an elastomeric polymer foam and preventing or limiting movement of a bodily fluid within the body cavity, relative to an amount of movement of bodily fluid that would occur under essentially identical conditions in the absence of the elastomeric polymer foam.

[0013] In some embodiments, the method can comprise cross-linking a polymer comprising the formula (II):

wherein R₁ and R₂ can be the same or different and each is an alkyl, heteroalkyl, alkenyl, heteroalkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocycle, acyl or carbonyl group, any of which may be optionally substituted; wherein x and y are non-negative integers; wherein R₃ may be a hydrogen, gas generating functional group, or tissue binding domain.

[0014] The method can comprise, in some instances, introducing a foam comprising a polymer next to a tissue which includes placement into a body cavity, preventing or limiting movement of a bodily fluid within the body cavity, relative to an amount of movement of bodily fluid that would occur under essentially identical conditions in the absence of the foam, and degrading the foam by applying an external stimulus to the foam.

[0015] Other advantages and novel features of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description of various non-limiting embodiments of the invention when considered in conjunction with the accompanying figures. In cases where the present specification and a document incorporated by reference include conflicting and/or inconsistent disclosure, the present specification shall control. If two or more documents incorporated by reference include conflicting and/or inconsistent disclosure with respect to each other, then the document having the later effective date shall control.

[0021] Systems and methods related to polymer foams are generally described. Some embodiments relate to compositions and methods for the preparation of polymer foams, and methods for using the polymer foams. The polymer foams can be applied to a body cavity (including, but not limited to the abdominal, pelvic, and cardio thoracic cavities) and placed in contact with, for example, tissue, injured tissue, internal organs, etc. In some embodiments, the polymer foams can be formed within a body cavity (i.e., in situ foam formation). In addition, the foamed polymers may be capable of exerting a pressure on an internal surface of a body cavity and preventing or limiting movement of a bodily fluid (e.g., blood, etc.).

[0022] The polymer foams may possess attributes that make them particularly suitable for use within the body. For example, in some embodiments, the polymers used to form the foams described herein may be biocompatible. The polymers may also be biodegradable in some cases. In some instances, the polymers may be sufficiently elastic to allow for body movement while being sufficiently stiff to support body tissues. In some embodiments, the composition of the polymer may be adjusted so that it wets tissues effectively. Furthermore, pendant groups may be attached that allow for the targeted adhesion of polymer to tissues or injured tissues. Functionalization of the polymer used to form the foam may also lead to covalent bonding of the foam to a surface inside the body cavity, which may aid, for example, in preventing dislocation of the foam within the cavity.

[0023] The materials and methods described herein exhibit several advantages relative to traditional wound treatment methods. For example, some embodiments described herein allow for the delivery of polymer directly to, and permeation throughout, a body cavity. The viscosity and wetting properties of the polymers can be tailored such that the polymers are easily injected into a wound cavity, forming, in some cases, a rapidly expanding elastomeric foam that fills the body cavity, coats one or more tissue surfaces, and/or cross-links within the body cavity. In addition, the polymers may comprise entities that allow for the degradation of the polymer foam via an external stimulus such as UV radiation, heat, etc. The polymers and/or foams formed therefrom may also be capable of interacting with contrast agents, allowing for the visualization of a body cavity.

[0024] Additional advantages of the polymer foams described herein are described in more detail below.

[0025] Polymer foams may be used in a variety of applications. In some embodiments, the polymer foams may be used to provide support to and/or stabilize bodily fluid loss from organs (e.g., the liver, spleen, etc.). Such use may be advantageous in treating organs or tissues that are damaged, for example, in blunt trauma injuries. The polymer foams may also be used to fill a body cavity created by the loss of body tissue. As used herein, “body cavity” refers to any space located within the external surface of the skin. It should be noted that body cavities may be, in some cases, exposed to the external environment surrounding a body, such as, for example, in the case of an open wound or surgical incision. In some embodiments, polymer foams may be formed or located within an enclosed body cavity, for example, by placing a polymer in the body cavity and closing an incision such that the polymer or polymer foam are not exposed to the external environment. While the embodiments described herein may find particularly advantageous use within body cavities, the use of the polymer foams are not limited to body cavities, and may be used, for example, to treat burns and other external wounds.

[0026] Examples of polymer foams and methods associated therewith are now provided. In particular, systems and methods for foaming a polymer to form a polymer foam are now described in connection with one set of embodiments. FIGS. 1A-1C include schematic illustrations of the formation of a polymer foam within a body cavity. As used herein, a “polymer foam” refers to an article comprising a plurality of cells (i.e., volumes) that are at least partially surrounded by a material comprising a polymer. The cells within the foam may be open or closed. The cells within the foam may be any suitable size. In some embodiments, the polymer foam may comprise at least 10 cells, at least 100 cells, at least 1000 cells, at least 10,000 cells, or more.

[0027] FIG. 1A includes body cavity 10 in which a polymer foam can be formed. In FIG. 1B, polymer material 12 is provided to cavity 10 via source 14. The polymer material can comprise a plurality of polymers which can be, for example, cross-linked to each other in the process of forming a polymer foam. In some embodiments, the polymer material comprises fluid polymers in the substantial absence of a carrier fluid. In other instances, the plurality of polymers in the polymer material are suspended in a carrier fluid (e.g., a liquid suspension medium, etc.). The term “polymer” is given its ordinary meaning in the art, and is used to refer to a molecule that includes a plurality of monomers. In some embodiments, a polymer may comprise fewer than about 100, fewer than about 50, fewer than about 25, or fewer than about 10 monomer units. In some embodiments, a polymer may comprise between about 2 and about 100, between about 2 and about 50, between about 2 and about 25, between about 5 and about 50, or between about 5 and about 25 monomer units. The polymers within the polymer material can comprise a variety of functional groups that allow the polymers to, for example, cross-link to each other, attach to tissue or other material within the body cavity, interact with agents in the bloodstream of the subject (e.g., imaging agents, cross-linking agents, etc.), among other functionalities.

[0028] Source 14 may comprise any suitable source known to one of ordinary skilled in the art. In some embodiments, source 14 comprises any suitable container through which polymer material 12 may be passed. For example, in some embodiments, the source may comprise a syringe through which the polymer material is flowed. In some embodiments, the source may comprise a container in which the polymer material is under pressure, and the polymer material is released from the container upon depressurizing the container (e.g., as in an aerosol can). In such embodiments, the polymer material can be applied as a spray, for example. The container may comprise several means for pressurizing known to those of ordinary skill in the art. For example, the container may be pressurized during the filling process in a manufacturing environment, or pressure may be generated immediately prior to use. In one embodiment, one or more pressure-generating chemical reactions may occur within the container, with the user initiating the reaction, waiting for pressure build-up and releasing the material. In another embodiment, pressure may be generated manually, via hand pump, crank, or rotary device. The container may also have an attachment that is introduced into the body that allows the material to flow into the cavity such as a Veress needle or nozzle or other means known to those of ordinary skill in the art. The openings on the introducer tip can be multidirectional in order to distribute the polymer in all directions within the cavity. That attachment or introducer may be rigid, soft, straight, flexible or conformable to a tortuous path. The introducer may have various tips for easy entry into the abdominal cavity through the tough abdominal wall and muscles. It may also have a flexible or retractable tip that will protect organs, intestines, bowels from perforations. It may be shaped to be non-coring and atraumatic. A surface finish or coating such as PTFE or silicone may be applied to part of or all of the introducer to make it lubricious and easy to introduce into the body. Additionally, a surface finish or coating can be applied to part or all of the introducer to make it remain in position once it is introduced. The surface finish or coating can be directional, allowing easy insertion but difficult removal.

[0029] In some embodiments, the polymers within the polymer material may cross-link within the body cavity. The term “cross-linking” is used to refer to the process whereby a pendant group on a first polymer chain may react with a second polymer chain (e.g., a pendant group on the second polymer) to form a covalent or ionic bond joining the two polymers. Polymers that can undergo cross-linking can comprise straight chains, branched chains having one or more arms (i.e., multi-arm chains), or mixtures of these, In some cases, the polymer (branched and/or non-branched) may contain reactive side chains and/or reactive terminal groups (i.e., groups at the end of a polymer chain), and cross-linking may involve reactions between the side chains, between terminal groups, and/or between a side chain and a terminal group. For example, in FIG. 2A, polymers 20 and 22 are cross-linked, with bond 24 (which may comprise a single covalent bond or a plurality of covalent bonds between multiple atoms) between monomer 26 and monomer 28. In addition, bond 30 is formed between non-terminal monomer 32 and terminal monomer 34. In FIG. 2B, branched polymers 40 and 42 are cross-linked, with bond 44 between monomer 46 and terminal monomer 48, and bond 50 between monomers 52 and 54. In some instances, the polymer material may be substantially free of polymers that comprise reactive groups on terminal monomers. In other cases, the polymer material may comprise a substantial amount of polymers with reactive groups on terminal monomers. In some embodiments (e.g., in some cases in which branched polymers are employed) a relatively large percentage of the cross-linking reactions (e.g., at least about 70%, at least about 80%, at least about 90%, at least about 95%, at least about 99%, or substantially all of the cross-linking reactions) can occur between terminal reactive groups.

[0030] Cross-linking may commence via a variety of mechanisms. In some embodiments, polymer may cross-link once the polymer contacts moisture (e.g., water, blood, aqueous solutions, etc.), for example, within a body cavity. Cross-linking may be achieved via acrylate, methacrylate, vinyl, cinnamic acid, or acrylamide groups in some embodiments. Such groups may be cross-linked via the application of ultraviolet radiation and can be used in conjunction with an external foaming agent. In some instances, a cross-linking initiator may be introduced into the subject in which the body cavity is located (e.g., via the bloodstream, via a separate container in the delivery system such that the initiator and the polymer do not mix before delivery, etc.) to initiate cross-linking of the polymer. For example, a free radical initiator, such as eosin or 2,2-dimethoxy-2-phenylacetophenone, can be used to initiate cross-linking of polymers bearing acrylate, methacrylate, or vinyl groups. Other examples of reactive groups on polymer chains that can be paired to produce cross-linking include, but are not limited to, hydroxyls and isocyanates, amines and NHS-esters, thiols and maleimides, azides and alkynes (i.e. “click chemistry”), acid chlorides and alcohols. It may be desirable, in some embodiments, to keep these paired chemicals separate until they are introduced into the body cavity to prevent unwanted cross-linking outside the body cavity. For example, the polymer may include azide functional groups, and alkynes can be introduced to the body cavity from a container separate from the container used to introduce the polymer. In some embodiments, these chemistries are also employed in conjunction with an external foaming agent. As the polymer material cross-links, its viscosity may be increased. In some cases, the cross-linking proceeds until a substantially solid material (e.g., a solid elastomeric foam) is formed.

[0031] Referring back to the example in FIG. 1, polymer material 12 (and/or a cross linked or partially cross-linked product of the polymer material) is foamed to form polymer foam 16, as illustrated in FIG. 1C. The foam may be formed, for example, by introducing a gas into the polymer material. Once the gas is supplied to the polymer, the gas may be dispersed within the polymer (e.g., as bubbles) to form the cells of the foam. The dispersion of gas within the polymer may lead to expansion of the polymer such that it substantially fills the body cavity, as shown in FIG. 1C. In some cases, the foaming step may involve self-expansion of the polymer, for example, when gas is generated by a hydrolysis reaction or as a byproduct of a reaction between functional groups on different polymer chains. Thus, cross-linking and foaming may take place substantially simultaneously in some embodiments. The self-expansion of the foam may drive the polymer into interstitial regions of the body cavity that otherwise may be difficult to reach. In addition, the self-expanding foam may provide internal compression against the walls of the body cavity.

[0032] In some embodiments, the foaming step is not dependent upon the cross-linking step to form a foaming gas. For example, the foaming step may occur due to an introduction of gas separate from the polymer material. In some cases, gases comprising air, CO₂, or other materials may be introduced into the body cavity via an external source (e.g., a syringe or any other suitable container). This gas may then permeate the polymer material (or a cross-linked product) to form bubbles within the material, which may form the voids in the foam as polymeric material cross-links around them. In cases where the gas is supplied via an external source, the source of the gas may be the same as or different from the source of the polymer material (e.g., 14 in FIG. 1).

[0033] In some embodiments, the gas may be supplied as a product of a chemical reaction of part of the polymer or a cross-linked product. For example, in some embodiments, the foaming step comprises reacting one or more pendant groups on the polymer or cross-linked product to form a gaseous product. The gas-producing pendant groups may react upon contact with another material in the body cavity. For example, in some cases, the gas producing groups may react upon contact with moisture in the body cavity. In some cases, the gas-producing pendant groups may react with a chemical supplied to the body cavity separately from the polymer material (e.g., via the bloodstream, via an external source separate from the polymer material source, etc.). In some embodiments, the gas-producing pendant groups on the polymer chain may react with another component that is supplied to the body cavity. In some embodiments, the polymer or cross-linked product may comprise CO₂-producing groups. Examples of CO₂-producing groups include, but are not limited to, isocyanate groups, carbonates, bicarbonates, and carbamates. Such groups may produce CO₂ gas when reacted with an acid, for example. In some cases, the CO₂-producing group may include an N-hydroxysuccinimide carbonate, illustrated below:

CO₂-producing groups may include, in some cases, imidazole carbamates, as illustrated below:

[0034] As noted above, in some embodiments, the foaming and cross-linking steps occur substantially simultaneously. In some cases, the foaming and cross-linking steps may occur substantially simultaneously, but remain independent of each other. For example, the polymer material may cross-link by reacting with water in the body cavity, and, at substantially the same time, gas may be introduced to the polymer material from an external container. In another embodiment, a first material containing gas generating groups may produce gas by contact with a second agent (e.g., water in the body, water supplied separately, or chemical additive), while contact or interaction with a third material leads to crosslinking. For example, at the time of delivery, polymer A with isocyanate groups can be mixed with water and polymer B, in which the former causes the generation carbon dioxide to foam the material and polymer B can contain hydroxyl groups that react with isocyanates on polymer A to form a crosslinked network between polymers A and B.

[0035] The foaming and cross-linking steps may be, in some cases, part of the same reaction process. For example, one or more reactions may produce a gaseous by-product which serves as the supply of gas to form the polymer foam, but concurrently leads to the generation of new functional groups that enable crosslinking. The gaseous by-product can be trapped within the polymer and coalesce to form bubbles. As the reaction progresses, the formation, growth and expansion of the gas bubbles can expand the polymer volume and force it into interstitial areas of the body cavity. As the polymer cross-links, a three-dimensional foam can be formed within the body cavity. The volume expansion and cross-linking can serve to coat and seal surfaces of the body cavity, and optionally provide internal compression, which may be useful, for example, in stopping bleeding. In addition, such a reaction scheme can be combined with an external supply of gas (e.g., CO₂ in an external container) to increase the amount of gas contained in the polymer or a cross-linked product of the polymer.

[0036] FIG. 3 includes an exemplary schematic diagram of a system in which simultaneous cross-linking and gas generation occur. Polymers 310 and 312 include biodegradable backbones 314. The polymer may also comprise a linker region 316 to attach pendant groups. The polymer may also comprise a targeting ligand 318 which can be used to bond the polymer to desired sites (e.g., damaged tissue). In addition, the polymer in FIG. 3 includes a cross-linking site 320 that can simultaneously solidify and foam the material. When the polymer is exposed to a compound 322 (e.g., water) in the body cavity, gas 324 is released from the cross-linking site, which generates a functional group 326 that can react with another polymer to produce a cross-linked structure 328.

[0037] All of the foaming mechanisms described herein may occur before any substantial cross-linking has occurred or during cross-linking of the polymer material or a cross-linked product of the polymer material. For example, in some cases, an external gas may be introduced into and dispersed within a polymer material that has not substantially cross-linked. The polymer material may then cross-link around the bubbles to form the foam. In such cases, the viscosity of the polymer material can be chosen such that the material is able to retain bubbles within the volume without the need for cross-linking. In some embodiments, at least some cross-linking may occur before the gas is introduced to the polymer material, and the gas is dispersed within a partially cross-linked polymer material that has not completely solidified to form a foam.

[0038] Cross-linking and/or foaming may be achieved, in some instances, using isocyanate chemistry. Isocyanate groups are relatively unstable when exposed to water and moisture. Exposure of isocyanate groups to water or moisture (or other compounds) can lead to the decomposition of the groups, cross-linking of polymers to which they are attached, and release of carbon dioxide, as shown below for a model lysine isocyanate:

[0039] In the mechanism above, the isocyanate is partially hydrolyzed to produce amines, which can react with native, non-hydrolyzed isocyanates, as shown above. Not wishing to be bound by any theory, a cross-linked structure can be produced because the rate of the amine-isocyanate reaction may be on the order of or faster than the rate of isocyanate hydrolysis, and inter-chain reactions occur between these functional groups to ultimately form a cross-linked structure. The isocyanates on the polymer can also react with amine groups of the tissue (e.g. lysines in proteins), which can form a covalent bond with the tissue to further strengthen the seal at sites in which fluid is being lost (e.g., at bleeding sites). In addition, the isocyanate hydrolysis reaction produces CO₂, enabling simultaneous cross-linking and gas production in a single-reaction scheme.

[0040] In some instances, it may be advantageous to position isocyanate groups in the polymer so that it is accessible for hydrolysis and cross-linking, without inhibiting binding to the tissue (e.g., damaged blood vessels). In one set of embodiments, a lysine group in the targeting peptide can be converted to an isocyanate by reaction with diphosgene. In some instances, the isocyanate and peptide chemistries can be completely decoupled by modifying a fraction of the side chains with peptide while the balance are modified with isocyanate.

[0041] The polymer that is foamed to form the polymer foams described herein may be formed using a variety of chemistries. In some embodiments, the polymer comprises a synthetic polymer. As used herein, a “synthetic polymer” refers to a polymer that is a product of a reaction directed by human interaction. For example, synthetic polymers can include polymers synthesized by reactions of natural or synthetic monomers or combinations thereof that are directed by human interaction. The formation of synthetic polymers can also include chain elongation of natural or synthetic polymers. In some embodiments, the synthetic polymer is not found in nature. In other cases, the synthetic polymer can be found in nature, but the polymer is synthesized via human interaction (e.g., in a laboratory setting). In some embodiments, the polymer may comprise a poly alpha-hydroxy acid. In some cases, the polymer may comprise a polyester. In some cases, the polymer may comprise a polyether-polyester block copolymer. In some cases, the polymer may comprise a poly(trimethlyene carbonate). In some embodiments, the backbone of the polymer can exclude at least one of polynucleotides, proteins, and polysaccharides.

[0042] In some embodiments, the polymer foam is formed by cross-linking a condensation polymer of a polyol and a polyacid. The terms “polyol” and “polyacid” are given their standard meanings in the art, and are used to refer to compounds comprising at least two alcohol groups and at least two acidic groups, respectively. Examples of polyols suitable for use in forming the condensation polymer used to form the polymer foams described herein include, but are not limited to, glycerol, polyethylene glycol, polypropylene glycol, polycaprolactone, vitamin B6, erythritol, threitol, ribitol, arabinitol, xylitol, allitol, altritol, galactritol, sorbitol, mannitol, iditol, lactitol, isomalt, and maltitol, wherein the functional groups present on the polyol are optionally substituted. Examples of polyacids suitable for use in forming the condensation polymer used to form the polymer foams described herein include, but are not limited to, succinic acid, fumaric acid, a-ketoglutaric acid, oxaloacetic acid, malic acid, oxalosuccinic acid, isocitric acid, cis-aconitic acid, citric acid, 2-hydroxy-malonic acid, tartaric acid, ribaric acid, arabanaric acid, xylaric acid, allaric acid, altraric acid, galacteric acid, glucaric acid, mannaric acid, dimercaptosuccinic acid, oxalic acid, malonic acid, succinic acid, glutaric acid, adipic acid, pimelic acid, suberic acid, azelaic acid, sebacic acid, malic acid, or vitamin B5, wherein the functional groups present on the polyacid are optionally substituted.

[0043] In some embodiments, the condensation polymer may comprise poly(glycerol-sebacate) (PGS). An exemplary synthesis pathway in which glycerol and sebacic acid are used to form PGS is shown below:

[0044] In some embodiments, the polymer foam is formed by cross-linking a polymer comprising the following formula (I):

wherein R1 and Z can be the same or different and each is an alkyl, heteroalkyl, alkenyl, heteroalkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocycle, acyl or carbonyl group, any of which may be optionally substituted, and wherein n is an integer greater than 1. In some embodiments, R1 and/or Z are substituted with a gas producing group. For example, R1 and/or Z may be substituted with a CO₂-producing group (e.g., isocyanate).

[0045] In some embodiments, the method can comprise cross-linking a polymer comprising the formula (II):

wherein R₁ and R₂ can be the same or different and each is an alkyl, heteroalkyl, alkenyl, heteroalkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, heterocycle, acyl or carbonyl group, any of which may be optionally substituted; wherein x and y are non-negative integers; wherein R₃ may be a hydrogen, gas generating functional group, or tissue binding domain.

[0046] In some embodiments, the polymer may comprise the poly(lactic acid) (PLA), poly(glycolic acid) (PGA), and polycaprolactone (PCL) class of polymers and their copolymers. Copolymerization of the lactide, glycolide and caprolactone monomers in various ratios can yield materials with a wide range of mechanical properties, thermal characteristics and degradation times. The structure of the PLA/PGA/PCL copolymers (and associated properties such as molecular weight, etc.) can be tailored, in some cases, by adjusting the type of initiator used and its molar ratio with the monomer(s).

[0047] In some embodiments, the polymer comprises poly(glycolate caprolactone). In some cases, the PGCL composition includes a ratio of glycolide to caprolactone of about 50:50. An exemplary synthesis pathway for PGCL is shown below, in which pentaerythritol is used as an initiator to form 4-armed, branched structures.

[0048] The properties of the polymer used to form the polymer foam may be tailored to achieve a desired result. For example, in some embodiments, the viscosity of the polymer is tailored such that the polymer is able to permeate the body cavity and create conformal contact. An overly viscous polymer may require excessive pressure to deploy within the body cavity. In addition, an overly viscous polymer may inhibit the polymer from accessing interstitial spaces. An overly low-viscosity polymer might be difficult to contain the material to the injured site. One of ordinary skill in the art will be able to produce the desired viscosity for a given polymer type by, for example, adjusting the molecular weight of the polymer. In some embodiments, the viscosity and the molecular weight are related through a power law. The molecular weight of a polymer may be adjusted by, for example, controlling the time of the polymerization reaction used to generate the polymer. In some embodiments, the molecular weight of the polymer is between about 1000 and about 10,000 g/mol or between about 1200 and 6000 g/mol.

[0049] In some embodiments, the polymer is amorphous with a glass transition temperature (T_g) below room temperature. Such properties yield, in some cases, polymers with sufficiently low viscosities that they can be dispensed from an external container via pressure-driven flow.

[0050] In some embodiments, properties or composition of the polymer may be chosen to achieve a desired hydrophilicity. The hydrophilicity of the polymer may be selected, in some instances, such that the surfaces (e.g., tissue surfaces) within a body cavity are appropriately wetted. Generally, a material with increased hydrophilicity will have a greater tendency to wet soft tissues surfaces. However, the polymer and resulting polymer foam may be, in some cases, somewhat hydrophobic such that they do not dissolve into biological fluids. Appropriately hydrophilic polymers are capable of conformally wetting interior surfaces of a body cavity while remaining contained within the cavity. In some embodiments, the composition of the polymer may be selected to achieve a desired hydrophilicity. For example, in some embodiments, the chain length of a monomer used to synthesize the polymer can be varied to change hydrophilicity. As a specific example, the carbon chain length between carbonyl groups of a diacid monomer can be varied from between two and eight aliphatic carbons, producing a range of hydrophilicity in the resulting polymer.

[0051] In some embodiments, the polymer foams described herein may have favorable mechanical properties. In some embodiments, the polymer foams are elastomeric. The term “elastomer” as used herein, refers to a polymer that can return to the approximate shape from which it has been substantially distorted by an applied stress. In some cases, the elastomeric polymer foams described herein may comprise a polymer having a bulk modulus of between about 0.05 MPa and about 10 MPa; 0.05 MPa and about 100 MPa; and 0.05 MPa and about 500 MPa. Elastomeric polymers may be particularly suitable for use in making polymer foams because they are capable sustaining stress without permanently deforming, while providing adequate support for body organs and tissues.

[0052] The time required to form the polymer foam after exposure to the body cavity and the final mechanical and physicochemical properties of the polymer foam can depend on such factors as the composition of the polymer, the density of pendant groups (e.g., cross-linking groups), and relative positions of the pendant groups (e.g., cross-linking groups). One of ordinary skill in the art will be capable of adjusting the concentration and location of pendant groups to produce polymer foams with desirable physical properties. In an exemplary methodology, freshly isolated pig liver can be cut into thin sections, washed briefly in anti-coagulated blood, and mounted in a parallel plate rheometer cell. Polymer can be injected over the moist tissue and the viscosity can be measured. The amount of time necessary to produce the cross-linked polymer foam can be determined as the time necessary for the viscosity to asymptotically increase. The mechanical properties of polymers and polymer foams can be determined using standard techniques known in the art.

[0053] In some embodiments, the polymer or polymer foam may be biodegradable. As used herein, “biodegradable” describes materials that are capable of degrading down to monomeric species under physiological or endosomal conditions. The phrase “physiological conditions,” as used herein, relates to the range of chemical (e.g., pH, ionic strength) and biochemical (e.g., enzyme concentrations) conditions likely to be encountered in the intracellular and extracellular fluids of tissues. In some embodiments, the physiological pH ranges from about 7.0 to 7.4. In some embodiments, biodegradable materials are not hydrolytically degradable but can be fully degraded via enzymatic action to fully degrade. In some cases, biodegradable materials are hydrolytically degradable. In some embodiments, the polymer or polymer foam is biodegradable, but it does not biodegrade over the time scale in which it is located within a body cavity. In such cases, the polymer foam can remain structurally stable while being inserted into the body cavity, while ensuring that any remnants of the polymer foam that remain within the body cavity after removal can be biodegraded. For example, in some embodiments, the biodegradable polymer foam does not significantly biodegrade within the body cavity prior to removing the foam via surgical intervention.

[0054] The polymer or polymer foam may be biocompatible, in some instances. One of ordinary skill in the art can determine biocompatibility based upon the ISO-10993 standard. For example, PGS is known to satisfy the ISO-10993 standard for biocompatibility. In some embodiments, chemical modifications (e.g., attachment of a pendant group, etc.) to the PGS backbone do not alter its biocompatibility. In some embodiments, a polymer that produces known, but acceptable levels of inflammation may be used. Examples of such polymers include poly-alpha-hydroxyacids (e.g., polylactide, polyglycolide, and polycaprolactone) and poly(trimethylene carbonate).

[0055] The polymeric foams described herein may be used, in some embodiments, to prevent or limit the movement of a bodily fluid within the body cavity, relative to an amount of movement of bodily fluid that would occur under essentially identical conditions in the absence of the polymer foam. “Essentially identical conditions,” in this context, means conditions that are similar or identical other than the presence of the polymer foam. For example, otherwise identical conditions may mean that the body cavity is identical, the conditions within the cavity are identical, but where no polymer foam is located within the body cavity. In some embodiments, the polymer foam may be used to reduce an amount of bleeding within a body cavity. The polymer foams may also be used to prevent or limit the movement of bile or other digestive fluids, interstitial fluid, or any other suitable fluid. In some embodiments, preventing or limiting the movement of bodily fluid comprises immobilizing and/or stabilizing blood clots. Preventing or limiting the movement of a bodily fluid may comprise, in some instances, the movement of bodily fluids into the cells of the polymer foam. Such movement of fluid into the cells may aid in the formation of, for example, blood clots or other stabilizing structures within the foam.

[0056] The movement of bodily fluids may be prevented or limited over a relatively long period of time. For example, in some embodiments, the polymer foam can prevent or limit movement of a bodily fluid within the body cavity for at least about 3 hours, at least about 6 hours, at least about 12 hours, at least about 24 hours, at least about 3 days, or at least about 1 week.

[0057] In some cases, the movement of bodily fluids may be prevented or limited via the application of pressure. For example, the formation of the polymer foam may involve volumetric expansion of the polymer. In some embodiments, the expansion of the polymer may result in the application of a pressure to a surface within the body cavity.

[0058] In some embodiments, the polymer foam may be used to reduce the amount of bleeding within the wound cavity relatively quickly. This may be important, for example, in avoiding hyperfibrinolysis. In some cases, the polymer may be designed to cross-link quickly, for example, by tailoring the polymer to be relatively hydrophilic, as hydrophilic polymers generally cross-link faster than hydrophobic polymers in such systems. In addition, the pores of the foam can trap blood and allow it to coagulate in stagnant areas. In addition, the rate at which the amount of bleeding is reduced can be controlled by adjusting the amount of reactive pendant groups.

[0059] In addition to gas-forming pendant groups, other active agents may also be included as pendant groups on the polymer. For example, the polymer foam can include groups used to stimulate desirable cellular responses such as fibroplasia, angiogenesis and epithelialization. In some embodiments, the polymer or polymer foam may be covalently bonded to a surface within the body cavity, for example, through a pendant group.

[0060] In some embodiments, the polymer or cross-linked product may comprise at least one pendant group (e.g., at least one pendant group) that can bind to tissue or injured tissue (e.g., inflamed tissue, bleeding tissue, a wound site, etc.) within the body cavity. The binding of the pendant groups to the tissue or injured tissue can be covalent or non-covalent. The tissue or injured tissue may comprise one or more molecules that would not be present in or near uninjured tissue as is the case, for example, when subendothelial surfaces are exposed. By including such pendant groups, a polymer or cross-linked product could be made that selectively binds to tissue or injured tissue, in comparison to uninjured tissue. Such binding may limit or prevent the movement of bodily fluid within the body cavity, in some embodiments. Examples of chemicals that may be targeted by pendant groups on the polymer or polymer foam include, for example, von Willebrand Factor, collagen (e.g., collagen I and IV), a fibroblast growth factor, laminin, elastin, localized coagulation factors in their activated form (e.g., fibrin, thrombin, factor Xa, etc.), among others. Example of types of pendant groups that may be bound to the polymer or polymer foam for such uses include, for example, peptides, carbohydrates (e.g., oligosaccharide sequences), aptamers.

[0061] One of ordinary skill in the art will be able to identify other compounds in tissue or injured tissues and perform screening tests to determine suitable pendant groups that could be used to bind with those compounds. For example, in vivo screening, for example by phage display technology, of a large library of possible pendant groups (e.g., permutations of peptide sequences fused to a phage surface protein, a collection of carbohydrate molecules, etc.) could be performed (e.g., in rodents) to identify pendant groups that bind specifically to wounded organs. The pendant group could then be identified (e.g., via sequencing for peptides) from each organ. For example, a sequence that appears in all organs or injured organs could be identified. Subsequent testing (e.g., in vivo testing in uninjured animals) could be performed to verify that the pendant group does not bind to tissue in the absence of injury.

[0062] In some cases, human protein targets can be used to find pendant groups that bind selectively to the injured site. For example, human fibrin, which is generally present where injuries to blood vessels have occurred, can be used for screening, potentially mitigating the risk present in the in vivo approach where there could be sequence and conformational differences between animal and human targets. Binding levels to fibrin can be assessed using, for example, fluorescently tagged molecules, and compared against, for example, fibrinogen, a precursor of fibrin that is ubiquitous in blood plasma. The pendant groups showing highest selectivity to fibrin over fibrinogen could be selected for use in the polymer composition.

[0063] In addition to targeting tissues or injured tissues, pendant groups may be used to stabilize tissue or injured tissue. For example, pendant groups (e.g., CO₂-forming groups) may covalently bond to tissue, in some cases, which may lead to the sealing of one or more openings within a body cavity. Such binding can aid in limiting or preventing the movement of bodily fluid within the body cavity, in some cases. In some embodiments, the concentration of isocyanate in the polymer or a cross-linked product can affect the extent to which binding between the polymer and tissue occurs. Specifically, increasing the isocyanate levels can serve to increase and reinforce the polymer-tissue contact area, potentially producing a stronger and longer-lasting seal. Increasing the level of isocyanate in the polymer can also increases the crosslink density, potentially resulting in a more rigid material that may break more easily at the polymer-tissue interface (e.g., when the body is moved). Therefore, the concentration of isocyanate may be selected, in some cases, to balance between these two effects.

[0064] In another embodiment, the polymer properties are selected such that minimal covalent binding of the foam to tissue is observed. The foam, however, can be bound to tissue by different non-covalent forces, such as electrostatic, Van der Waals, or capillary. Minimal covalent binding of foam to tissue can facilitate easy foam removal and prevent adhesions, such as abdominal adhesions, during the healing process.

[0065] In some cases, non-isocyanate pendant groups may be used to stabilize the polymer-tissue interface. For example, the polymer may comprise aldehyde reactive groups, which can be used, for example to bind tissue proteins. Aldehyde groups may be attached by, for example, attaching ethanolamine to the polymer, followed by oxidizing the pendant hydroxyl group to form an aldehyde group. In some instances, pendant groups that selectively bind to fibrin may be used to stabilize the clot-polymer interface. In addition, pendant groups may be selected that compete with plasminogen and its activators for fibrin binding sites, blocking the activation of fibrynolytic cascade.

[0066] In some embodiments, the polymer (or the compounds used to make the polymer) are chosen such that they comprise one or more pendant hydroxyl groups. The hydroxyl groups may serve, for example, as sites at which pendant groups are attached to the polymer. For example, glycerol and sebacic acid both contain hydroxyl groups that may be used to impart functionality to PGS. As a specific example, pendant peptides can be introduced onto polymers using a two-step reaction scheme in which the polymer hydroxyl groups are first activated with carbonyldiimidazole (CDI) and then coupled to the amine-terminus of the peptide, as shown below. This chemistry can result in high coupling efficiencies.

[0067] In some instances, a drug may be delivered to the body cavity with the polymer. In some embodiments, the polymer may comprise a drug. For example, a drug (or a plurality of particles containing one or more drugs) may be dispersed within the polymer. Example of such drugs include, but are not limited to, antifibrinolytic compounds (e.g., aminocaproic acid, tranexamic acid, etc.), anti-fibrotic compounds, antimicrobial compounds (e.g., antibiotics), anti-inflammatory compounds, analgesics, pro-coagulant compounds, growth factors, and vasoconstrictors. Drugs that comprise amine groups may, in some cases, be isolated from isocyanates within the polymer, for example, to prevent unwanted reaction during the cross-linking step. Isolation can be achieved by encapsulating drugs into secondary particles and loading them into the polymer at the time of delivery to the body cavity. In addition, encapsulation may be used to release the drugs at a controlled rate. In some embodiments, a drug may be incorporated into a fiber, which may be included in the polymer. The drug release rate from the fiber can be controlled by varying composition and structure (e.g., thickness or other dimension, presence of sheath) of fiber. For example, the fiber can be designed to deliver an initial burst release shortly after the deployment of the polymer, followed by sustained delivery (e.g., over the time period in which the polymer foam will be left in the body cavity).

[0068] The polymer may be combined with a second agent (and, optionally, a third agent, fourth agent, etc.), in some cases, before or after the polymer is transported to the body cavity. The second agent may comprise, for example, a compound that accelerates at least one of cross-linking and foaming, relative to a rate of at least one of cross-linking and foaming that would have occurred in the absence of the second agent. For example, in some embodiments, the second agent may comprise an amine (e.g., a polyamine). The amine compound may serve to increase the rate at which the polymer cross-links, which may also reduce the amount of time required to reduce or eliminate the movement of a fluid (e.g., blood) within the body cavity. The second agent may comprise, in some cases, at least one of lysine, spermine, spermidine, hexamethylenediamine, polylysine, polyallylamine, polyethylenimine, and chitosan. In some cases, the second reagent may comprise a carbonate or a bicarbonate which may be used, for example, to produce CO₂ gas in situ, as described above. In some embodiments, the second reagent can comprise an acid which may be used, for example, as a reactant in the CO₂-producing reaction. The acid functionality may comprise, for example, a carboxylic acid pendant group attached to a polymer chain or blended with a polymer to form a mixture. In some cases, the second reagent can be native in the body (e.g., bicarbonate in the blood). In other cases, the second agent may originate from outside the body cavity. For example, the second agent may be, for example, supplied to the body cavity along with the polymer.

[0069] In some embodiments, the combination of the second agent with the polymer produces a polymer foam with significantly different mechanical properties (e.g., elastic modulus, yield strength, breaking strength, etc.) than would have been produced in the absence of the second agent. For example, addition of the second agent may lead to increased cross-linking among polymer molecules, potentially producing a stiffer foam.

[0070] The combination of the second agent with the polymer may, in some embodiments, prevent or limit bleeding within the body cavity, relative to an amount of bleeding that would occur under essentially identical conditions in the absence of the second agent. In some embodiments, bleeding may be reduced due to the increased rate of cross-linking or foaming mentioned above. In some cases, the second agent may comprise a pro-coagulant compound (e.g., thrombin, fibrinogen, factor X, factor VII).

[0071] The second agent may be stored in a container separate from the polymer, for example, to prevent unwanted reaction between the polymer and the second agent outside the body cavity. In some embodiments, a container can be used that keeps the polymer and the second agent separated while stored or transported, but allow for mixing at the outlet nozzle or within the body cavity when the contents are expelled. The outlet nozzle can mix multiple componets (>2) including gases in a static or dynamic manner. Examples of static mixers are Low Pressure prop (LPD) mixers, Bayonet mixers and Interfacial Surface Generator (ISG) mixers. Examples of dynamic mixers are impellers, and rotary static mixers. Nozzles will handle low and high pressure differentials during dispensing. The container may also be designed to mix the components immediately prior to dispensing by breaking the barrier between each of the components and allowing them to mix. Mixing can occur manually such as shaking the canister or chambers can be under vacuum and when the barrier is broken a vortex will be created to mix the components.

[0072] In another embodiment, additives can be added to the polymer that absorb the heat generated during the cross-linking reaction. For example, materials in the form of micro or nano-particles, spheres or fibers can absorb the heat by undergoing a phase change (e.g. melting) or glass transition and thereby reduce the heat absorbed by biological tissues. For example, biodegradable fibers made of polycaprolactone can melt at ˜60° C., absorbing the generated heat and reducing tissue damage.

[0073] In some embodiments, the body cavity can be imaged. The ability to image the body cavity can allow for efficient localization and repair of an injury, stabilization of a wound, etc. In some embodiments, pendant groups on the polymer or polymer foam can be utilized to aid in imaging the body cavity. For example, a contrast agent can be introduced into the blood stream of a subject in which the body cavity is located, and the contrast agent may be capable of selectively binding to pendant groups of the polymer. Examples of contrast agents include, for example, colored, fluorescent, or radio-opaque imaging entities. In some embodiments, the contrast agents emit electromagnetic radiation in the near-infrared range (e.g., about 700 to about 1000 nm) upon interacting with the polymer foam. As a specific example, quantum dots (QD) may be used as contrast agents. In some cases, fluorescent organic tags (e.g. fluoroscein isocyanate) or radio-opaque chelating groups (e.g., Gd3+) can be used with appropriate imaging equipment. In another example, the contrast agents listed above may be attached as pendant groups to the polymer or dispersed in the polymer to aid in visualization.

[0074] A variety of mechanisms can be employed to remove polymer or polymer foam from the body cavity or from placement on an tissue. In some embodiments, at least part of the polymer foam is removed via surgical intervention. For example, the polymer foam may be cut out of the body cavity, in some instances. In some cases, surgical intervention may be sufficient to remove the bulk of the polymer foam material (e.g., at least about 80%, at least about 90%, etc.) from the body cavity. The polymer or the pendant groups bonded to the polymer may be selected, in some cases, such that the resulting polymer foam can be removed from a body cavity. In some embodiments that employ a biodegradable polymer or polymer foam, the foam or the remainder of the foam after surgical removal may biodegrade over time.

[0075] In some embodiments, the foam may be degraded by applying an external stimulus to the foam. Such methods may be useful, for example, when some polymer or polymer foam material remains physically inaccessible after surgical removal due to, for example, deep tissue penetration. Examples of external stimuli that may be applied to degrade the polymer foam include, but are not limited to, UV radiation, heat, or a chemical (e.g., a chemical introduced into the blood stream of a subject in which the body cavity is formed).

[0076] Degradation of the polymer foam may be achieved, in some cases, via reversible crosslinks in the polymer or polymer foam. In some cases, the type of cross-link or external stimulus type can be selected such that the polymer foam is selectively and controllably depolymerized. Upon reversion to the uncrosslinked state, the polymer or polymer foam can, in some cases, be removed from the cavity using, for example, saline.

[0077] Reversible cross-linking can be accomplished by, for example, modifying a pendant group of the polymer to include bis(2-isocyanatoethyl) disulfide. Such chemistry may be particularly useful, for example, when isocyanate chemistry, which may not be reversible using the external stimulus of choice, is used to foam the polymer. The disulfide group can be readily cleaved with, for example, glutathione. In this example, the sulfur-sulfur bond can be broken through a disulfide exchange reaction, enabling selective cleaving at the disulfide bonds by application of, for example, a glutathione solution. As another example, cinnamic acid groups can be attached to the polymer such that reversing the cross-links can be accomplished by application of UV light.

[0078] In some embodiments, the polymer foam is not formed within the body cavity, but rather, the foam is formed outside of a body cavity, and is later inserted into the body cavity. For example, FIGS. 4A-4C include schematic illustrations of the formation of a polymer foam within a mold. In FIG. 4A, mold 400 is illustrated. FIG. 4B illustrates the step of supplying polymer 412 to the mold via source 414. FIG. 4C illustrates the expansion of the polymer to form a polymer foam upon supplying a gas to the polymer. The polymer may, in some case, expand to conform to the shape of the mold. The molded polymer then may be inserted into a body cavity. In still further embodiments, the polymer may be formed into a polymer foam outside of a body cavity and without the use of a mold. The polymer foam may then be formed into an appropriate shape by using an appropriate method such as, for example, cutting, grinding, or any other suitable method.

[0079] In other embodiments the polymer foams are used to prevent tissue adhesions. These include, but are not limited to fibrotic scars that form between tissues following an injury or surgical intervention as well as other tissue adhesions known to those of ordinary skill in the medical arts. Examples of regions of the body where adhesions have been described include: the abdomen, pelvis, spine, cardiothoracic space and joints as well as at other locations within the body. These tissue adhesions cause serious clinical consequences. For example, irreversible bowel obstruction in the abdominal cavity, infertility in the pelvic region, chronic pain following back surgery and pain and limited mobility following joint surgery as well as other debilitating disorders known to those skilled in the medical arts.

[0080] To prevent tissue adhesions, embodiments of the polymer foam are administered at or near tissue following damage or surgery. By contacting the tissue surfaces with the foam and allowing its expansion, folds and inaccessible surfaces are also covered when direct application is not possible. The polymer's expansion ratio, compliance, hydrophobicity, viscosity and curing time may be optimized for each body region in order to facilitate complete coverage. The volume of polymer foam required may also be varied depending on anatomical location and the area of tissue damage. In some embodiments, the amount of foam administered may be at least 1 ml, at least 10 ml, at least 100 ml, or more. In another embodiment, foam expansion is minimal permitting the volume administered and other delivery factors lead to complete coverage.

[0081] All polymer formulations described are contemplated for use in preventing tissue adhesions. A preferred embodiment utilizes PGS as a component of the foam. A more preferred embodiment includes isocyanate-functionalized PGS that cures in the presence of body water. In this embodiment, interchain hydrogen bonding results in an increase in modulus. In another embodiment water may be mixed with the isocyanate-functionalized PGS during administration to facilitate curing. In another embodiment, the isocyanate-functionalized PGS is mixed at the time of administration with a polyamine (e.g. lysine, PEG-amine). This polyamine acts as a curing or crosslinking agent. Variation in the amount of polyamine and/or type of polyamine used enables control of mechanical properties of the cured polymer.

[0082] In another embodiment, PGS acts as a polyol and can be mixed with an isocyanate containing compound to form a crosslinked foam. In these cases, foam formation is obtained and enhanced by mixing gas into the formulation to create pore nucleation sites, or by adjusting the levels of surfactants that stabilize the foam pores during their formation and expansion.

[0083] In other embodiments, the polymer does not foam or foams minimally allowing for flow over the tissue surfaces. This allows for curing into a gel coating. In these cases, PGS is crosslinked under conditions that minimize foam formation by limiting or preventing gas into the formulation and/or reducing the levels of surfactants resulting pore stabilization. In addition, PGS can be gelled or crosslinked by mixing with a component that does not generate a gaseous by-products upon reaction with PGS.

[0084] In yet other embodiments two or more different PGS polymers can be combined during administration. These polymers then react and crosslink into a gel or foam. The type and ratio of PGS polymers used impact the foaming, gelling, curing and mechanical properties.

[0085] In another embodiment drug-loaded objects are incorporated in the foam or gel at or before administration. Incorporation of drug-loaded objects into a polymer during administration is accomplished by those methods known to those skilled in the medical and pharmaceutical formulation arts. Examples of drug-loaded objects include: microspheres, microfibers, core-sheath microfibers, core-sheath nanofibers, nanoparticles, nanospheres, nanofibers or pure particles of drug. Preferably drug is released from these objects over a period of 7 days. More preferably the drug is released up to 14 days. Drug may be released for up to 30 days or longer. Preferably the kinetic release profile for the drug provides approximately the same dose of drug throughout a given period of time.

[0086] In some embodiments, a kit including one or more of the compositions previously discussed (e.g., a kit including a polymer that can be foamed in situ, a kit including a polymer foam, a device comprising a polymer or polymer foam and any other additive (e.g., external gas, second agent, etc.), a kit comprising a polymer or polymer foam and a delivery system) that can be used to create and/or deploy a polymer foam, or the like, is described. A “kit,” as used herein, typically defines a package or an assembly including one or more of the compositions of the invention, and/or other compositions associated with the invention, for example, as previously described. Each of the compositions of the kit may be provided in liquid form (e.g., in solution, as a liquid-phase polymer, etc.), or in solid form (e.g., a reversibly cross-linked polymer). In certain cases, some of the compositions may be constitutable or otherwise processable, for example, by the addition of a suitable solvent, other species, or source of energy (e.g., UV radiation), which may or may not be provided with the kit. Examples of other compositions or components associated with the invention include, but are not limited to, solvents, surfactants, diluents, salts, buffers, emulsifiers, chelating agents, fillers, antioxidants, binding agents, bulking agents, preservatives, drying agents, antimicrobials, needles, syringes, packaging materials, tubes, bottles, flasks, beakers, dishes, frits, filters, rings, clamps, wraps, patches, containers, tapes, adhesives, and the like, for example, for using, administering, modifying, assembling, storing, packaging, preparing, mixing, diluting, and/or preserving the compositions components for a particular use, for example, to a sample and/or a subject.

[0087] A kit of the invention may, in some cases, include instructions in any form that are provided in connection with the compositions of the invention in such a manner that one of ordinary skill in the art would recognize that the instructions are to be associated with the compositions of the invention. For instance, the instructions may include instructions for the use, modification, mixing, diluting, preserving, administering, assembly, storage, packaging, and/or preparation of the compositions and/or other compositions associated with the kit. In some cases, the instructions may also include instructions for the delivery and/or administration of the compositions, for example, for a particular use, e.g., to a sample and/or a subject. The instructions may be provided in any form recognizable by one of ordinary skill in the art as a suitable vehicle for containing such instructions, for example, written or published, verbal, audible (e.g., telephonic), digital, optical, visual (e.g., videotape, DVD, etc.) or electronic communications (including Internet or web-based communications), provided in any manner.

[0088] In the compositions of the invention, the term “alkyl” refers to saturated aliphatic groups, including straight-chain alkyl groups, branched-chain alkyl groups, cycloalkyl (alicyclic) groups, alkyl substituted cycloalkyl groups, and cycloalkyl substituted alkyl groups. In some embodiments, a straight chain or branched chain alkyl may have 30 or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone, and, in some cases, 20 or fewer. In some embodiments, a straight chain or branched chain alkyl may have 12 or fewer carbon atoms in its backbone (e.g., C₁-C₁₂ for straight chain, C₃-C₁₂ for branched chain), 6 or fewer, or 4 or fewer. Likewise, cycloalkyls may have from 3-10 carbon atoms in their ring structure, or 5, 6 or 7 carbons in the ring structure. Examples of alkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, cyclopropyl, butyl, isobutyl, tert-butyl, cyclobutyl, hexyl, cyclochexyl, and the like.

[0089] The term “heteroalkyl” refers to an alkyl group as described herein in which one or more carbon atoms is replaced by a heteroatom. Suitable heteroatoms include oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, and the like. Examples of heteroalkyl groups include, but are not limited to, alkoxy, amino, thioester, and the like.

[0090] The terms “alkenyl” and “alkynyl” refer to unsaturated aliphatic groups analogous in length and possible substitution to the alkyls described above, but that contain at least one double or triple bond respectively.

[0091] The terms “heteroalkenyl” and “heteroalkynyl” refer to unsaturated aliphatic groups analogous in length and possible substitution to the heteroalkyls described above, but that contain at least one double or triple bond respectively.

[0092] As used herein, the term “halogen” or “halide” designates —F, —Cl, —Br, or —I.

[0093] The terms “carboxyl group,” “carbonyl group,” and “acyl group” are recognized in the art and can include such moieties as can be represented by the general formula:

wherein W is H, OH, O-alkyl, O-alkenyl, or a salt thereof. Where W is O-alkyl, the formula represents an “ester.” Where W is OH, the formula represents a “carboxylic acid.” The term “carboxylate” refers to an anionic carboxyl group. In general, where the oxygen atom of the above formula is replaced by sulfur, the formula represents a “thiolcarbonyl” group. Where W is a S-alkyl, the formula represents a “thiolester.” Where W is SH, the formula represents a “thiolcarboxylic acid.” On the other hand, where W is alkyl, the above formula represents a “ketone” group. Where W is hydrogen, the above formula represents an “aldehyde” group.

[0094] The term “aryl” refers to aromatic carbocyclic groups, optionally substituted, having a single ring (e.g., phenyl), multiple rings (e.g., biphenyl), or multiple fused rings in which at least one is aromatic (e.g., 1,2,3,4-tetrahydronaphthyl, naphthyl, anthryl, or phenanthryl). That is, at least one ring may have a conjugated pi electron system, while other, adjoining rings can be cycloalkyls, cycloalkenyls, cycloalkynyls, aryls and/or heterocyclyls. The aryl group may be optionally substituted, as described herein. “Carbocyclic aryl groups” refer to aryl groups wherein the ring atoms on the aromatic ring are carbon atoms. Carbocyclic aryl groups include monocyclic carbocyclic aryl groups and polycyclic or fused compounds (e.g., two or more adjacent ring atoms are common to two adjoining rings) such as naphthyl groups. In some cases, the

[0095] The term “alkoxy” refers to the group, —O-alkyl.

[0096] The term “aryloxy” refers to the group, —O-aryl.

[0097] The term “acyloxy” refers to the group, —O-acyl.

[0098] The term “aralkyl” or “arylalkyl”, as used herein, refers to an alkyl group substituted with an aryl group.

[0099] The terms “heteroaryl” refers to aryl groups comprising at least one heteroatom as a ring atom.

[0100] The term “heterocycle” refers to refer to cyclic groups containing at least one heteroatom as a ring atom, in some cases, 1 to 3 heteroatoms as ring atoms, with the remainder of the ring atoms being carbon atoms. Suitable heteroatoms include oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, phosphorus, and the like. In some cases, the heterocycle may be 3- to 10-membered ring structures or 3- to 7-membered rings, whose ring structures include one to four heteroatoms. The term “heterocycle” may include heteroaryl groups, saturated heterocycles (e.g., cycloheteroalkyl) groups, or combinations thereof. The heterocycle may be a saturated molecule, or may comprise one or more double bonds. In some case, the heterocycle is a nitrogen heterocycle, wherein at least one ring comprises at least one nitrogen ring atom. The heterocycles may be fused to other rings to form a polycylic heterocycle. The heterocycle may also be fused to a spirocyclic group. In some cases, the heterocycle may be attached to a compound via a nitrogen or a carbon atom in the ring.

[0101] Heterocycles include, for example, thiophene, benzothiophene, thianthrene, furan, tetrahydrofuran, pyran, isobenzofuran, chromene, xanthene, phenoxathiin, pyrrole, dihydropyrrole, pyrrolidine, imidazole, pyrazole, pyrazine, isothiazole, isoxazole, pyridine, pyrazine, pyrimidine, pyridazine, indolizine, isoindole, indole, indazole, purine, quinolizine, isoquinoline, quinoline, phthalazine, naphthyridine, quinoxaline, quinazoline, cinnoline, pteridine, carbazole, carboline, triazole, tetrazole, oxazole, isoxazole, thiazole, isothiazole, phenanthridine, acridine, pyrimidine, phenanthroline, phenazine, phenarsazine, phenothiazine, furazan, phenoxazine, pyrrolidine, oxolane, thiolane, oxazole, oxazine, piperidine, homopiperidine (hexamethyleneimine), piperazine (e.g., N-methyl piperazine), morpholine, lactones, lactams such as azetidinones and pyrrolidinones, sultams, sultones, other saturated and/or unsaturated derivatives thereof, and the like. The heterocyclic ring can be optionally substituted at one or more positions with such substituents as described herein. In some cases, the heterocycle may be bonded to a compound via a heteroatom ring atom (e.g., nitrogen). In some cases, the heterocycle may be bonded to a compound via a carbon ring atom. In some cases, the heterocycle is pyridine, imidazole, pyrazine, pyrimidine, pyridazine, acridine, acridin-9-amine, bipyridine, naphthyridine, quinoline, benzoquinoline, benzoisoquinoline, phenanthridine-1,9-diamine, or the like.

[0102] The terms “amine” and “amino” are art-recognized and refer to both unsubstituted and substituted amines, e.g., a moiety that can be represented by the 30 general formula: N(R′)(R″)(R′″) wherein R′, R″, and R′″ each independently represent a group permitted by the rules of valence. An example of a substituted amine is benzylamine.

[0103] Any of the above groups may be optionally substituted. As used herein, the term “substituted” is contemplated to include all permissible substituents of organic compounds, “permissible” being in the context of the chemical rules of valence known to those of ordinary skill in the art. It will be understood that “substituted” also includes that the substitution results in a stable compound, e.g., which does not spontaneously undergo transformation such as by rearrangement, cyclization, elimination, etc. In some cases, “substituted” may generally refer to replacement of a hydrogen with a substituent as described herein, e.g., a drug or a peptide. However, “substituted,” as used herein, does not encompass replacement and/or alteration of a key functional group by which a molecule is identified, e.g., such that the “substituted” functional group becomes, through substitution, a different functional group. For example, a “substituted phenyl group” must still comprise the phenyl moiety and can not be modified by substitution, in this definition, to become, e.g., a pyridine ring. In a broad aspect, the permissible substituents include acyclic and cyclic, branched and unbranched, carbocyclic and heterocyclic, aromatic and nonaromatic substituents of organic compounds. Illustrative substituents include, for example, those described herein. The permissible substituents can be one or more and the same or different for appropriate organic compounds. For purposes of this invention, the heteroatoms such as nitrogen may have hydrogen substituents and/or any permissible substituents of organic compounds described herein which satisfy the valencies of the heteroatoms.

[0104] Examples of substituents include, but are not limited to, halogen, azide, alkyl, aralkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, cycloalkyl, hydroxyl, alkoxyl, amino, nitro, sulfhydryl, imino, amido, phosphonate, phosphinate, carbonyl, carboxyl, silyl, ether, alkylthio, sulfonyl, sulfonamido, ketone, aldehyde, ester, heterocyclyl, aromatic or heteroaruomatic moieties, —CF3, —CN, aryl, aryloxy, perhaloalkoxy, aralkoxy, heteroaryl, heteroaryloxy, heteroarylalkyl, heteroaralkoxy, azido, amino, halide, alkylthio, oxo, acylalkyl, carboxy esters, -carboxamido, acyloxy, aminoalkyl, alkylaminoaryl, alkylaryl, alkylaminoalkyl, alkoxyaryl, arylamino, aralkylamino, alkylsulfonyl, -carboxamidoalkylaryl, -carboxamidoaryl, hydroxyalkyl, haloalkyl, alkylaminoalkylcarboxy-, aminocarboxamidoalkyl-, cyano, alkoxyalkyl, perhaloalkyl, arylalkyloxyalkyl, and the like. The peptides described herein are inclusive of at least two amino acids connected by amide bond.

[0105] While several embodiments of the present invention have been described and illustrated herein, those of ordinary skill in the art will readily envision a variety of other means and/or structures for performing the functions and/or obtaining the results and/or one or more of the advantages described herein, and each of such variations and/or modifications is deemed to be within the scope of the present invention. More generally, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that all parameters, dimensions, materials, and configurations described herein are meant to be exemplary and that the actual parameters, dimensions, materials, and/or configurations will depend upon the specific application or applications for which the teachings of the present invention is/are used. Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. It is, therefore, to be understood that the foregoing embodiments are presented by way of example only and that, within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereto, the invention may be practiced otherwise than as specifically described and claimed. The present invention is directed to each individual feature, system, article, material, kit, and/or method described herein. In addition, any combination of two or more such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and/or methods, if such features, systems, articles, materials, kits, and/or methods are not mutually inconsistent, is included within the scope of the present invention.

[0106] The indefinite articles “a” and “an,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, unless clearly indicated to the contrary, should be understood to mean “at least one.”

[0107] The phrase “and/or,” as used herein in the specification and in the claims, should be understood to mean “either or both” of the elements so conjoined, i.e., elements that are conjunctively present in some cases and disjunctively present in other cases. Other elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified by the “and/or” clause, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified unless clearly indicated to the contrary. Thus, as a non-limiting example, a reference to “A and/or B,” when used in conjunction with open-ended language such as “comprising” can refer, in one embodiment, to A without B (optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to B without A (optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to both A and B (optionally including other elements); etc.

[0108] As used herein in the specification and in the claims, “or” should be understood to have the same meaning as “and/or” as defined above. For example, when separating items in a list, “or” or “and/or” shall be interpreted as being inclusive, i.e., the inclusion of at least one, but also including more than one, of a number or list of elements, and, optionally, additional unlisted items. Only terms clearly indicated to the contrary, such as “only one of” or “exactly one of,” or, when used in the claims, “consisting of,” will refer to the inclusion of exactly one element of a number or list of elements. In general, the term “or” as used herein shall only be interpreted as indicating exclusive alternatives (i.e. “one or the other but not both”) when preceded by terms of exclusivity, such as “either,” “one of,” “only one of,” or “exactly one of.” “Consisting essentially of,” when used in the claims, shall have its ordinary meaning as used in the field of patent law.

[0109] As used herein in the specification and in the claims, the phrase “at least one,” in reference to a list of one or more elements, should be understood to mean at least one element selected from any one or more of the elements in the list of elements, but not necessarily including at least one of each and every element specifically listed within the list of elements and not excluding any combinations of elements in the list of elements. This definition also allows that elements may optionally be present other than the elements specifically identified within the list of elements to which the phrase “at least one” refers, whether related or unrelated to those elements specifically identified. Thus, as a non-limiting example, “at least one of A and B” (or, equivalently, “at least one of A or B,” or, equivalently “at least one of A and/or B”) can refer, in one embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, with no B present (and optionally including elements other than B); in another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, B, with no A present (and optionally including elements other than A); in yet another embodiment, to at least one, optionally including more than one, A, and at least one, optionally including more than one, B (and optionally including other elements); etc.

[0110] In the claims, as well as in the specification above, all transitional phrases such as “comprising,” “including,” “carrying,” “having,” “containing,” “involving,” “holding,” and the like are to be understood to be open-ended, i.e., to mean including but not limited to. Only the transitional phrases “consisting of” and “consisting essentially of” shall be closed or semi-closed transitional phrases, respectively, as set forth in the United States Patent Office Manual of Patent Examining Procedures, Section 2111.03.