PROSTHETIC FABRIC STRUCTURE

[0001] This application claims benefit under 35 U.S.C. §120, and is a Continuation-in-Part Application of U.S. Ser. No. 10/800,134, filed Mar. 11, 2004, pending, which claims the benefit under 35 U.S.C. §119(e) to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/453,584, filed Mar. 11, 2003, and is a Continuation-in-Part Application of U.S. Ser. No. 10/008,924, filed Nov. 16, 2001, now U.S. Pat. No. 6,902,932, the contents of each of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0002] Disease, aging, trauma or chronic wear often lead to tissue or organ failure. In treating such failures, the goal of many clinical procedure is restoration of function. A patient often requires additional support, beyond the body's own means of healing, such as surgery or the implantation of a medical device. Such procedures are often needed to combat permanent disability and even death. The fields of biomaterials and tissue engineering are providing new options to gradually restore native tissue and organ function through the research and development of temporary scaffolds, matrices, and constructs (i.e., devices) that initially support a disabled tissue or organ, but eventually allow for the development and remodeling of the body's own biologically and mechanically functional tissue.

[0003] The responsibilities or design requirements of such a scaffold include: (i) the ability to provide immediate mechanical stabilization to the damaged or diseased tissue, (ii) support cell and tissue ingrowth into the device, (iii) communicate the mechanical environment of the body to the developing tissue; such is achieved through the proper mechanical and biological design of the device, (iv) degrade at such a rate that the ingrowing cells and tissue have sufficient time to remodel, thus creating new autologous function tissue that can survive the life of the patient. In certain instances, the device should mimic the correct three-dimensional structure (e.g., a bone scaffold) of the tissue it is attempting to support. In other instances, the device may serve as a temporary ligature (e.g., a flat mesh for hernia repair or a hemostat for bleeding) to a three-dimensional tissue (abdominal wall muscle in the case of hernia). Regardless of application, the present direction of the medical device field is the complete restoration of bodily function through the support of autologous tissue development.

[0004] Unfortunately, most biomaterials available today do not posses the mechanical integrity of high load demand applications (e.g., bone, ligaments, tendons, muscle) or the appropriate biological functionality; most biomaterials either degrade too rapidly (e.g., collagen, PLA, PGA, or related copolymers) or are non-degradable (e.g., polyesters, metal), where in either case, functional autologous tissue fails to develop and the patient suffers disability. In certain instances a biomaterial may misdirect tissue differentiation and development (e.g., spontaneous bone formation, tumors) because it lacks biocompatibility with surrounding cells and tissue. As well, a biomaterial that fails to degrade typically is associated with chronic inflammation, where such a response is actually detrimental to (i.e., weakens) surrounding tissue.

[0005] If properly designed, silk may offer new clinical options for the design of a new class of medical devices, scaffolds and matrices. Silk has been shown to have the highest strength of any natural fiber, and rivals the mechanical properties of synthetic high performance fibers. Silks are also stable at high physiological temperatures and in a wide range of pH, and are insoluble in most aqueous and organic solvents. Silk is a protein, rather than a synthetic polymer, and degradation products (e.g., peptides, amino acids) are biocompatible. Silk is non-mammalian derived and carries far less bioburden than other comparable natural biomaterials (e.g., bovine or porcine derived collagen).

[0006] Silk, as the term is generally known in the art, means a filamentous fiber product secreted by an organism such as a silkworm or spider. Silks produced from insects, namely (i) Bombyx mori silkworms, and (ii) the glands of spiders, typically Nephilia clavipes, are the most often studied forms of the material; however, hundreds to thousands of natural variants of silk exist in nature. Fibroin is produced and secreted by a silkworm's two silk glands. As fibroin leaves the glands, it is coated with sericin, a glue-like substance. However, spider silk is valued (and differentiated from silkworm silk) as it is produced as a single filament lacking any immunogenic contaminates, such as sericin.

[0007] Unfortunately, spider silk can not be mass produced due to the inability to domesticate spiders; however, spider silk, as well as other silks can be cloned and recombinantly produced, but with extremely varying results. Often, these processes introduce bioburdens, are costly, cannot yield material in significant quantities, result in highly variable material properties, and are neither tightly controlled nor reproducible.

[0008] As a result, only silkworm silk has been used in biomedical applications for over 1,000 years. The Bombyx mori specie of silkworm produces a silk fiber (known as a “bave”) and uses the fiber to build its cocoon. The bave, as produced, includes two fibroin filaments or “broins”, which are surrounded with a coating of gum, known as sericin—the silk fibroin filament possesses significant mechanical integrity. When silk fibers are harvested for producing yarns or textiles, including sutures, a plurality of fibers can be aligned together, and the sericin is partially dissolved and then resolidified to create a larger silk fiber structure having more than two broins mutually embedded in a sericin coating.

[0009] As used herein, “fibroin” includes silkworm fibroin (i.e. from Bombyx mori) and fibroin-like fibers obtained from spiders (i.e. from Nephila clavipes). Alternatively, silk protein suitable for use in the present invention can be obtained from a solution containing a genetically engineered silk, such as from bacteria, yeast, mammalian cells, transgenic animals or transgenic plants. See, for example, WO 97/08315 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,245,012.

[0010] Silkworm silk fibers, traditionally available on the commercial market for textile and suture applications are often “degummed” and consist of multiple broins plied together to form a larger single multi-filament fiber. Degumming here refers to the loosening of the sericin coat surrounding the two broins through washing or extraction in hot soapy water. Such loosening allows for the plying of broins to create larger multifilament single fibers. However, complete extraction is often neither attained nor desired. Degummed silk often contains or is recoated with sericin and/or sericin impurities are introduced during plying in order to congeal the multifilament single fiber. The sericin coat protects the frail fibroin filaments (only ˜5 microns in diameter) from fraying during traditional textile applications where high-through-put processing is required. Therefore, degummed silk, unless explicitly stated as sericin-free, typically contain 10-26% (by weight) sericin (see Tables 1 & 2).

[0011] When typically referring to “silk” in the literature, it is inferred that the remarks are focused to the naturally-occurring and only available “silk” (i.e., sericin-coated fibroin fibers) which have been used for centuries in textiles and medicine. Medical grade silkworm silk is traditionally used in only two forms: (i) as virgin silk suture, where the sericin has not been removed, and (ii) the traditional more popular silk suture, or commonly referred to as black braided silk suture, where the sericin has been completely removed, but replaced with a wax or silicone coating to provide a barrier between the silk fibroin and the body tissue and cells. Presently, the only medical application for which silk is still used is in suture ligation, particularly because silk is still valued for it mechanical properties in surgery (e.g., knot strength and handlability).

[0012] Despite virgin silk's use as a suture material for thousands of years, the advent of new biomaterials (collagen, synthetics) have allowed for comparisons between materials and have identified problems with sericin. Silk, or more clearly defined as Bombyx mori silkworm silk, is non-biocompatible. Sericin is antigenic and elicits a strong immune, allergic or hyper-T-cell type (versus the normal mild “foreign body” response) response. Sericin may be removed (washed/extracted) from silk fibroin; however, removal of sericin from silk changes the ultrastructure of the fibroin fibers, exposing them, and results in loss of mechanical strength, leading to a fragile structure.

[0013] Extracted silk structures (i.e., yarns, matrices) are especially susceptible to fraying and mechanical failure during standard textile procedures due to the multifilament nature of the smaller diameter (˜5 um) fibroin filaments. The extracted fibroin's fragility is the reason that when using silk in the design and development of medical devices, following extraction, it is typically taught (Perez-Rigueiro, J. Appl. Polymer Science, 70, 2439-2447, 1998) that you must dissolve and reconstitute silk using standard methods (U.S. Pat. No. 5,252,285) to gain a workable biomaterial. The inability to handle extracted silk fibroin with present-day textile methods and machinery has prevented the use of non-dissolved sericin-free fibroin from being explored as a medical device.

[0014] Additional limitations of silk fibroin, whether extracted from silkworm silk, dissolved and reconstituted, or produced from spiders or insects other than silkworms include (i) the hydrophobic nature of silk, a direct result of the beta-sheet crystal conformation of the core fibroin protein which gives silk its strength, (ii) the lack of cell binding domains typically found in mammalian extracellular matrix proteins (e.g., the peptide sequence RGD), and (iii) silk fibroin's smooth surface. As a result, cells (e.g., macrophages, neutrophils) associated with an inflammatory and host tissue response are unable to recognize the silk fibroin as a material capable of degradation. These cells thus opt to encapsulate and wall off the foreign body (see FIG. 18A) thereby limiting (i) silk fibroin degradation, (ii) tissue ingrowth, and (iii) tissue remodeling. Thus, silk fibroin filaments frequently induce a strong foreign body response (FBR) that is associated with chronic inflammation, a peripheral granuloma and scar encapsulation (FIG. 18A).

[0015] In addition to the biological disadvantages of silk, the multifilament nature of silk (e.g., as sutures) as well as the small size of the fibroin filaments can lead to a tightly packed structure. As such, silk may degrade too rapidly. Proteases (enzymes) produced from the stimulated cells found within the peripheral encapsulation can penetrate the implanted structure (see FIG. 11A and FIG. 11B), but cells depositing new tissue (e.g., fibroblasts) which may reinforce the device (in this case a black braided suture) during normal tissue remodeling cannot. Therefore, the interior of non-treated or non-modified fibroin devices does not come in contact with the host foreign body response and tissue (led and produced by fibroblasts) and as a result, the capacity of the device to direct tissue remodeling is limited. Host cell and tissue growth is limited and degradation is not normally possible.

[0016] In the case of sutures, it is thought that these problems can be managed by treating fibroin sutures with cross-linking agents or by coating the sutures with wax, silicone or synthetic polymers, thereby shielding the material from the body. Coatings, such as sericin, wax or silicone, designed to add mechanical stability to the fibroin (combating its fragility while providing a barrier between the body and the fibroin), limits cell attachment, recognition and infiltration and tissue ingrowth and fibroin degradation. As a result, silk is traditionally thought of as a non-degradable material.

[0017] Classification as a non-degradable may be desirable when silk is intended for use as a traditional suture ligation device, i.e., cell and tissue ingrowth into the device are not desirable. Therefore, cell attachment and ingrowth (which lead to matrix degradation and active tissue remodeling) is traditionally prevented by both the biological nature of silk and the structure's mechanical design. In fact, a general belief that silk must be shielded from the immune system and the perception that silk is non-biodegradeable have limited silk's use in surgery. Even in the field of sutures, silk has been displaced in most applications by synthetic materials, whether biodegradable or permanent.

[0018] Therefore, there exists a need to generate sericin-extracted silkworm fibroin fibers that are biocompatible, promote ingrowth of cells, and are biodegradable.

[0019] Natural silk fibroin fiber constructs, disclosed herein, offer a combination of high strength, extended fatigue life, and stiffness and elongation at break properties that closely match those of biological tissues (e.g, the tissues they are specifically designed to mimic). The fibers in the construct are non-randomly aligned into one or more yarns. The fiber constructs are biocompatible (due to the extraction of sericin from the silkworm silk fibers) and substantially free of sericin. The fiber constructs are further non-immunogenic; i.e., they do not elicit a substantial allergic, antigenic, or hyper T-cell response from the host, diminishing the injurious effect on surrounding biological tissues, such as those that can accompany immune-system responses in other contexts. In addition, the fiber constructs promote the ingrowth of cells around said fibroin fibers and are biodegradable.

[0020] Indications that the fiber construct is “substantially free” of sericin mean that sericin comprises less than 20% sericin by weight. Preferably, sericin comprises less than 10% sericin by weight. Most preferably, sericin comprises less than 1% sericin by weight (see Table 2). Furthermore, “substantially free” of sericin can be functionally defined as a sericin content that does not elicit a substantial allergic, antigenic, or hyper T-cell response from the host Likewise, indication that there is less than a 3% change in mass after a second extraction would imply that the first extraction “substantially removed” sericin from the construct and that the resulting construct was “substantially free” of sericin following the first extraction (see Table 2 and FIG. 1F).

[0021] Methods of this disclosure extract sericin from the construct much more thoroughly than do the typical “degumming” procedures that characterize traditional processing practices for the production of silk textiles for non-surgical applications (see above for definition). FIG. 1A shows an image of a degummed fiber where fibroin filaments were plied together forming a larger fiber re-encased with sericin. This “degummed” fiber contains ˜26%, by weight, sericin. In a preferred embodiment, the sericin-extracted silkworm fibroin fibers retain their native protein structure and have not been dissolved and reconstituted.

[0022] “Natural” silk fibroin fibers are produced by an insect, such as a silkworm or a spider and possess their native, as formed, protein structure. Preferably, the silk fibroin fiber constructs are non-recombinant (i.e., not genetically engineered) and have not been dissolved and reconstituted. In a preferred embodiment, the sericin-extracted fibroin fibers comprised fibroin fibers obtained from Bombyx mori silkworm. Further, the term, “biodegradable,” is used herein to mean that the fibers are degraded within one year when in continuous contact with a bodily tissue. In addition, our data suggests (FIG. 13 A-E, FIG. 18 A-C & FIG. 19 A-D) that the rate of degradation can be influenced and enhanced by surface modification of the fibroin (FIG. 13 A-D & FIG. 18 A-C) as well as the geometric configuration of the yarn and/or fabric (FIG. 19A-D). In one embodiment, silk fibroin yarn lost 50% of its ultimate tensile strength within two weeks following implantation in vivo (FIG. 12) and 50% of its mass within approximately 30 to 90 days in vivo, depending on implantation sight (FIG. 13 A-D). The choice of implantation site in vivo (e.g., intra-muscular versus subcutaneous) was shown to significantly influence the rate of degradation (FIG. 13 A-D).

[0023] Textile-grade silk” is naturally occurring silk that includes a sericin coating of greater than 19%-28% by weight of the fiber. “Suture silk” is silk that either contains sericin (“virgin silk suture”) or is coated with a hydrophobic composition, such as bee's wax, paraffin wax, silicon, or a synthetic polymeric coating (“black braided silk suture”). The hydrophobic composition repels cells or inhibits cells from attaching to the coated fiber. Black braided silk is a suture silk in which sericin has been extracted and replaced with additional coating. Suture silk is typically non-biodegradable.

[0024] Due to the absence of a protective wax or other hydrophobic coating on the fibers the silk fibroin constructs described are biologically (coupling of cell binding domains) and/or mechanically (increase silk surface area and decrease packing density) designed to promote increased cell infiltration compared to textile-grade silk or suture silk when implanted in bodily tissue. As a result, the silk fibroin constructs support cell ingrowth/infiltration and improved cell attachment and spreading, which leads to the degradation of the silk fibroin construct thereby essentially creating a new biodegradable biomaterial for use in medical device and tissue engineering applications. The ability of the fiber construct to support cell attachment and cell and tissue ingrowth/infiltration into the construct, which in return supports degradation, may be further enhanced through fibroin surface modification (peptide coupling using RGD, chemical species modification and increasing hydrophilicity through gas plasma treatment) and/or the mechanical design of the construct thereby increasing material surface area thus increasing its susceptibility to those cells and enzymes that posses the ability to degrade silk. The silk fibers are optionally coated with a hydrophilic composition, e.g., collagen or a peptide composition, or mechanically combined with a biomaterial that supports cell and tissue ingrowth to form a composite structure. The choice of biomaterial, amount and mechanical interaction (e.g., wrapped or braided about a core of silk fibroin) can be used to alter and/or improve rates of cell ingrowth and construct degradation.

[0025] Fibers in the construct are non-randomly aligned with one another into one or more yarns. Such a structure can be in a parallel, braided, textured, or helically-organized (twisted, cabled (e.g., a wire-rope)) arrangement to form a yarn. A yarn may be defined as consisting of at least one fibroin fiber. Preferably, a yarn consists of at least three aligned fibroin fibers. A yarn is an assembly of fibers twisted or otherwise held together in a continuous strand. An almost infinite number of yarns may be generated through the various means of producing and combining fibers. A silk fiber is described above; however, the term fiber is a generic term indicating that the structure has a length 100 times greater than its diameter.

[0026] When the fibers are twisted or otherwise intertwined to form a yarn, they are twisted/intertwined enough to essentially lock in the relative fiber positions and remove slack but not so much as to plastically deform the fibers (i.e., does not exceed the material's yield point), which compromises their fatigue life (i.e., reduces the number of stress cycles before failure). The sericin-free fibroin fiber constructs can have a dry ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of at least 0.52 N/fiber (Table 1, 4), and a stiffness between about 0.27 and about 0.5 N/mm per fiber. Depending on fiber organization and hierarchy, we have shown that fibroin construct UTSs can range from 0.52 N/fiber to about 0.9N/fiber. Fibroin constructs described here retained about 80% of their dry UTS and about 38% of their dry stiffness, when tested wet (Table 5). Elongations at break between about 10% and about 50% were typical for fibroin constructs tested in both dry and wet states. Fibroin constructs typically yielded at about 40 to 50% of their UTS and had a fatigue life of at least 1 million cycles at a load of about 20% of the yarns ultimate tensile strength.

[0027] In one embodiment of the present invention, the aligned sericin-extracted silkworm fibroin fibers are twisted about each other at 0 to 11.8 twists per cm (see Table 6 & 7).

[0028] The number of hierarchies in the geometrical structure of the fiber construct as well as the number of fibers/groups/bundles/strands/cords within a hierarchical level, the manner of intertwining at the different levels, the number of levels and the number of fibers in each level can all be varied to change the mechanical properties of the fiber construct (i.e., yarn) and therefore, fabric (Table 4 & 8). In one embodiment of the present invention, the fiber construct (i.e. yarn) is organized in a single-level hierarchical organization, said single-level hierarchical organization comprising a group of parallel or intertwined yarns. Alternatively, the fiber construct (i.e. yarn) organized in a two-level hierarchical organization, said two-level hierarchical organization comprising a bundle of intertwined groups. In another embodiment of the present invention, the fiber construct (i.e. yarn) is organized into a three-level hierarchical organization, said three-level hierarchical organization comprising a strand of intertwined bundles. Finally, another embodiment of the present invention, the fiber construct (i.e. yarn) is organized into a four-level hierarchical organization, said four-level hierarchical organization comprising a cord of intertwined strands.

[0029] The sericin can be removed from the fibroin fibers before the alignment into a yarn or at a higher level in the hierarchical geometry of the fiber construct. The yarn is handled at low tension (i.e., the force applied to the construct will never exceed the material's yield point during any processing step) and with general care and gentleness after the sericin is removed. Processing equipment is likewise configured to reduce abrasiveness and sharp angles in the guide fixtures that contact and direct the yarn during processing to protect the fragile fibroin fibers from damage; extraction residence times of 1 hour are sufficient to extract sericin but slow enough as not to damage the exposed filaments. Interestingly, when a silk fiber construct consisting of multiple fibers organized in parallel has been extracted under these conditions, a “single” larger sericin free yarn resulted (i.e., individual fibers cannot be separated back out of the construct due to the mechanical interaction between the smaller fibroin filaments once exposed during extraction). Furthermore, as a result of the mechanical interplay between the sericin-free micro filaments, extraction of twisted or cabled yarns has typically resulted in less “lively” yarns and structures. As a result of this phenomenon, a greater degree of flexibility existed in the design of the yarns and resulting fabrics; for example, higher twist per inch (TPI) levels can be used, which would normally create lively yarns that would be difficult to form into fabrics. The added benefit of higher TPIs was the reduction in yarn and fabric stiffness (i.e. matrix elasticity can be increased)(Tables 6 and 7; FIG. 6A and FIG. 6B).

[0030] A plurality of yarns are intertwined to form a fabric. Fabrics are generated through the uniting of one or more individual yarns whereby the individual yarns are transformed into textile and medical device fabrics. In one embodiment of the present invention, the yarn is twisted at or below 30 twists per inch. Fabrics are produced or formed by non-randomly combining yarns: weaving, knitting, or stitch bonding to produce completed fabrics. In one embodiment, this combining of yarns to form a fabric is done on a machine. However, it is very important to note that the end fabric product is distinct based on the yarn type used to make it thus providing tremendous power through yarn design to meet clinical needs. A fabric can be, but is not limited to, woven, knit, warp-knit, bonded, coated, dobby, laminated, mesh, or combinations thereof.

[0031] Of note, the textile methods of braiding, in addition to making yarns, can also be used to make fabrics, such as a flat braided fabric or a larger circular braid (FIG. 4A). Inversely, weaving and knitting, two fabric forming methods, although not commonly used, can also be used to make yarns. In such instances, the differentiation between a “yarn” and a “fabric” is not entirely apparent, and the homogeneity should be used to make clear distinctions, i.e., a yarn is typically more homogeneous in composition and structure than a fabric.

[0032] In one embodiment of the present invention, multiple silkworm silk fibers may be organized helically (e.g., twisted or cabled) or in parallel, in a single hierarchical level or in multiple levels, extracted, and used to create a braided suture for tissue ligation. In another embodiment, the mechanical interaction of extracted fibroin filaments in a twisted or cabled configuration following extraction can be used as a medical suture.

[0033] Non-woven fabrics may be formed by randomly organizing a plurality of yarns, or a single yarn cut into many small length pieces. Non-limiting examples include a fabric for hemostat or bone scaffold. All fabrics can either derive from a single yarn construct (homogenous) or multiple yarns constructs (heterogeneous). The ability to design for a variety of silk fibroin yarn structures, as described in detail below, dramatically increases fabric design potential when considering a heterogeneous fabric structure.

[0034] In one embodiment of the present invention, the fabric is a composite of the sericin-extracted fibroin fibers or yarns and one or more degradable polymers selected from the group consisting of Collagens, Polylactic acid or its copolymers, Polyglycolic acid or its copolymers, Polyanhydrides, Elastin, Glycosamino glyccands, and Polysaccharides. Furthermore, the fabric of the present invention may be modified to comprise a drug associated or a cell-attachment factor associated with fabric (i.e. RGD). In one embodiment of the present invention, the fabric is treated with gas plasma or seeded with biological cells.

[0035] Additional aspects of this disclosure relate to the repair of specific bodily tissues, such as hernia repair, urinary bladder tissues and slings, pelvic floor reconstruction, peritoneal wall tissues, vessels (e.g., arteries), muscle tissue (abdominal smooth muscle, cardiac), hemostats, and ligaments and tendons of the knee and/or shoulder as well as other frequently damaged structures due to trauma or chronic wear. Examples of ligaments or tendons that can be produced include anterior cruciate ligaments, posterior cruciate ligaments, rotator cuff tendons, medial collateral ligaments of the elbow and knee, flexor tendons of the hand, lateral ligaments of the ankle and tendons and ligaments of the jaw or temporomandibular joint. Other tissues that may be produced by methods of this disclosure include cartilage (both articular and meniscal), bone, skin, blood vessels, stents for vessel support and/or repair, and general soft connective tissue.

[0036] In other aspects, silkworm fibroin fibers, in the form of a yarn or of a larger construct of yarns, now termed a device, is stripped of sericin, and made (e.g., woven, knitted, non-woven wet laid, braided, stitch bonded, etc.) into a fabric, sterilized and used as an implantable supporting or repair material that offers a controllable lifetime (i.e., degradation rate) and a controllable degree of collagen and/or extracellular matrix deposition. The support or repair material can be used for any such purpose in the body, and in particular can be used for hernia repair, reconstruction of body walls, particularly in the thorax and abdominal cavity, and support, positioning or immobilization of internal organs, including, without limitation, the bladder, the uterus, the intestines, the urethra, and ureters. Alternatively, silkworm fibroin fibers may be stripped of sericin and organized into a non-woven fabric. Such non-woven fabric can be used as an implantable supporting or repair material as above, but more specifically for applications where a sponge formation would be useful.

[0037] The purified silk can be purified by any of a variety of treatments that remove the sericin proteins found in the native fibrils. Sericin has been removed sufficiently when implants of purified silk elicit only a mild, transient foreign body reaction in the absence of an antigenic (B-cell, T-cell) response, i.e., are biocompatible. A foreign body reaction is characterized by an inner layer of macrophages and/or giant cells with a secondary zone of fibroblasts and connective tissue. The degree of foreign body response has been shown to be controllable through fibroin modification (FIG. 13 A-D & FIG. 18 A-C) and yarn design (FIG. 19 A-D). Sericin can be removed from individual silkworm fibroin fibers, a group of silkworm fibroin fibers (i.e. a yarn), having an organized orientation (e.g., parallel or twisted), or form a fabric or other construct comprising a plurality of yarns. The construct can then be sterilized and implanted in an organism as a medical device.

[0038] Aspects of the present invention relate to an implantable prosthesis for breast augmentation or reconstruction procedures comprising, a biocompatible and biodegradable fabric structure comprising one or more individual yarns comprised of sericin-extracted native fibroin fibers, wherein the yarn(s) are intertwined to produce the fabric structure, the fabric structure extending in a first dimension and having a first surface adapted to engage and support natural breast tissue or a prosthetic breast implant in a patient. In one embodiment, the fabric structure includes a portion adapted to be fastened to tissue surrounding the chest cavity of the patient. In one embodiment, the fabric structure includes a portion adapted to be fastened to soft tissue surrounding the breast tissue or the prosthetic breast implant. In one embodiment, the fabric structure includes a portion adapted to be fastened to a boney structure adjacent to the breast tissue or the prosthetic breast implant. In one embodiment, the fabric structure is formed in a predefined shape adapted to conform to at least a portion of a region of natural breast tissue or a breast implant. In one embodiment, the predefined shape selected from the group consisting of a circular shape, an oval shape, a crescent shape, a cup shape and an elongated strip. In one embodiment, the fabric structure includes factors for promoting in-growth of breast tissue. In one embodiment, the fabric structure, when implanted, at least partially replaces breast connective tissue. In one embodiment, the fabric structure is formed in an sling shape to provide support for a breast or a breast implant when the fabric structure is implanted in a patient. In one embodiment, the fabric structure is formed in an elongated shape to provide support in an inframammary region of a breast when the fabric structure is implanted in a patient. In one embodiment, the fabric structure is formed in a cup shape to provide inferior support in an inframammary region of a breast when the fabric structure is implanted in a patient. In one embodiment, the fabric structure is formed in a cup shape to provide medial or lateral support for the breast when the fabric structure is implanted in a patient. In one embodiment, the fabric structure is selected from the group consisting of twisted, braided, knitted, woven, stitch bonded, and combinations thereof.

[0039] Aspects of the present invention relate to a method of supporting breast tissue or a breast implant in a patient comprising, providing a biocompatible and biodegradable fabric structure comprising one or more individual yarns comprised of sericin-extracted native fibroin fibers, wherein the yarn(s) are intertwined to produce the fabric structure, and inserting the fabric structure between the skin of the patient and the breast tissue or the breast implant. In one embodiment, the method further comprises fastening the fabric structure to tissue surrounding the chest cavity of the patient. In one embodiment, the method further comprises fastening the fabric structure to soft tissue surrounding the breast tissue or the prosthetic breast implant. In one embodiment, the method further comprises fastening the fabric structure to a boney structure adjacent to the breast tissue or the prosthetic breast implant. In one embodiment, the method further comprises forming the fabric structure into a predefined shape adapted to conform to at least a portion of a region of natural breast tissue or a breast implant. In one embodiment, the predefined shape is selected from the group consisting of a circular shape, an oval shape, a crescent shape, a cup shape and an elongated strip. In one embodiment, the method further comprises treating the fabric structure with factors for promoting in-growth of breast tissue. In one embodiment, the fabric structure is inserted in an inframammary region of the breast to provide vertical positioning of the breast and reduce vertical inferior displacement of the breast. In one embodiment, the fabric structure is inserted in a medial side of the breast to provide medial positioning of the breast and reduce medial displacement of the breast. In one embodiment, the fabric structure is inserted in a lateral side of the breast to provide lateral positioning of the breast and reduce lateral displacement of the breast. In one embodiment, the fabric structure is selected from the group consisting of twisted, braided, knitted, woven, stitch bonded, and combinations thereof.

[0040] Aspects of the present invention relate to a biocompatible and biodegradable fabric comprising one or more individual yarns comprised of sericin-extracted native fibroin fibers, wherein the yarn(s) are intertwined to produce a fabric structure selected from the group consisting of twisted, braided, knitted, woven, stitch bonded, and combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the fabric is homogeneous. In one embodiment, the fabric has one or more biomechanical properties of connective tissue of the female breast. In one embodiment, the one or more biomechanical properties is selected from the group consisting of ultimate tensile strength, linear stiffness, yield point, percent elongation at break, and combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the fabric is a 2-dimensional mesh. In one embodiment, the connective tissue is superficial fascia or muscular fascia of the female breast subcutaneous fascial system. In one embodiment, the fabric is heterogeneous. In one embodiment, the fabric comprises a 2-dimensional mesh with one or more additional constructs therein. In one embodiment, the 2-dimensional mesh has one or more biomechanical properties of connective tissue of the female breast. In one embodiment, the connective tissue is superficial fascia or muscular fascia of the female breast subcutaneous fascial system. In one embodiment, the additional construct(s) is selected from the group consisting of a twisted construct, a parallel construct, and a braided construct. In one embodiment, the additional construct(s) has one or more biomechanical properties of connective tissue of the female breast. In one embodiment, the connective tissue is selected from the group consisting of fascia mammae, retinaculum fibrosa, and transverse fibrous lamella. In one embodiment, the connective tissue is inframammary retinaculum. In one embodiment, the one or more biomechanical properties is selected from the group consisting of ultimate tensile strength, linear stiffness, yield point, percent elongation at break, and combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the fabric has one or more biomechanical properties of soft tissue within the breast. In one embodiment, the fibroin fibers contain less than 20% sericin by weight. In one embodiment, the fibroin fibers contain less than 10% sericin by weight. In one embodiment, the fibroin fibers contain less than 1% sericin by weight. In one embodiment, one or more of the yarns comprise fibroin fibers that are parallel or intertwined. In one embodiment, one or more of the yarns is a braid, textured yarn, twisted yarn, cabled yarn, or combinations thereof. In one embodiment, one or more of the yarns has a single-level hierarchical organization comprising a group of parallel or intertwined fibers to form the yarn(s). In one embodiment, one or more of the yarns has a two-level hierarchical organization comprising a bundle of intertwined groups, wherein a group comprises parallel or intertwined fibers. In one embodiment, one or more of the yarns has a three-level hierarchical organization comprising a strand of intertwined bundles, wherein a bundle comprises intertwined groups, wherein a group comprises parallel or intertwined fibers. In one embodiment, one or more of the yarns has a four-level hierarchical organization comprising a cord of intertwined strands, wherein a strand comprises intertwined bundles, wherein a bundle comprises intertwined groups, wherein a group comprises parallel or intertwined fibers. In one embodiment, one or more of the yarns comprise a composite of the sericin-extracted fibroin fibers and one or more degradable polymers selected from group consisting of collagens, polylactic acid or its copolymers, polyglycolic acid or its copolymers, polyanhydrides, elastin, glycosamino glycans, and polysaccharides. In one embodiment, the fabric is coated, dobby, laminated, or combinations thereof. In one embodiment, the fabric further comprises a drug. In one embodiment, the fabric further comprises a cell-attachment factor. In one embodiment, the cell-attachment factor is RGD. In one embodiment, one or more of the yarns is treated with gas plasma. In one embodiment, the fabric further comprises biological cells seeded therein.

[0041] Aspects of the present invention related to a method for generating connective tissue in the breast of an individual comprising implanting a fabric disclosed herein, wherein the fabric has one or more biomechanical properties of connective tissue, into the individual at an anatomical location within the breast of the individual that provides the appropriate physiologic environment for the development of the connective tissue from the implanted fabric, wherein the fabric is comprised of one or more individual yarns comprised of sericin-extracted native fibroin fibers. In one embodiment, the connective tissue is selected from the group consisting of superficial fascia, muscular fascia, fascia mammae, retinaculum fibrosa, and transverse fibrous lamella. In one embodiment, the fabric is implanted into the individual to replace or repair damaged tissue. In one embodiment, the anatomical location is a site of a surgical incision or of tissue reconstruction. In one embodiment, the fabric is homogeneous. In one embodiment, the fabric is heterogeneous. In one embodiment, one or more of the individual yarns has a hierarchical organization selected from the group consisting of single-level hierarchical organization, two-level hierarchical organization, three-level hierarchical organization, and four-level hierarchical organization.

[0042] Aspects of the present invention further relate to a method for supporting a breast structure in an individual comprising implanting a fabric disclosed herein within the breast of the individual in a supporting position relative to the breast structure. In one embodiment, the breast structure comprises native breast tissue. In one embodiment, the breast structure comprises a breast prosthesis. In one embodiment, the breast structure comprises a tissue expander. In one embodiment, the fabric comprises a 2-dimensional mesh. In one embodiment, the fabric further comprises one or more additional constructs therein. In one embodiment, the fabric has one or more biomechanical properties of a connective tissue present naturally in the breast at such a supporting position. In one embodiment, the connective tissue is selected from the group consisting of superficial fascia, muscular fascia, fascia mammae, retinaculum fibrosa, and transverse fibrous lamella.

[0043] Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the following description of preferred embodiments thereof.

[0071] In methods described in greater detail, below, silk fibroin fibers are aligned in a parallel orientation; the fibers can remain in a strictly parallel orientation, or they can be twisted or otherwise intertwined to form a yarn. The yarn can include any number of hierarchies, beginning at fiber level and expanding through bundle, strand, cord, etc., levels. Intertwining can be provided at each level. Furthermore, sericin is extracted from the silk fibers at any point in the hierarchy up to the point where the number of fibers exceeds that at which the extracting solution can penetrate throughout the yarn. The maximum number of silkworm fibroin fibers (20/22 denier as purchased) that can be combined and successfully extracted is about 50 (Table 4). These yarns can then be used as a fiber construct for, e.g., ligament or tissue reconstruction, or can be incorporated into a fabric for use, e.g., in the generation of soft tissue mesh for repairs such as hernia repair, abdominal floor reconstruction and bladder slings. Formation of fiber constructs will be discussed in the context of exemplary applications, below.

[0072] Although much of the discussion that follows is directed to a silk-fiber-based matrix (i.e. construct, scaffold) for producing an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL), a variety of other tissues, such as other ligaments and tendons, cartilage, muscle, bone, skin and blood vessels, can be formed using a novel silk-fiber based matrix. In the case of the ACL, a large yarn (540-3900 fibers per yarn, before plying in parallel; see Table 8 & 11) with multiple hierarchical levels of intertwining and relevant physiological properties was described. In addition to a silk-fiber-based ACL matrix, multiple smaller yarn configurations (1-50 silk fibers) (Table 1, 4 & 5) with relevant physiological properties after combining either in parallel or into a specific fabric formation, can serve as tissue matrices for guided tissue formation (FIG. 2A-B). In addition to silk matrices for guided tissue formation or engineering, this work is specifically directly to producing a variety of silk-fiber based matrices tissue support structures for guided tissue repair (e.g., hernia repair, bladder slings for urinary stress incontinence) (FIG. 2A-B & FIG. 20A-C).

[0073] Constructs (i.e. fabrics or yarns) can be surface modified or seeded with the appropriate cells (FIG. 7A-D, FIG. 8A-B & FIG. 16A-C) and exposed to the appropriate mechanical stimulation, if necessary, for proliferating and differentiating into the desired ligament, tendon or other tissue in accordance with the above-described techniques.

[0074] Additionally, the present invention is not limited to using bone marrow stromal cells for seeding on the fiber construct, and other progenitor, pluripotent and stem cells, such as those in bone, muscle and skin for example, may also be used to differentiate into ligaments and other tissues.

[0075] Fabrics can also be formed from similar constructs of purified filaments, and used in various applications. Fabrics can be divided into various classes, including woven, non-woven, knitted fabrics, and stitch-bonded fabrics, each with numerous subtypes. Each of these types may be useful as an implant in particular circumstances. In discussing these silk-based fabrics, we describe the natural silk, e.g., of Bombyx mori, as a “fibroin fiber.” The fibers should be at least one meter long, and this length should be maintained throughout the process to facilitate their handling during processing and incorporation into a fabric. Given that a yarn may be defined as an assembly of fibers twisted or otherwise held together in a continuous strand and that a single fibroin fiber, as defined above, is comprised of multiple plied broins, sometimes from multiple cocoons, a single fibrion fiber may be termed a “yarn.” As well, fibroin fibers are twisted together or otherwise intertwined to form a “yarn.” Yarns are used to weave or knit fabrics for use in the invention. In an alternative procedure, silk yarns are disaggregated into shorter (5 mm to 100 mm) lengths or into silk fibroin filaments. These filaments may then be (wet) laid to form a non-woven fabric (FIG. 20A).

[0076] When the yarns are formed into a fabric, the tension (force) exerted on the yarns (typically, via machinery) is no greater than the yarn's yield point (FIG. 3A-D). Accordingly, the yarns are handled at lower speeds and under smaller loads than are yarns that are typically used in, e.g., textile manufacturing when forming the fabric so as to preserve the integrity of the exposed fragile fibroin fibers. Likewise, contact points between handling machinery and the yarn are designed to avoid sharp angles and high-friction interactions so as to prevent lousing and fraying of fibers around the perimeter of the yarn (FIG. 4A-C).

[0077] Numerous applications of fabrics as implants are known in the medical and surgical arts. One example is as a support in hernia repair. For such repair, a fabric, most typically a warp-knit with a desired stitch (e.g., an atlas stitch designed to prevent unraveling of the mesh during cutting), is sewn (or sometimes stapled or glued) or simply laid in place without tensioning, onto the inside of the abdominal wall after it is repaired with conventional sutures. One function of the warp knit fabric is to provide short-term support for the repair. In a preferred embodiment of the present invention, the fibroin fibers within the fabric promote ingrowth of cells and subsequent tissue growth into fabric itself (FIGS. 13A & 13D) as well as through the fabric's interstices formed during knitting and into the region in need of repair. This embodiment aims to permanently strengthen the injured area through functional tissue ingrowth and remodeling as the silk matrix degrades (FIGS. 13A,B & C).

[0078] Repair-strengthening fabrics are used in similar situations for repair or support of any part of the abdominal wall, particularly in hernia repair and abdominal floor reconstruction, or in repair or support of other walls and septa in the body, for example of the chest, or of organs such as the heart or the bladder, particularly after surgery or tumor removal. Implantable fabrics can also be used to support bladders or other internal organs (included but not limited to the intestines, the ureters or urethra, and the uterus) to retain them in their normal positions after surgery, damage or natural wear as a result of age or pregnancy, or to position them in an appropriate location. “Organ” here includes both “solid” organs, such as a liver, and tubular organs such as an intestine or a ureter. Fabrics, especially bulky fabrics such as some non-woven types or those that can be created through 3-dimensional knitting or braiding (FIG. 4A-C), can be used to fill cavities left by surgery to provide a fiber construct onto which cells can migrate or to which cells can be pre-attached (e.g. to improve the rate of repair). Usage sites include cavities in both soft tissues and hard tissues such as bone. In other cases, fabrics are used to prevent adhesions, or to prevent the attachment and/or ingrowth of cells; this may be achieve through surface modification of the silk fibroin matrix or through the attachment of a drug or factor to the matrix.

[0079] The silk-fibroin-based fabrics of the invention can easily be modified in several ways to enhance healing or repair at the site. These modifications may be used singly or in combination. The silk-fibroin-based fabrics of the invention can be surface modified to support cell attachment and spreading, cell and tissue ingrowth and remodeling, and device biodegradation through the use of RGD peptide coupling or gas plasma irradiation (FIGS. 13A-E). The fabrics can be modified to carry cell-attachment factors, such as the well-known peptide “RGD” (arginine-glycine-aspartic acid) or any of the many natural and synthetic attachment-promoting materials, such as serum, serum factors and proteins including fibronectin, blood, marrow, groups, determinants, etc., known in the literature. Such materials can be in any of the usual biochemical classes of such materials, including without limitation proteins, peptides, carbohydrates, polysaccharides, proteoglycans, nucleic acids, lipids, small (less than about 2000 Daltons) organic molecules and combinations of these. Such plasma modification can improve the fabric's surface functionality and/or charge without affecting the materials bulk mechanical properties. Fabrics can be gas plasma irradiated after sericin extraction without compromising the integrity of the sericin-extracted silk fibroin fibers (Table 9).

[0080] Additionally, the fabric can be treated so that it delivers a drug. Attachment of the drug to the fabric can be covalent, or covalent via degradable bonds, or by any sort of binding (e.g., charge attraction) or absorption. Any drug can be potentially used; non-limiting examples of drugs include antibiotics, growth factors such as bone morphogenic proteins (BMPs) or growth differentiation factors (GDFs), growth inhibitors, chemo-attractants, and nucleic acids for transformation, with or without encapsulating materials.

[0081] In another modification, cells can be added to the fabric before its implantation (FIG. 7A-D, FIG. 8A-B, and FIG. 9A-B). Cells can be seeded/absorbed on or into the fabric. Cells can also or in addition be cultivated on the fabric, as a first step towards tissue replacement or enhancement. The cells may be of any type, but allogenous cells, preferably of the “immune protected,” immune privileged,” or stem cell types are preferred, and autologous cells are particularly preferred. The cells are selected to be able to proliferate into required cell types on or in the fiber construct (FIG. 9A-B).

[0082] Another class of modification is incorporation of other polymers (e.g. in fiber or gel form) into the fabric, to provide specific structural properties or to modify the native surfaces of the silk fibroin and its biological characteristics (see FIG. 16A-C: seeding of collagen fibers with BMSCs). In one type of incorporation, fibers or yarns of silk and of another material are blended in the process of making the fabric. In another type, the silk-based fibers, yarns or fabrics are coated or over-wrapped with a solution or with fibers of another polymer. Blending may be performed (i) randomly, for example by plying (1 or multiple fibers of) both silk and the polymer together in parallel before twisting or (ii) in an organized fashion such as in braiding where fibers or yarns being input into the larger yarn or fabric can alternate machine feed positions creating a predicable outcome. Coating or wrapping may be performed by braiding or cabling over a central core, where the core can be the polymer, the silk fibroin or a composit of both, depending on the desired effect. Alternatively, one yarn can be wrapped in a controlled fashion over the other polymer, where the wrapping yarn can be used to stabilize the structure. Any biocompatible polymer is potentially usable. Examples of suitable polymers include proteins, particularly structural proteins such as collagen and fibrin, and strength-providing degradable synthetic polymers, such as polymers comprising anhydrides, hydroxy acids, and/or carbonates. Coatings may be provided as gels, particularly degradable gels, formed of natural polymers or of degradable synthetic polymers. Gels comprising fibrin, collagen, and/or basement membrane proteins can be used. The gels can be used to deliver cells or nutrients, or to shield the surface from cell attachment. Further, proteins or peptides can be covalently attached to the fibers or the fibers can be plasma modified in a charged gas (e.g., nitrogen) to deposit amine groups; each of these coatings supports cell attachment and ingrowth, as silk is normally hydrophobic, and these coatings make the fibers more hydrophilic.

[0083] Non-limiting examples of some of these embodiments are described in examples, below.

[0084] Wet laydown was selected for a prototype of fabric formation because it is the simplest procedure. The non-woven product (FIG. 20A) was created from a single silk fibroin fiber prior to extraction at the fabric level. The product is correspondingly a relatively inexpensive material, and can be used in applications where its low tensile strength would be satisfactory. When more tensile strength is needed, a non-woven material could be bonded together, as is well known for fabrics and paper or mineralized for bone repair. Alternatively, silk yarn material produced by extraction of the sericin can be formed into a variety of more complex yarns, as described above. The size and design of the yarn can be used to control porosity, independent of non-woven machine capabilities. The yarns can also be knit (FIG. 20B) or woven (FIG. 20C) into a fabric. One type of fabric of interest is a simple mesh, similar to gauze, which can be used by itself (e.g. as a hemostat), or to deliver cells or drugs (e.g. a clotting factor) to a site, in a situation where flexibility is important.

[0085] When strength is important, a warp knit fabric (FIG. 20B), including the familiar tricots and jerseys, having an elasticity that can be controlled through the helical design of the yarn used in the fabric, and typically substantial tensile strength, can be very useful for applications (e.g., hernia repair, bladder slings, pelvic floor reconstructions, etc.) requiring provision of mechanical support for a significant length of time, such as months.

[0086] In other applications, the material should have little elasticity and great strength. For such fabrics, a dense weave of thick yarns is appropriate, producing a material similar to standard woven fabrics (FIG. 20C). Such a material can optionally be supplemented by a coating treatment or a heat treatment to bond the crossovers of the yarn segments, thereby preventing both raveling and stretching. Heat treatment must not entirely denature the silk protein. The fabric can optionally be sewn, glued or stapled into place, as is currently done with polypropylene mesh. The implant, like any of the other types discussed, can be coated with various materials to enhance the local healing and tissue ingrowth process, and/or with a coating to prevent adhesion of the repair site to the viscera.

[0087] In another alternative, the fabric, mesh, non-woven, knit or other repair material can be made of unextracted silk, and then the finished fabric can be extracted as described herein (FIG. 21) (for example, with alkaline soap solution at elevated temperature) to remove the immunomodulatory sericins from the material. As a further alternative, the extraction of the sericin can take place at an intermediate stage, such as extraction of the formed yarn, bundle, or strand, in so far as the number of fibers does not exceed that at which the extracting solution can penetrate throughout the fibers (see FIG. 21 for non-limiting options).

[0088] The above discussion has described making fabrics composed of yarns, where the most typical form of yarn in the fabric formations discussed about would derive from twisting silkworm fibroin fibers together in an organized manner and extracting sericin. Many yarn geometries and methods of yarn formation may also be used as described (Tables 4, 5, 6, 7 & 8). Such methods may include the formation of non-twisted bundles of fibroin fibers, bound together by wrapping the bundles with silk or another material as discussed above. Any of these yarns could, as described above, be formed by blending silk fibers with other materials. Further still, the fibers can be intertwined, e.g., cabled, twisted, braided, meshed, knitted, etc. (see FIGS. 2A&B and 21). The term, “intertwined,” is used herein to indicate an organized (i.e., non-random) repeating structure in terms of how the fibers contact and bind one another.

[0089] Blending could also be done at higher levels of organization, such as the use of filaments of different materials to form a thicker yarn, or using yarns of differing materials in weaving or knitting. In each case, the final material would include purified, essentially sericin-free silk as a significant component, used for one or all of its strength and biocompatibility and (e.g., long-term) degradation characteristics (FIG. 11A-B). The other polymer or polymers are selected for their biocompatibility, support (or inhibition through rapid tissue formation at desired locals) of cell attachment or infiltration (FIG. 16A-C), degradation profile in vivo, and mechanical properties. Biodegradable polymers include any of the known biodegradable polymers, including natural products such as proteins, polysaccharides, glycosaminoglycans, and derivatized natural polymers, e.g., celluloses; and biodegradable synthetic polymers and copolymers including polyhydroxy acids, polycarbonates, polyanhydrides, some polyamides, and copolymers and blends thereof. In particular, collagen and elastin are suitable proteins.

[0090] Silk-containing fabric constructs/matrices used for tissue repair may be treated so that they contain cells at the time of implantation (FIG. 7A-D, FIG. 8A-B, FIG. 9A-B, & FIG. 18C) to improve tissue outcomes in vivo. The cells may be xenogenic, more preferably allogenic, and most preferably autologous. Any type of cell is potentially of use, depending on the location and the intended function of the implant. Pluripotent cells are preferred when the appropriate differentiation cues are present or provided in the environment. Other cell types include osteogenic cells, fibroblasts, and cells of the tissue type of the implantation site.

[0091] While silk from Bombyx mori and other conventional silkworms has been described, any source of silk or silk-derived proteins can be used in the invention, as long as it provokes no more than a mild foreign body reaction on implantation (i.e., is biocompatible)(see FIGS. 18B &C). These include without limitation silks from silkworms, spiders, and cultured cells, particularly genetically engineered cells, and transgenic plants and animals. Silk produced by cloning may be from full or partial sequences of native silk-line genes, or from synthetic genes encoding silk-like sequences.

[0092] While in many cases only a single fabric type will be used in formation of a medical device or prosthesis, it may be useful in some cases to use two or more types of fabric in a single device. For example, in hernia repair, it is desirable to have the tissue-facing side of the repair fabric attract cells, while the peritoneal face should repel cells, to prevent adhesions. This effect can be achieved by having one layer of silk that does not attract cells, and another layer that does (for example, an untreated layer and an RGD-containing layer, as in the example, below). Another example includes formation of a bladder sling. The basic sling should be conforming and somewhat elastic, and have a long projected lifetime. However, the face of the sling closest to the bladder should have as little texture as feasible. This can be accomplished by placing a layer of thin but tightly woven, non-woven or knitted fabric, fabricated from a yarn having a small diameter (e.g., a single fiber), of the invention in the sling where it will contact the bladder. The non-woven fabric should be of as small a gauge (denier) as feasible. Numerous other situations needing two or more types of fabric are possible.

[0093] Examples of the above-described structures were fabricated and evaluated in a series of tests. In a first example, a fabric was formed from purified silk fibrils. First, raw silk was processed into purified fibroin fibrils. Raw silkworm fibers were extracted in an aqueous solution of 0.02 M Na2CO3 and 0.3% w/v IVORY soap solution for 60 minutes at 90 degrees C. The extracted fibers were rinsed with water to complete the extraction of the glue-like sericin protein. The resulting suspension of fibrils was wet-laid on a screen, needle-punched, and dried (FIG. 20A). The resulting fleecy material felt somewhat like wool to the touch, and was very porous. It was sufficiently interbonded by entanglement and needling that it was easily handled and cut to a desired shape.

[0094] In another example, the purified silk fibroin fibrils were treated with cell attracting agents (Table 9). First, yarns were made by twisting purified fibers of silk fibroin together. Some yarns were made of filaments that were derivatized with the peptide RGD to attract cells, using procedures described in Sofia et al, J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 54: 139-148, 2001. Sections of treated and untreated (black braided silk suture) yarns were implanted in the abdominal wall of rats (FIG. 18A-C). After 30 days of implantation, the black braided sutures contained compact fibril bundles, with cell infiltration between fibril bundles but not within them. In contrast, the RGD treated fibril bundles were extensively invaded by host cells, and were expanded and non-compact (FIG. 13A-E, 18B), but were not yet significantly degraded (FIG. 13A-E).

[0095] This example illustrates the use of derivatization to control the rate of degradation of implanted silk fibroin fibrils, as well as demonstrating the ability of derivatized fibrils to recruit cells to a fabric-like structure. Clearly, greater specificity of recruitment can be obtained by using a more specific attractant. Similar techniques (chemical derivatization) or simpler methods such as absorption, adsorption, coating, and imbibement, can be used to provide other materials to the implantation site.

[0096] Each of the samples reported in the Tables below, was prepared in accordance with the above description, wherein sericin was removed over 60 minutes at a temperature of 90°+/−2° C. Using a temperature in this range for a sufficient period of time has been found to produce fibers from which sericin is substantially removed (FIG. 1A-C, Table 1, 2, 3) (to produce a fiber construct that is substantially free of sericin so as not to produce a significant immunological response and not to significantly impede the biodegradeability of the fiber) while substantially preserving the mechanical integrity of the fibroin (Table 1). Note that when temperatures reach 94° C. (Table 1), UTS was not dramatically affected; however, stiffness significantly declined indicating a silk thermo sensitive at temperatures of 94° C. and above. The fibers in each group were manually straightened (i.e., made parallel) by pulling the ends of the fibers; alternatively, straightening could easily have been performed via an automated process. The force applied was marginally greater than what was required to straighten the group.

[0097] The sample geometry designations in all Tables reflect the following constructs: # of fibers (tpi at fiber level in S direction)×# of groups (tpi at group level in Z direction)×# of bundles (tpi at bundle level in S direction)×# of strand (tpi at stand level in Z direction)×etc., wherein the samples are twisted between levels unless otherwise indicated. The twist-per-inch designation, such as 10 s×9 z tpi, reflects (the number of twists of the fibers/inch within the group)×(the number of twists of the groups/inch within the bundle). In each sample, the pitch of the twist is substantially higher than is ordinarily found in conventional yarns that are twisted at a low pitch intended merely to hold the fibers together. Increasing the pitch of the twists (i.e., increasing the twists per inch) decreases the tensile strength, but also further decreases the stiffness and increases the elongation at break of the construct.

[0098] The ultimate tensile strength (UTS), percent elongation at break (% Elong), and stiffness were all measured using an INSTRON 8511 servohydraulic material testing machine with FAST-TRACK software, which strained the sample at the high rate of ˜100% sample length per second in a pull-to-failure analysis. In other words, up to the point of failure, the sample is stretched to double its length every second, which greatly restricts the capacity of the sample to relax and rebound before failure. However, FIG. 5A-B demonstrates the effect of strain rate can have on observed mechanical properties as well as wet or dry testing conditions which were shown (FIG. 6A-B) to have a dramatic effect on silk matrix UTS and stiffness. Consistency is needed if comparisons are to be made between data sets. The resulting data was analyzed using Instron Series IX software. Ultimate tensile strength is the peak stress of the resulting stress/strain curve, and stiffness is the slope of the stress/strain plot up to the yield point. Unless specified, at least an N=5 was used for all tested groups to generate averages and standard deviations. Standard statistical methods were employed to determine if statistically significant differences existed between groups, e.g., Student's t-test, one-way ANOVA.

[0099] The fibroin fibers in the samples in all of the above Tables and Figures (and throughout this disclosure) are native (i.e., the fibers are not dissolved and reformed); dissolution and reformulation of the fibers results in a different fiber structure with different mechanical properties after reforming. Surprisingly, these samples demonstrate that yarns of silk fibroin fibers, from which sericin has been completely or nearly completely removed, can possess high strengths and other mechanical properties that render the yarns suitable for various biomedical applications (Table 4, FIG. 2A-D & FIG. 20A-C), such as for forming a fiber construct or support for ligament replacement, hernia repair or pelvic floor reconstruction. Previously, it was believed that fibroin needed to be dissolved and extruded into a reformulated fiber to provide desired mechanical properties. Fatigue strength has generally been found to suffer in such reformed fibroin fibers. The methods of the present invention, allow for sericin removal without a significant loss of strength (Tables 1 & 4; FIGS. 3A-D & 4A-B).

[0100] In Table 8, samples 1 and 2 compare the properties of a 3-fiber group (sample 1) with those of a 4-fiber group (sample 2). Sample 2 had a square configuration of fibers, while the fibers of sample 1 had a triangular configuration. As shown in the Table, the addition of the extra fiber in sample 2 lowered the per-fiber stiffness of the sample demonstrating the ability to control yarn and fabric properties through hierarchical design.

[0101] Table 4 illustrates the effects of different configurations of cabled-fiber constructs and a twisted-fiber geometry. Note, in particular, samples 7 and 8 include the same number of fibers and the same number of geometrical levels. The twisted-fiber geometry of sample 8 offers greater UTS and greater stiffness, while the cabled geometry of sample 7 has lower strength and lower stiffness. Of samples 7-9, the cabled geometry of sample 7 has the highest strength-to-stiffness ratio; for use as an ACL fiber construct, a high strength-to-stiffness ratio is desired (i.e., possessing a high strength and low stiffness).

[0102] Tables 1 and 4 demonstrate the effect of sericin extraction on the fibers. All samples were immersed in an extraction solution, as described in Table 1. Samples 1-5 were immersed in a bath at room temperature, at 33° C. and 37° C. These temperatures are believed to be too low to provide significant sericin extraction. Samples 6-9 were extracted at 90° C., where complete sericin extraction is believed to be attainable, but for varying times. Similarly sample 10 was extracted at the slightly higher temperature of 94° C. The data suggests that 30 to 60 min at 90° C. is sufficient to significantly remove sericin (see Tables 2&3) and that 94° C. may be damaging the protein structure of silk as shown by a dramatic decrease in stiffness.

[0103] Finally, samples 11 to 16 have comparable cabled geometries; the fibers of samples 12, 14, and 16 were extracted, whereas the fibers of samples 11, 13, and 15 were not. As can be seen in the Table, the extraction appears to have had little effect on (high) ultimate tensile strengths per fiber.

[0104] The fibers of sample 10 of Table 4 were subject to a curl-shrinking procedure, wherein the fibers were twisted in one direction and then in the opposite direction, rapidly; the fibers where then heated to lock in the twist structure and tested non-extracted. The strength and stiffness of the resulting yarn were comparatively lower than most of the other non-extracted yarns tested. However, Tables 6&7 show the fibroins remarkable ability, post extraction, to withstand up to 30 TPI. Table 6 shows the ordering effect TRI has on silk matrices likely due to the ordering of the multifilament structure following extraction.

[0105] FIG. 10 demonstrates the properties of a group of 30 parallel fibroin fibers seeded and non-seeded in culture conditions for 21 days. These three samples exhibited very similar mechanical properties, thereby reflecting little if any degradation of silk matrices due to cell growth thereon or due to time in vitro. Stiffness values are likely much lower in this experiment in comparison with the other samples as a result of the 21 day wet incubation prior to mechanical testing (see Table 5).

[0106] Table 4, samples 14-16 are all braided samples. The fibers of sample 14 were braided from eight carriers, with a spool mounted on each carrier, wherein two fibers were drawn from each spool. The fibers of sample 15 were drawn from 16 carriers, with a spool mounted on each carrier; again, two fibers were drawn from each spool. Finally, sample 16 was formed from 4 yarns, each yarn comprising 3 twisted groups of four fibers (providing a total of 12 fibers per yarn); each of the yarns was drawn from a separate spool and carrier.

[0107] Table 9 demonstrates the effect of surface modification. The designation, “PBS,” reflects that the samples were immersed in a phosphate-buffered saline solution for about 24 hours before testing. The effect of exposing the samples to the saline solution was measured and provided an indication that the fiber construct can maintain its mechanical properties and substantially preserve the inherent protein structure in a saline environment (e.g., inside a human body). The “RGD” designation reflects that the samples were immersed in an arg-gly-asp (RGD) saline solution for about 24 hours before testing. RGD can be applied to the construct to attract cells to the construct and thereby promote cell growth thereon. Accordingly, any effect of RGD on the mechanical properties of the construct is also of interest, though no significant degradation of the construct was apparent. Accordingly, these samples offer evidence that prolonged exposure to a saline solution or gas ethylene oxide sterilization or to an RGD solution results in little, if any, degradation of the material properties of the fiber constructs. Though, the data associated with samples 28 and 29, wherein the geometrical hierarchy was extended to a higher level, reveal that the UTS/fiber drops as higher levels (and increased overall fiber count) are reached. This is an effect of heiarchical design (Table 8) rather than surface modification.

[0108] Table 4, samples 18 through 23 were tensioned under 6 pounds of constant force for 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 6 days, respectively, before testing to evaluate the effect of tension on the mechanical properties over time. From the data, there does not appear to be much if any change in the material properties of the construct as the pretension procedure is extended over longer periods of time. Sample 25 was also “pre-tensioned” (after twisting) at 6 pounds force for a day before testing; for comparison, sample 24, which had an identical geometrical configuration was not pre-tensioned. Samples 24 and 25 accordingly reveal the effect of pre-tensioning the construct to remove the slack in the structure, which results in a slight reduction in both the construct's UTS and its elongation at break.

[0109] The silk-fiber-based construct serves as a matrix for infiltrating cells or already infiltrated or seeded with cells, such as progenitor, ligament or tendon fibroblasts or muscle cells, which can proliferate and/or differentiate to form an anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) or other desired tissue type. The novel silk-fiber-based construct is designed having fibers in any of a variety of yarn geometries, such as a cable, or in an intertwined structure, such as twisted yarn, braid, mesh-like yarn or knit-like yarn. The yarn exhibits mechanical properties that are identical or nearly identical to those of a natural tissue, such as an anterior cruciate ligament (see Table 4, 1, infra); and simple variations in fiber construct organization and geometry can result in the formation of any desired tissue type (see Table 10, infra). Alternatively, a plurality of yarns can be formed into a fabric or other construct that is implanted to position or support an organ. Additionally, the construct can be used to fill internal cavities after surgery or to prevent tissue adhesions or promote the attachment or ingrowth of cells.

[0110] Pluripotent bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) that are isolated and cultured as described in the following example can be seeded on the silk-fiber construct and cultured in a bioreactor under static conditions. The cells seeded onto the fiber construct, if properly directed, will undergo ligament and tendon specific differentiation forming viable and functional tissue. Moreover, the histomorphological properties of a bioengineered tissue produced in vitro generated from pluripotent cells within a fiber construct are affected by the direct application of mechanical force to the fiber construct during tissue generation. This discovery provides important new insights into the relationship between mechanical stress, biochemical and cell immobilization methods and cell differentiation, and has applications in producing a wide variety of ligaments, tendons and tissues in vitro from pluripotent cells.

[0111] A fiber construct comprising silk fibers having a cable geometry, is illustrated in FIGS. 2C and 2D. The fiber construct comprises a hierarchy in terms of the way that fibers are grouped in parallel and twisted and how the resultant group is grouped and twisted, etc., across a plurality of levels in the hierarchy, as is further explained, below. The silk fibers are first tensioned in parallel using, for example, a rack having spring-loaded clamps that serve as anchors for the fibers. The rack can be immersed in the sericin-extraction solution so that the clamps can maintain a constant tension on the fibers through extraction, rinsing and drying.

[0112] The extraction solution can be an alkaline soap solution or detergent and is maintained at about 90° C. The rack is immersed in the solution for a period of time (e.g., at least 0.5 to 1 hr, depending on solution flow and mixing conditions) that is sufficient to remove all (+/−0.4% remaining, by weight) or substantially all sericin (allowing for possible trace residue) from the fibers. Following extraction, the rack is removed from the solution and the fibers are rinsed and dried. Computer-controlled twisting machines, each of which mounts the fibers or constructs of fibers about a perimeter of a disc and rotates the disc about a central axis to twist the fibers (i.e. cabling) or constructs of fibers twisted about each other according to standard processes used in the textile industry, though at a higher pitch rate for the twists (e.g., between about 0 and about 11.8 twists per cm) than is typically produced in traditional yarns. The cabling or twist rate, however, should not be so high as to cause plastic deformation of the fibers as a result of the balloon tension created as the yarn is let-off from the feed spool prior to twisting or cabling.

[0113] Extraction can be performed at any level of the construct provided that the solution can penetrate through the construct to remove the sericin from all fibers. It is believed that the upper limit for the number of fibers in a compact arrangement that can still be fully permeated with the solution is about 20-50 fibers. Though, of course, those fibers can be arranged as one group of 20 parallel fibers or, for example, as 4 groups of 5 parallel fibers, wherein the groups may be twisted, or even a construct comprising a still higher level such as 2 bundles of 2 groups of 5 fibers, wherein the groups and bundles may be twisted. Increasing the number of hierarchical levels in the structure can also increase the void space, thereby potentially increasing the maximum number of fibers from which sericin can be fully extracted from 20 to 50 fibers.

[0114] Because the sericin, in some cases, is removed from the construct after fibers are grouped or after a higher-level construct is formed, there is no need to apply wax or any other type of mechanically protective coating on the fibers or in order to also form a barrier to prevent contact with sericin on the fibers; and the construct can be free of coatings, altogether (particularly being free of coatings that are not fully degraded by the body or cause an inflammatory response).

[0115] As described in the examples below, mechanical properties of the silk fibroin (as illustrated in FIGS. 1A, 1B and 1C) were characterized, and geometries for forming applicable matrices for ACL engineering were derived using a theoretical computational model (see FIG. 1D). A six-cord construct was chosen for use as an ACL replacement to increase matrix surface area and to enhance support for tissue in-growth. Two construct geometrical hierarchies for ACL repair comprise the following:

[0116] Matrix 1:1 ACL yarn=6 parallel cords; 1 cord=3 twisted strands (3 twists/cm); 1 strand=6 twisted bundles (3 twists/cm); 1 bundle=30 parallel washed fibers; and

[0117] Matrix 2: 1 ACL yarn=6 parallel cords; 1 cord=3 twisted strands (2 twists/cm); 1 strand=3 twisted bundles (2.5 twists/cm); 1 bundle=3 groups (3 twists/cm); 1 group=15 parallel extracted silk fibroin fibers.

[0118] The number of fibers and geometries for Matrix 1 and Matrix 2 were selected such that the silk prostheses are similar to the ACL biomechanical properties in ultimate tensile strength, linear stiffness, yield point and % elongation at break, serving as a solid starting point for the development of a tissue engineered ACL. The effects of increasing number of fibers, number of levels, and amount of twisting on each of these biomechanical properties are shown in Table 8 and Tables 6&7, respectively.

[0119] The ability to generate two matrices with differing geometries both resulting in mechanical properties that mimic properties of the ACL indicates that a wide variety of geometrical configurations exist to achieve the desired mechanical properties. Alternative geometries for any desired ligament or tendon tissue may comprise any number, combination or organization of cords, strands, bundles, groups and fibers (see Table 10, infra) that result in a fiber construct with applicable mechanical properties that mimic those of the ligament or tendon desired. For example, one (1) ACL prosthesis may have any number of cords in parallel provided there is a mean for anchoring the final fiber construct in vitro or in vivo. Further, various numbers of twisting levels (where a single level is defined as a group, bundle, strand or cord) for a given geometry can be employed provided the fiber construct results in the desired mechanical properties. Furthermore, there is a large degree of freedom in designing the fiber construct geometry and organization in engineering an ACL prosthesis; accordingly, the developed theoretical computational model can be used to predict the fiber construct design of a desired ligament or tendon tissue (see the example, below). For example when multiple smaller matrix bundles are desired (e.g., 36 fibers total) with only two levels of hierarchy to promote ingrowth, a TPI of 8-11 or ˜3-4 twists per cm is required and can be predicted by the model without the need for empirical work.

[0120] Consequently, a variation in geometry (i.e., the number of cords used to make a prosthesis or the number of fibers in a group) can be used to generate matrices applicable to most ligaments and tendons. For example, for smaller ligaments or tendons of the hand, the geometry and organization used to generate a single cord of Matrix 1 (or two cords or three cords, etc.) may be appropriate given the fiber construct's organization results in mechanical properties suitable for the particular physiological environment. Specifically, to accommodate a smaller ligament or tendon compared to Matrix 1 or Matrix 2, less fibers per level would be used to generate smaller bundles or strands. Multiple bundles could then be used in parallel. In the case of a larger ligament such as the ACL, it might be desirable to have more smaller bundles twisted at higher TPIs to reduce stiffness and promote ingrowth then to have fewer larger bundles where ingrowth cannot occur thereby limited degradation of the matrix.

[0121] The invention is not, however, limited with respect to the cable geometry as described, and any geometry or combination of geometries (e.g., parallel, twisted, braided, mesh-like) can be used that results in fiber construct mechanical properties similar to the ACL (i.e., greater than 2000 N ultimate tensile strength, between 100-600 N/mm linear stiffness for a native ACL or commonly used replacement graft such as the patellar tendon with length between 26-30 mm) or to the desired ligament and tendon that is to be produced. The number of fibers and the geometry of both Matrix 1 and Matrix 2 were selected to generate mechanically appropriate ACL matrices, or other desired ligament or tendon matrices [e.g., posterior cruciate ligament (PCL)]. For example, a single cord of the six-cord Matrix 1 construct was used to reconstruct the medial collateral ligament (MC) in a rabbit (see FIG. 15A and FIG. 15B). The mechanical properties of the silk six-cord constructs of Matrix 1 and Matrix 2 are described in Table 10 and in FIGS. 3A-3D, as is further described in the example, infra. Additional geometries and their relating mechanical properties are listed in Table 11 as an example of the large degree of design freedom that would result in a fiber construct applicable in ACL tissue engineering in accordance with methods described herein.

[0122] Advantageously, the silk-fiber based fiber construct can consist solely of silk. Types and sources of silk include the following: silks from silkworms, such as Bombyx mori and related species; silks from spiders, such as Nephila clavipes; silks from genetically engineered bacteria, yeast mammalian cells, insect cells, and transgenic plants and animals; silks obtained from cultured cells from silkworms or spiders; native silks; cloned full or partial sequences of native silks; and silks obtained from synthetic genes encoding silk or silk-like sequences. In their raw form, the native silk fibroins obtained from the Bombyx mori silkworms are coated with a glue-like protein called sericin, which is completely or essentially completely extracted from the fibers before the fibers that make up the fiber construct are seeded with cells.

[0123] The fiber construct can comprise a composite of: (1) silk and collagen fibers; (2) silk and collagen foams, meshes, or sponges; (3) silk fibroin fibers and silk foams, meshes, or sponges; (4) silk and biodegradable polymers [e.g., cellulose, cotton, gelatin, poly lactide, poly glycolic, poly(lactide-co-glycolide), poly caproloactone, polyamides, polyanhydrides, polyaminoacids, polyortho esters, poly acetals, proteins, degradable polyurethanes, polysaccharides, polycyanoacrylates, Glycosamino glycans (e.g., chrondroitin sulfate, heparin, etc.), Polysaccharides (native, reprocessed or genetically engineered versions: e.g., hyaluronic acid, alginates, xanthans, pectin, chitosan, chitin, and the like), elastin (native, reprocessed or genetically engineered and chemical versions), and collagens (native, reprocessed or genetically engineered versions], or (5) silk and non-biodegradable polymers (e.g., polyamide, polyester, polystyrene, polypropylene, polyacrylate, polyvinyl, polycarbonate, polytetrafluorethylene, or nitrocellulose material. The composite generally enhances fiber construct properties such as porosity, degradability, and also enhances cell seeding, proliferation, differentiation or tissue development. FIGS. 16A, 16B and 16C illustrate the ability of collagen fibers to support BMSC growth and ligament specific differentiation.

[0124] The fiber construct can also be treated to enhance cell proliferation and/or tissue differentiation thereon. Exemplary fiber construct treatments for enhancing cell proliferation and tissue differentiation include, but are not limited to, metals, irradiation, crosslinking, chemical surface modifications [e.g., RGD (arg-gly-asp) peptide coating, fibronectin coating, coupling growth factors], and physical surface modifications.

[0125] A second aspect of this disclosure relates to a mechanically and biologically functional ACL formed from a novel silk-fiber-based fiber construct and autologous or allogenic (depending on the recipient of the tissue) bone marrow stromal cells (BMSCs) seeded on the fiber construct. The silk-fiber-based fiber construct induces stromal cell differentiation towards ligament lineage without the need for any mechanical stimulation during bioreactor cultivation. BMSCs seeded on the silk-fiber-based fiber construct and grown in a petri dish begin to attach and spread (see FIGS. 7A-D); the cells proliferate to cover the fiber construct (see FIGS. 8A-B, FIG. 9A and FIG. 9B) and differentiate, as shown by the expression of ligament specific markers (see FIG. 14). Markers for cartilage (collagen type II) and for bone (bone sialoprotein) were not expressed (see FIG. 14). Data illustrating the expression of ligament specific markers is set forth in an example, below.

[0126] Another aspect of this disclosure relates to a method for producing an ACL ex vivo. Cells capable of differentiating into ligament cells are grown under conditions that simulate the movements and forces experienced by an ACL in vivo through the course of embryonic development into mature ligament function. Specifically, under sterile conditions, pluripotent cells are seeded within a three-dimensional silk-fiber-based fiber construct to which cells can adhere and which is advantageously of cylindrical shape. The three-dimensional silk-fiber-based fiber construct used in the method serves as a preliminary fiber construct, which is supplemented and possibly even replaced by extracellular fiber construct components produced by the differentiating cells. Use of the novel silk-fiber-based fiber construct may enhance or accelerate the development of the ACL. For instance, the novel silk-fiber-based fiber construct can be designed to possess specific mechanical properties (e.g., increased tensile strength) so that it can withstand strong forces prior to reinforcement from extracellular (e.g., collagen and tenascin) fiber construct components. Other advantageous properties of the novel silk-fiber based preliminary fiber construct include, without limitation, biocompatibility and susceptibility to biodegradation.

[0127] The pluripotent cells may be seeded within the preliminary fiber construct either pre- or post-fiber construct formation, depending upon the particular fiber construct used and upon the method of fiber construct formation. Uniform seeding is usually preferable. In theory, the number of cells seeded does not limit the final ligament produced; however, optimal seeding may increase the rate of generation. Optimal seeding amounts will depend on the specific culture conditions. The fiber construct can be seeded with from about 0.05 to 5 times the physiological cell density of a native ligament.

[0128] One or more types of pluripotent cells are used in the method. Such cells have the ability to differentiate into a wide variety of cell types in response to the proper differentiation signals and to express ligament specific markers. More specifically, the method uses cells, such as bone marrow stromal cells, that have the ability to differentiate into cells of ligament and tendon tissue. If the resulting bioengineered ligament is to be transplanted into a patient, the cells should be derived from a source that is compatible with the intended recipient. Although the recipient will generally be a human, applications in veterinary medicine also exist. The cells can be obtained from the recipient (autologous), although compatible donor cells may also be used to make allogenic ligaments. For example, when making allogenic ligaments (e.g., using cells from another human such as bone marrow stromal cells isolated from donated bone marrow or ACL fibroblasts isolated from donated ACL tissue), human anterior cruciate ligament fibroblast cells isolated from intact donor ACL tissue (e.g., cadaveric or from total knee transplantations), ruptured ACL tissue (e.g., harvested at the time of surgery from a patient undergoing ACL reconstruction) or bone marrow stromal cells may be used. The determination of compatibility is within the means of the skilled practitioner.

[0129] Ligaments or tendons including, but not limited to, the posterior cruciate ligament, rotator cuff tendons, medial collateral ligament of the elbow and knee, flexor tendons of the hand, lateral ligaments of the ankle and tendons and ligaments of the jaw or temporomandibular joint other than ACL, cartilage, bone and other tissues may be engineered with the fiber construct in accordance with methods of this disclosure. In this manner, the cells to be seeded on the fiber construct are selected in accordance with the tissue to be produced (e.g., pluripotent or of the desired tissue type). Cells seeded on the fiber construct, as described herein, can be autologous or allogenic. The use of autologous cells effectively creates an allograft or autograft for implantation in a recipient.

[0130] As recited, to form an ACL, cells, such as bone marrow stromal cells, are seeded on the fiber construct. Bone marrow stromal cells are a type of pluripotent cell and are also referred to in the art as mesenchymal stem cells or simply as stromal cells. As recited, the source of these cells can be autologous or allogenic. Additionally, adult or embryonic stem or pluripotent cells can be used if the proper environment (either in vivo or in vitro), seeded on the silk-fiber based fiber construct, can recapitulate an ACL or any other desired ligament or tissue in extracellular fiber construct composition (e.g., protein, glycoprotein content), organization, structure or function.

[0131] Fibroblast cells can also be seeded on the inventive fiber construct. Since fibroblast cells are often not referred to as pluripotent cells, fibroblasts are intended to include mature human ACL fibroblasts (autologous or allogenic) isolated from ACL tissue, fibroblasts from other ligament tissue, fibroblasts from tendon tissue, from neonatal foreskin, from umbilical cord blood, or from any cell, whether mature or pluripotent, mature dedifferentiated, or genetically engineered, such that when cultured in the proper environment (either in vivo or in vitro), and seeded on the silk-fiber based fiber construct, can recapitulate an ACL or any other desired ligament or tissue in extracellular fiber construct composition (e.g., protein, glycoprotein content), organization, structure or function.

[0132] The faces of the fiber construct cylinder are each attached to anchors, through which a range of forces is to be applied to the fiber construct. To facilitate force delivery to the fiber construct, the entire surface of each respective face of the fiber construct can contact the face of the respective anchors. Anchors with a shape that reflects the site of attachment (e.g., cylindrical) are best suited for use in this method. Once assembled, the cells in the anchored fiber construct are cultured under conditions appropriate for cell growth and regeneration. The fiber construct is subjected to one or more mechanical forces applied through the attached anchors (e.g., via movement of one or both of the attached anchors) during the course of culture. The mechanical forces are applied over the period of culture to mimic conditions experienced by the native ACL or other tissues in vivo.

[0133] The anchors must be made of a material suitable for fiber construct attachment, and the resulting attachment should be strong enough to endure the stress of the mechanical forces applied. In addition, the anchors can be of a material that is suitable for the attachment of extracellular fiber construct that is produced by the differentiating cells. The anchors support bony tissue in-growth (either in vitro or in vivo) while anchoring the developing ligament. Some examples of suitable anchor material include, without limitation, hydroxyappatite, Goinopra coral, demineralized bone, bone (allogenic or autologous). Anchor materials may also include titanium, stainless steel, high density polyethylene, DACRON and TEFLON.

[0134] Alternatively, anchor material may be created or further enhanced by infusing a selected material with a factor that promotes either ligament fiber construct binding or bone fiber construct binding or both. The term infuse is considered to include any method of application that appropriately distributes the factor onto the anchor (e.g., coating, permeating, contacting). Examples of such factors include without limitation, laminin, fibronectin, any extracellular fiber construct protein that promotes adhesion, silk, factors that contain arginine-glycine-aspartate (RGD) peptide binding regions or the RGD peptides themselves. Growth factors or bone morphogenic protein can also be used to enhance anchor attachment. In addition, anchors may be pre-seeded with cells (e.g., stem cells, ligament cells, osteoblasts, osteogenic progenitor cells) that adhere to the anchors and bind the fiber construct, to produce enhanced fiber construct attachment both in vitro and in vivo.

[0135] An exemplary anchor system is disclosed in applicant's co-pending application U.S. Ser. No. 09/950,561, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. The fiber construct is attached to the anchors via contact with the anchor face or alternatively by actual penetration of the fiber construct material through the anchor material. Because the force applied to the fiber construct via the anchors dictates the final ligament produced, the size of the final ligament produced is, in part, dictated by the size of the attachment site of the anchor. An anchor of appropriate size to the desired final ligament should be used. An example of an anchor shape for the formation of an ACL is a cylinder. However, other anchor shapes and sizes will also function adequately. For example, anchors can have a size and composition appropriate for direct insertion into bone tunnels in the femur and tibia of a recipient of the bioengineered ligament.

[0136] Alternatively, anchors can be used only temporarily during in vitro culture, and then removed when the fiber construct alone is implanted in vivo.

[0137] Further still, the novel silk-fiber-based fiber construct can be seeded with BMSCs and cultured in a bioreactor. Two types of growth environments currently exist that may be used in accordance with methods of this disclosure: (1) the in vitro bioreactor apparatus system, and (2) the in vivo knee joint, which serves as a “bioreactor” as it provides the physiologic environment including progenitor cells and stimuli (both chemical and physical) necessary for the development of a viable ACL given a fiber construct with proper biocompatible and mechanical properties. The bioreactor apparatus provides optimal culture conditions for the formation of a ligament in terms of differentiation and extracellular fiber construct (ECM) production, and which thus provides the ligament with optimal mechanical and biological properties prior to implantation in a recipient. Additionally, when the silk-fiber based fiber construct is seeded and cultured with cells in vitro, a petri dish may be considered to be the bioreactor within which conditions appropriate for cell growth and regeneration exist, i.e., a static environment.

[0138] Cells can also be cultured on the fiber construct fiber construct without the application of any mechanical forces, i.e., in a static environment. For example, the silk-fiber based fiber construct alone, with no in vitro applied mechanical forces or stimulation, when seeded and cultured with BMSCs, induces the cells to proliferate and express ligament and tendon specific markers (see the examples, described herein). The knee joint may serve as a physiological growth and development environment that can provide the cells and the correct environmental signals (chemical and physical) to the fiber construct fiber construct such that an ACL technically develops. Therefore, the knee joint (as its own form of bioreactor) plus the fiber construct (either non-seeded, seeded and not differentiated in vitro, or seeded and differentiated in vitro prior to implantation) will result in the development of an ACL, or other desired tissue depending upon the cell type seeded on the fiber construct and the anatomical location of fiber construct implantation. FIG. 15 A-B illustrates the effects of the medial collateral knee joint environment on medial collateral ligament (MCL) development when only a non-seeded silk-based fiber construct with appropriate MCL mechanical properties is implanted for 6 weeks in vivo. Whether the cells are cultured in a static environment with no mechanical stimulation applied, or in a dynamic environment, such as in a bioreactor apparatus, conditions appropriate for cell growth and regeneration are advantageously present for the engineering of the desired ligament or tissue.

[0139] In experiments described in the examples, below, the applied mechanical stimulation was shown to influence the morphology, and cellular organization of the progenitor cells within the resulting tissue. The extracellular fiber construct components secreted by the cells and the organization of the extracellular fiber construct throughout the tissue was also significantly influenced by the forces applied to the fiber construct during tissue generation. During in vitro tissue generation, the cells and extracellular fiber construct aligned along the axis of load, reflecting the in vivo organization of a native ACL that is also along the various load axes produced from natural knee joint movement and function. These results suggest that the physical stimuli experienced in nature by cells of developing tissue, such as the ACL, play a significant role in progenitor cell differentiation and tissue formation. They further indicate that this role can be effectively duplicated in vitro by mechanical manipulation to produce a similar tissue. The more closely the forces produced by mechanical manipulation resemble the forces experienced by an ACL in vivo, the more closely the resultant tissue will resemble a native ACL.

[0140] When mechanical stimulation is applied in vitro to the fiber construct via a bioreactor, there exists independent but concurrent control over both cyclic and rotation strains as applied to one anchor with respect to the other anchor. Alternatively, the fiber construct alone may be implanted in vivo, seeded with ACL cells from the patient and exposed in vivo to mechanical signaling via the patient.

[0141] When the fiber construct is seeded with cells prior to implantation, the cells are cultured within the fiber construct under conditions appropriate for cell growth and differentiation. During the culture process, the fiber construct may be subjected to one or more mechanical forces via movement of one or both of the attached anchors. The mechanical forces of tension, compression, torsion and shear, and combinations thereof, are applied in the appropriate combinations, magnitudes, and frequencies to mimic the mechanical stimuli experienced by an ACL in vivo.

[0142] Various factors will influence the amount of force that can be tolerated by the fiber construct (e.g., fiber construct composition, cell density). Fiber construct strength is expected to change through the course of tissue development. Therefore, applied mechanical forces or strains will increase, decrease or remain constant in magnitude, duration, frequency and variety over the period of ligament generation, to appropriately correspond to fiber construct strength at the time of application.

[0143] When producing an ACL, the more accurate the intensity and combination of stimuli applied to the fiber construct during tissue development, the more the resulting ligament will resemble a native ACL. Two issues must be considered regarding the natural function of the ACL when devising the in vitro mechanical force regimen that closely mimics the in vivo environment: (1) the different types of motion experienced by the ACL and the responses of the ACL to knee joint movements and (2) the extent of the mechanical stresses experienced by the ligament. Specific combinations of mechanical stimuli are generated from the natural motions of the knee structure and transmitted to the native ACL.

[0144] To briefly describe the motions of the knee, the connection of the tibia and femur by the ACL provides six degrees of freedom when considering the motions of the two bones relative to each other. The tibia can move in three directions and can rotate relative to the axes for each of these three directions. The knee is restricted from achieving the full ranges of these six degrees of freedom due to the presence of ligaments and capular fibers and the knee surfaces themselves (Biden et al., “Experimental Methods Used to Evaluate Knee Ligament Function,” Knee Ligaments Structure, Function, Injury and Repair, Ed. D. Daniel et al., Raven Press, pp. 135-151, 1990). Small translational movements are also possible. The attachment sites of the ACL are responsible for its stabilizing roles in the knee joint. The ACL functions as a primary stabilizer of anterior-tibial translation, and as a secondary stabilizer of valgus-varus angulation, and tibial rotation (Shoemaker et al., “The Limits of Knee Motion,” Knee Ligaments: Structure, Function, Injury and Repair, Ed. D. Daniel et al., Raven Press, pp. 1534-161, 1990). Therefore, the ACL is responsible for stabilizing the knee in three of the six possible degrees of freedom. As a result, the ACL has developed a specific fiber organization and overall structure to perform these stabilizing functions. These conditions are simulated in vitro to produce a tissue with similar structure and fiber organization.

[0145] The extent of mechanical stresses experienced by the ACL can be similarly summarized. The ACL undergoes cyclic loads of about 400 N between one and two million cycles per year (Chen et al., J. Biomed. Mat. Res. 14: 567-586, 1980). Also considered are linear stiffness (˜182 N/mm), ultimate deformation (100% of ACL) and energy absorbed at failure (12.8 N-m) (Woo et al., The tensile properties of human anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and ACL graft tissues, Knee Ligaments: Structure, Function, Injury and Repair, Ed. D. Daniel et al. Raven Press, pp. 279-289, 1990) when developing an ACL surgical replacement.

[0146] The examples section, below, details the production of a prototype bioengineered anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) ex vivo. Mechanical forces mimicking a subset of the mechanical stimuli experienced by a native ACL in vivo (rotational deformation and linear deformation) were applied in combination, and the resulting ligament that was formed was studied to determine the effects of the applied forces on tissue development. Exposure of the developing ligament to physiological loading during in vitro formation induced the cells to adopt a defined orientation along the axes of load, and to generate extracellular matrices along the axes as well. These results indicate that the incorporation of complex multi-dimensional mechanical forces into the regime to produce a more complex network of load axes that mimics the environment of the native ACL will produce a bioengineered ligament that more closely resembles a native ACL.

[0147] The different mechanical forces that may be applied include, without limitation, tension, compression, torsion, and shear. These forces are applied in combinations that simulate forces experienced by an ACL in the course of natural knee joint movements and function. These movements include, without limitation, knee joint extension and flexion as defined in the coronal and sagittal planes, and knee joint flexion. Optimally, the combination of forces applied mimics the mechanical stimuli experienced by an anterior cruciate ligament in vivo as accurately as is experimentally possible. Varying the specific regimen of force application through the course of ligament generation is expected to influence the rate and outcome of tissue development, with optimal conditions to be determined empirically. Potential variables in the regimen include, without limitation: (1) strain rate, (2) percent strain, (3) type of strain (e.g., translation and rotation), (4) frequency, (5) number of cycles within a given regime, (6) number of different regimes, (7) duration at extreme points of ligament deformation, (8) force levels, and (9) different force combinations. A wide variety of variations exist. The regimen of mechanical forces applied can produce helically organized fibers similar to those of the native ligament, described below.

[0148] The fiber bundles of a native ligament are arranged into a helical organization. The mode of attachment and the need for the knee joint to rotate ˜140° of flexion has resulted in the native ACL inheriting a 90° twist and with the peripheral fiber bundles developing a helical organization. This unique biomechanical feature allows the ACL to sustain extremely high loading. In the functional ACL, this helical organization of fibers allows anterior-posterior and posterior-anterior fibers to remain relatively isometric in respect to one another for all degrees of flexion, thus load can be equally distributed to all fiber bundles at any degree of knee joint flexion, stabilizing the knee throughout all ranges of joint motion. Mechanical forces that simulate a combination of knee joint flexion and knee joint extension can be applied to the developing ligament to produce an engineered ACL that possesses this same helical organization. The mechanical apparatus used in the experiments presented in the examples, below, provides control over strain and strain rates (both translational and rotational). The mechanical apparatus will monitor the actual load experienced by the growing ligaments, serving to ‘teach’ the ligaments over time through monitoring and increasing the loading regimes.

[0149] Another aspect of this disclosure relates to the bioengineered anterior cruciate ligament produced by the above-described methods. The bioengineered ligament produced by these methods is characterized by cellular orientation and/or a fiber construct crimp pattern in the direction of the mechanical forces applied during generation. The ligament is also characterized by the production/presence of extracellular fiber construct components (e.g., collagen type I and type III, fibronectin, and tenascin-C proteins) along the axis of mechanical load experienced during culture. The ligament fiber bundles can be arranged into a helical organization, as discussed above.

[0150] The above methods using the novel silk-fiber-based fiber construct are not limited to the production of an ACL, but can also be used to produce other ligaments and tendons found in the knee (e.g., posterior cruciate ligament) or other parts of the body (e.g., hand, wrist, ankle, elbow, jaw and shoulder), such as for example, but not limited to posterior cruciate ligament, rotator cuff tendons, medial collateral ligament of the elbow and knee, flexor tendons of the hand, lateral ligaments of the ankle and tendons and ligaments of the jaw or temporomandibular joint. All moveable joints in a human body have specialized ligaments that connect the articular extremities of the bones in the joint. Each ligament in the body has a specific structure and organization that is dictated by its function and environment. The various ligaments of the body, their locations and functions are listed in Anatomy, Descriptive and Surgical (Gray, H., Eds. Pick, T. P., Howden, R., Bounty Books, New York, 1977), the pertinent contents of which are incorporated herein by reference. By determining the physical stimuli experienced by a given ligament or tendon, and incorporating forces which mimic these stimuli, the above-described method for producing an ACL ex vivo can be adapted to produce bioengineered ligaments and tendons ex vivo that simulates any ligament or tendon in the body.

[0151] The specific type of ligament or tendon to be produced is predetermined prior to tissue generation since several aspects of the method vary with the specific conditions experienced in vivo by the native ligament or tendon. The mechanical forces to which the developing ligament or tendon is subjected during cell culture are determined for the particular ligament or tendon type being cultivated. The specific conditions can be determined by studying the native ligament or tendon and its environment and function. One or more mechanical forces experienced by the ligament or tendon in vivo are applied to the fiber construct during culture of the cells in the fiber construct. The skilled practitioner will recognize that a ligament or tendon that is superior to those currently available can be produced by the application of a subset of forces experienced by the native ligament or tendon. However, optimally, the full range of in vivo forces will be applied to the fiber construct in the appropriate magnitudes and combinations to produce a final product that most closely resembles the native ligament or tendon. These forces include, without limitation, the forces described above for the production of an ACL. Because the mechanical forces applied vary with ligament or tendon type, and the final size of the ligament or tendon will be influenced by the anchors used, optimal anchor composition, size and fiber construct attachment sites are to be determined for each type of ligament or tendon by the skilled practitioner. The type of cells seeded on the fiber construct is obviously determined based on the type of ligament or tendon to be produced.

[0152] Other tissue types can be produced ex vivo using methods similar to those described above for the generation of ligaments or tendons ex vivo. The above-described methods can also be applied to produce a range of engineered tissue products that involve mechanical deformation as a major part of their function, such as muscle (e.g., smooth muscle, skeletal muscle, cardiac muscle), bone, cartilage, vertebral discs, and some types of blood vessels. Bone marrow stromal cells possess the ability to differentiate into these as well as other tissues. The geometry of the silk-based fiber construct or composite fiber construct can easily be adapted to the correct anatomical geometrical configuration of the desired tissue type. For example, silk fibroin fibers can be reformed in a cylindrical tube to recreate arteries.

[0153] The results presented in the examples, below, indicate that growth in an environment that mimics the specific mechanical environment of a given tissue type will induce the appropriate cell differentiation to produce a bioengineered tissue that significantly resembles native tissue. The ranges and types of mechanical deformation of the fiber construct can be extended to produce a wide range of tissue structural organization. The cell culture environment can reflect the in vivo environment experienced by the native tissue and the cells it contains, throughout the course of embryonic development to mature function of the cells within the native tissue, as accurately as possible. Factors to consider when designing specific culture conditions to produce a given tissue include, without limitation, the fiber construct composition, the method of cell immobilization, the anchoring method of the fiber construct or tissue, the specific forces applied, and the cell culture medium. The specific regimen of mechanical stimulation depends upon the tissue type to be produced, and is established by varying the application of mechanical forces (e.g., tension only, torsion only, combination of tension and torsion, with and without shear, etc.), the force amplitude (e.g., angle or elongation), the frequency and duration of the application, and the duration of the periods of stimulation and rest.

[0154] The method for producing the specific tissue type ex vivo is an adaptation of the above-described method for producing an ACL. Components involved include pluripotent cells, a three-dimensional fiber construct to which cells can adhere, and a plurality of anchors that have a face suitable for fiber construct attachment. The pluripotent cells (such as bone marrow stromal cells) are seeded in the three dimensional fiber construct by means to uniformly immobilize the cells within the fiber construct. The number of cells seeded is also not viewed as limiting, however, seeding the fiber construct with a high density of cells may accelerate tissue generation.

[0155] The specific forces applied are to be determined for each tissue type produced through examination of native tissue and the mechanical stimuli experienced in vivo. A given tissue type experiences characteristic forces that are dictated by location and function of the tissue within the body. For instance, cartilage is known to experience a combination of shear and compression/tension in vivo; bone experiences compression.

[0156] Additional stimuli (e.g., chemical stimuli, electro-magnetic stimuli) can also be incorporated into the above-described methods for producing bioengineered ligaments, tendons and other tissues. Cell differentiation is known to be influenced by chemical stimuli from the environment, often produced by surrounding cells, such as secreted growth or differentiation factors, cell-cell contact, chemical gradients, and specific pH levels, to name a few. Other more unique stimuli are experienced by more specialized types of tissues (e.g., the electrical stimulation of cardiac muscle). The application of such tissue specific stimuli (e.g., 1-10 ng/ml transforming growth factor beta-1 (TGF-β1) independently or in concert with the appropriate mechanical forces is expected to facilitate differentiation of the cells into a tissue that more closely approximates the specific natural tissue.

[0157] Tissues produced by the above-described methods provide an unlimited pool of tissue equivalents for surgical implantation into a compatible recipient, particularly for replacement or repair of damaged tissue. Engineered tissues may also be utilized for in vitro studies of normal or pathological tissue function, e.g., for in vitro testing of cell- and tissue-level responses to molecular, mechanical, or genetic manipulations. For example, tissues based on normal or transfected cells can be used to assess tissue responses to biochemical or mechanical stimuli, identify the functions of specific genes or gene products that can be either over-expressed or knocked-out, or to study the effects of pharmacological agents. Such studies will likely provide more insight into ligament, tendon and tissue development, normal and pathological function, and eventually lead toward fully functional tissue engineered replacements, based in part on already established tissue engineering approaches, new insights into cell differentiation and tissue development, and the use of mechanical regulatory signals in conjunction with cell-derived and exogenous biochemical factors to improve structural and functional tissue properties.

[0158] The production of engineered tissues, such as ligaments and tendons, also has the potential for applications such as harvesting bone marrow stromal cells from individuals at high risk for tissue injury (e.g., ACL rupture) prior to injury. These cells could be either stored until needed or seeded into the appropriate fiber construct and cultured and differentiated in vitro under mechanical stimuli to produce a variety of bioengineered prosthetic tissues to be held in reserve until needed by the donor. The use of bioengineered living tissue prosthetics that better match the biological environment in vivo and that provide the required physiological loading to sustain, for example, the dynamic equilibrium of a normal, fully functional ligament should reduce rehabilitation time for a recipient of a prosthesis from months to weeks, particularly if the tissue is pre-grown and stored. Benefits include a more rapid regain of functional activity, shorter hospital stays, and fewer problems with tissue rejections and failures.

[0159] The fabric described herein can be designed for use as an implantable prosthesis in surgical procedures performed to alter the size, shape, position or appearance of a breast mound in a patient. In one embodiment, the fabric described herein is used as an implantable prosthetic device for supporting surrounding tissue and at the same time serving as a scaffold for the in vivo generation of such supportive tissue within the breast of the patient.

[0160] As such, the fabric described herein is useful for implantation in procedures such as mastopexy, breast augmentation, and breast reconstruction post-mastectomy.

[0161] In one embodiment, the fabric further provides a site for new breast tissue in-growth in vivo.

[0162] The methods described herein can be used to generate a fabric that possesses sufficient strength to resist loads experienced upon implantation into the patient and thereby provide support to the adjacent tissue. The fabric used can be designed to possess one or more biomechanical properties of the breast tissue (e.g., soft tissue such as connective tissue) to allow for adequate load resistance. Furthermore, the fabric supports the in-growth of cells which, in the environment of the implant, are stimulated to differentiate and thereby generate natural tissue that eventually replaces the implanted fabric as it biodegrades. The more closely the fabric mimics the biomechanics of the native tissue, the more closely the generated tissue will resemble native tissue.

[0163] The fabric of the instant invention can be produced in a variety of sizes, shapes and hierarchical organizations, to meet the needs of each specific surgical use. Useful fabrics in the breast surgery procedures will be designed to provide the necessary shape and/or support to the surrounding tissue. In addition, such fabrics can also provide the appropriate scaffold for in-growth of cells to produce new tissue with the appropriate biomechanical properties to maintain that shape and support. Particularly useful fabric designs can be determined by analysis of healthy tissue normally present at the site of implantation. A fabric of appropriate size and shape that has the desired biomechanical properties can then be produced by intertwining the appropriate combination of yarns (with the appropriate geometry) as described herein.

[0164] In one embodiment, the fabric also serves as a scaffold for tissue generation within the breast at the site of implantation. The new tissue generated to replace the fabric can serve as an integral component of the breast repair/augmentation, and/or an aid in recovery from the incisions made during the surgery (e.g., breast reconstruction, breast augmentation, mastopexy). The specific size, shape, and fiber organization of the fabric will vary with respect to the type of procedure and the specific use of the fabric in that procedure, and can be determined by the skilled practitioner for each individual patient. In one embodiment, the fabric is designed so that it can at least partially replace breast connective tissue in the patient (e.g., tissue that was lost due to surgical removal or otherwise damaged).

[0165] The fabric can take the form of one or more components designed to resemble and replicate native tissue components within the breast, described herein. The fabric can be designed to replicate one specific tissue structure, or can resemble a plurality of tissue structures (e.g., that are normally found closely associated or interconnected within the breast).

[0166] In one embodiment the fabric is designed to replace or replicate connective tissue that spans the breast area and connects the fascia and/or skin (e.g., connective retinaculum, fascia mammae, fibrous lamella). In one embodiment, the fabric is a two-dimensional web or mesh. The web or mesh can be designed to have one or more biomechanical properties of the fascia of the breast (e.g., superficial fascia, muscular fascia).

[0167] The fabric in the form of a web or mesh may additionally comprise one or more components which resemble native tissue components within the breast (e.g., ligament or ligament-like structures). For example, a web or mesh with thicker ligament-like structures interspersed through the body of the mesh. Such thicker structures can run along the length of the web, through the center of the web, they can be dispersed in a variety of patterns, e.g., run in straight and/or branching lines radially from the center. They may have circular/elliptical form (e.g., different sized circles arranged to have the same center). In one embodiment, the structures are arranged in a pattern throughout the web that resembles the connective tissue of the breast. Such structures can be designed and generated as integral components of the web or mesh, or can be generated separately and added post production of the web or mesh by attachment. Such structural components of the breast are known in the art.

[0168] The fabric is comprised of intertwined yarns (e.g., intertwined by weaving, knitting, or stitch bonding). The yarns are made from sericin-extracted fibroin fibers described herein. The fibroin fibers can be organized into the yarns by one, two, three or four level hierarchical organization, as described herein. For example, parallel or intertwined fibers are grouped together to form the yarn in single-level hierarchical organization. A second level of hierarchical organization is added when a plurality of groups are intertwined together to form one or more bundles present within the yarns. A third level of hierarchical organization is added when a plurality of bundles are intertwined together to form one or more strands present within the yarns. A fourth level of hierarchical organization is added when a plurality of strands are intertwined together to form one or more cords, present within the yarns. Intertwining consists of non-randomly aligning with one another via parallel, helical, or woven organization. Such organization can occur at any hierarchical level, to produce a fabric with the desired properties (biomechanical, porosity, etc.). The ordinary skilled artisan will recognize various combinations of these levels of hierarchical organization can be used to produce a fabric with different overall structures (e.g, twisted, braided, knitted, woven, stitch bonded). In addition, fabrics with any combination of these structures can be generated.

[0169] In one embodiment, the fabric is designed and implanted to support the breast structure and/or a prosthesis placed within the breast. The structure of the fabric extends in at least one dimension (a first dimension) and has at least one surface (a first surface) adapted to engage the resulting breast (comprising natural breast tissue and/or a prosthetic breast implant). By appropriate placement of the fabric within the patient, the resulting breast structure is shaped by the fabric.

[0170] The fabric can be designed to have a variety of different overall shapes (e.g., to conform with the breast tissue when implanted). For example, a fabric that is a web or mesh may be flat, or it may have a concavity. The fabric can have a predefined shape that is adapted to conform to at least a portion of a region of natural breast tissue or of a breast implant, within the patient. In one embodiment, the fabric has a crescent shape, or an elliptical shape. A circular, semi-circular, oval, cup shape, or half-moon shape may also be used. An elongated strip can also be used. In one embodiment, the fabric is sufficiently large to completely or partially cover the lower and/or lateral sections of the breast prosthesis or breast tissue. Such a shape may, for example, allow the fabric to support the lower pole of the breast prosthesis and/or native breast tissue, emulating the inferior and lateral mammary folds. However, the placement of the fabric is not limited to any specific location or alignment within the breast, and will depend upon the specific procedure and ultimate goals of tissue construction. In one embodiment, the fabric is formed in a sling shape (e.g., to provide support for a breast or breast implant, within the patient. In one embodiment, the fabric is formed in an elongated shape (e.g., to provide support in an inframammary region of the breast, within the patient). In one embodiment, the fabric is formed in a cup shape (e.g., to provide medial or lateral support for the breast within the patient).

[0171] The fabric may additionally comprise a portion that is adapted to be fastened to the tissue of the patient. This will facilitate implantation. The structure of the portion so adapted will depend upon the means of attachment and/or the place of attachment to the patient. In one embodiment, the attachment is to tissue surrounding the chest cavity of the patient. In one embodiment, the attachment is soft tissue surrounding the breast tissue or surrounding the prosthetic breast implant. In one embodiment, the attachment is to a boney structure adjacent to the breast tissue, or adjacent the prosthetic breast implant.

[0172] The fabric may additionally include one or more agents that promote in-growth of cells to thereby generate new breast tissue. Such agents include, without limitation, cell attachment factors, growth factors, attachment promoting materials, drugs, chemoattractants described herein.

[0173] FIGS. 22A and 22B show that the fabric structure 200 can be formed or shaped to conform to a portion of a region of the breast tissue or the breast implant. In this embodiment of the invention, the fabric structure can be cut into a circular or oval shape as shown in FIG. 22A and optionally, molded or pressed into a form that provides the desired contour as shown in FIG. 22B. The form can be a breast implant or a device intended to mimic the contours of a breast implant. As shown in FIG. 22A, the fabric structure can include a reinforced region, such as peripheral edge 202 to facilitate fastening, such as by suturing 210 or tacking to breast tissue, tissue surrounding the chest cavity or boney tissue. The reinforced region, such as peripheral edge 202 can be formed by bonding multiple layers of the fabric structure together, folding over the fabric structure onto itself or interweaving additional fibers or yarn to increase the structural integrity of the fabric structure. Similarly, the fabric structure can also include reinforced holes 204 to facilitate suturing or tacking.

[0174] FIGS. 23A and 23B show a diagrammatic view of how the prosthetic fabric structure 200 of FIGS. 22A and 22B can be implanted in accordance with the invention between the skin and the breast tissue or breast implant. FIG. 23A shows the prosthetic fabric structure according to the invention implanted in the inframammary region of a breast to correct inferior displacement or ptosis as part of a breast reconstruction procedure such as mastopexy or after the removal of diseased breast tissue, for example, mastectomy. The prosthetic fabric structure can also be implanted as part of breast implant procedures in order to provide support for the implant and lessen the risk of inferior displacement and ptosis. FIG. 23B shows prosthetic fabric structure according to the invention implanted in the medial or lateral side of the breast to provide lateral support and lessen the risk of medial or lateral displacement.

[0175] FIGS. 24 and 25 show examples of possible shapes that the fabric structure can be formed or cut into. FIG. 24 shows a crescent shaped prosthetic fabric structure which can be used to provide support in the lower and lateral hemispheres of the breast. Although not shown, the crescent shaped prosthetic fabric structure can include reinforced portions as describe with respect to FIGS. 22A and 22B. FIG. 25 shows an elongated or oval shaped prosthetic fabric structure which can be used to provide support in the lower and lateral hemispheres of the breast. Although not shown, the elongated or oval shaped prosthetic fabric structure can include reinforced portions as describe with respect to FIGS. 22A and 22B.

[0176] In accordance with one embodiment of the present invention, the surgeon can be provided with a sheet or length (e.g. tape) of the prosthetic fabric structure that the surgeon, at his or her discretion, can cut to size and shape as needed to suit the procedure. A specialize tool can be provided to cut the fabric structure to shape and seal the fabric edges to reduce fraying and unraveling. The prosthetic fabric structure can include agents or factors that encourage and enhance tissue in-growth. In one embodiment of the invention, the agents or factors encourage the in-growth of connective tissue of the breast to facilitate support. In addition, as the supportive fabric structure degrades over time, it is replaced by in-grown connective tissue that continues to provide support for the breast tissue or implant.

[0177] FIG. 26 shows an example of the prosthetic fabric structure in the form of a sling. In this embodiment of the invention, the prosthetic fabric structure can take the form of an elongated strip or a tape which can be implanted encircling the breast or breast implant to provide support and hold it in place. The ends of the sling can be sutured or tacked to the tissue surrounding the chest cavity or to boney tissue (e.g. rib or sternum) to provide further support.

[0178] FIG. 27 shows an example of the prosthetic fabric structure in the form of a tape implanted in the inframammary region of a breast. In this embodiment one or more layers of the tape can implanted to provide structural support without fastening at the implantation site. In accordance with this embodiment, the prosthetic fabric structure can include agents or factors that promote or enhance tissue in-growth to secure the prosthetic fabric structure in position at the implantation site without suturing or tacking. In accordance with the invention, the prosthetic fabric structure can include agents or factors that promote connective or supportive tissue in-growth that provides additional support as the prosthetic fabric structure degrades. This procedure can be used to restore connective tissue in the breast that has become damaged, diseased or cut away during surgery.

[0179] The prosthetic fabric structure according to the invention can be cut to size and formed to shape to suit the needs of the patient. While a non-exhaustive list of examples are provided in herein, the list is not intended to be limiting. The prosthetic fabric structure of the invention can be formed in other shapes such as those described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,476,249 and U.S. Patent Application Publication No. US 2008/0097601, both of which are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety.

[0180] The inframammary fold is the natural boundary of the breast from below where the breast and the chest meet. The inframammary fold is located at the fifth-sixth rib. The lowest portion extends to the sixth intercostal space. This fold has a constant position.

[0181] The inframammary region contains a number of thick collagen fibers, stretched between superficial fascia and deep fascia. The superficial fascia is made up of both collagen and elastic fibers. The superficial fascia of the female breast subcutaneous fascial system is exceptionally thick. The superficial fascia connects to the deep fascia (muscular fascia) through thickened retinaculum along the sternum. A connective band known as the anterior breast capsule (fascia mammae) detaches from the superficial fascia. This fascia, and the fascia of the subclavian area support the mammary gland by means of their retinaculum fibrosa (Cooper's ligaments). Cooper's ligaments and also fascia mammae detach from the superficial fascia and connect to the skin (the deep dermis). The inframammary retinaculum originate from the superficial fascia, and consists of merging dense connective retinaculum. The superficial fascia is separated from the muscular fascia through a thin, deep, subcutaneous layer where the connective retinacula are almost horizontal. They are joined by elastic septa which include adipose lobules. In thin women there are only a few of these and they are small, and fixed to the deeper muscular fascia. There is fusion of the superficial fascia with the deeper fascia, along the sternum. Medially the superficial fascia merges into the anterior membrane of the sternum and is composed of fibers coming from the tendinous apparatus of the sternocleidomastoid and pectoralis major muscles.

[0182] A transverse fibrous lamella comes off the fascia almost at the 6th rib, and extends the full length of the inframammary crease. This structure has a different texture and a denser consistency from the superficial fascia. Between the superficial and deep fascia, there is a layer consisting of fibroareolar tissue and occasionally fibrofatty tissue. At the submammary area, the tissue is more fibrous at the sixth rib-sixth intercostal space. The superficial fascia connects with the deeper muscular fascia by means of thicker retinaculum at the deep inframammary subcutaneous layer. The superficial fascia here is adherent to the deep plane (muscular fascia) and more resistant to traction. The adherence is histologically made up of multiple, short, fibrous connections which do not pass through the fibromuscular plane.

[0183] Mammary ligaments form a circumferential ligament about the breast to form a circumferential fusion between the superficial fascia and the deep fascia. This connective ligament which completely surrounds the breast to form a circular boundary to the cleft between the superficial fascia and deep fascia is often referred to as the circumferential mammary ligament. The circumferential mammary ligament forms a natural boundary connecting two tissue layers that a surgeon dissecting between the layers may use to define and limit the extent of the dissection. These defined layers also offer a region for tissue growth, as disclosed in U.S. Patent Application Publication 2008/0300681.

[0184] The fabric may further comprise mammalian cells seeded or cultured therein prior to implantation. Cells that can be seeded or cultured on the fabric are described herein. In one embodiment, the cells are derived from the patient. Such cells include, but are not limited to, bone marrow cells, stem cells, mesenchymal stem cells, synovial derived stem cells, embryonic stem cells, umbilical cord blood cells, umbilical Wharton's jelly cells, precursor cells derived from adipose tissue, bone marrow derived progenitor cells, peripheral blood progenitor cells, stem cells isolated from adult tissue and genetically transformed cells or combinations of the above cells. The cells can be seeded on the fabric for a short period of time (<1 day) just prior to implantation, or cultured for a longer (>1 day) period to allow for cell proliferation and extracellular matrix synthesis within the seeded fabric prior to implantation.

[0185] In one embodiment, stem cells are seeded or cultured on the disclosed fabric. De novo synthesis of soft tissue prepared from stem cells within a fabric provides constructs for repair, augmentation or reconstruction of soft tissue. Adult stem cells are capable of differentiating into all connective tissue-forming cell lineages including adipose tissue. Stem cells can be obtained with minimally invasive procedures from bone marrow or other sources in the body, are highly expandable in culture, and can be readily induced to differentiate into adipose tissue-forming cells after exposure to a well-established adipogenic inducing supplement (Pittenger et al., Caplan, 2003).

[0186] In one embodiment stem cells are derived from bone marrow cells. In addition, adipose tissue is an especially rich source of stem cells. In both human and animal studies, processed lipoaspirate (PLA) contains stem cells at a frequency of at least 0.1%, and more typically greater than 0.5%. In some instances, PLA can be obtained which contains between about 2-12% stem cells. The amount of stem cells obtained from PLA can be substantially greater than the published frequency of 1 in 100,000 (0.001%) from marrow. Furthermore, collection of adipose tissue is associated with lower morbidity than collection of a similar volume of marrow. In addition, adipose tissue contains endothelial precursor cells, which are capable of providing therapy to patients.

[0187] When utilized as a source of stem cells, adipose tissue can be obtained by any method known to a person of ordinary skill in the art. For example, adipose tissue can be removed from a patient by suction-assisted lipoplasty, ultrasound-assisted lipoplasty, and excisional lipectomy. In addition, the procedures can include a combination of such procedures. Suction assisted lipoplasty can be desirable to remove the adipose tissue from a patient as it provides a minimally invasive method of collecting tissue with minimal potential for stem cell damage that can be associated with other techniques, such as ultrasound assisted lipoplasty. The adipose tissue should be collected in a manner that preserves the viability of the cellular component and that minimizes the likelihood of contamination of the tissue with potentially infectious organisms, such as bacteria and/or viruses.

[0188] For some applications preparation of the active cell population can require depletion of the mature fat-laden adipocyte component of adipose tissue. This is typically achieved by a series of washing and disaggregation steps in which the tissue is first rinsed to reduce the presence of free lipids (released from ruptured adipocytes) and peripheral blood elements (released from blood vessels severed during tissue harvest), and then disaggregated to free intact adipocytes and other cell populations from the connective tissue matrix.

[0189] Disaggregation can be achieved using any conventional techniques or methods, including mechanical force (mincing or shear forces), enzymatic digestion with single or combinatorial protelolytic enzymes, such as collagenase, trypsin, lipase, liberase H1 and pepsin, or a combination of mechanical and enzymatic methods. For example, the cellular component of the intact tissue fragments can be disaggregated by methods using collagenase-mediated dissociation of adipose tissue, similar to the methods for collecting microvascular endothelial cells in adipose tissue, as known to those of skill in the art. Additional methods using collagenase that can be used are also known to those of skill in the art. Furthermore, methods can employ a combination of enzymes, such as a combination of collagenase and trypsin or a combination of an enzyme, such as trypsin, and mechanical dissociation.

[0190] The active cell population (processed lipoaspirate) can then be obtained from the disaggregated tissue fragments by reducing the presence of mature adipocytes. Separation of the cells can be achieved by buoyant density sedimentation, centrifugation, elutriation, differential adherence to and elution from solid phase moieties, antibody-mediated selection, differences in electrical charge; immunomagnetic beads, flourescence activated cell sorting (FACS), or other means.

[0191] In addition to the foregoing, there are many post-wash methods that can be applied for further purifying the active cell population. These include both positive selection (selecting the target cells), negative selection (selective removal of unwanted cells), or combinations thereof. In another embodiment the cell pellet could be resuspended, layered over (or under) a fluid material formed into a continuous or discontinuous density gradient and placed in a centrifuge for separation of cell populations on the basis of cell density. In a similar embodiment continuous flow approaches such as apheresis and elutriation (with or without counter-current) could be used. Adherence to plastic followed by a short period of cell expansion has also been applied in bone marrow-derived adult stem cell populations. This approach uses culture conditions to preferentially expand one population while other populations are either maintained (and thereby reduced by dilution with the growing selected cells) or lost due to absence of required growth conditions. The active cells that have been concentrated, cultured and/or expanded can be incorporated into disclosed matrices.

[0192] In one embodiment, stem cells are harvested, the harvested cells are contacted with an adipogenic medium for a time sufficient to induce differentiation into adipocytes, and the adipocytes are loaded onto a biocompatible matrix which is implanted. In additional embodiments, at least some of the stem cells can be differentiated into adipocytes so that a mixture of both cell types is initially present that changes over time to substantially only adipocytes, with stem cells being present in small to undetectable quantities. Adipose tissue is fabricated in vivo by the stem cells or prepared ex vivo by the stem cells.

[0193] Cells can be integrated with the disclosed fabric using a variety of methods. For example, the fabric can be submersed in an appropriate growth medium for the cells of interest, and then directly exposed to the cells. The cells are allowed to proliferate on the surface and interstices of the fabric. The fabric is then removed from the growth medium, washed if necessary, and implanted. Alternatively, the cells can be placed in a suitable buffer or liquid growth medium and drawn through the fabric by using vacuum filtration.

[0194] Cells can also be admixed with a precursor of the fabric, and the fabric can then be constructed around the cells, capturing at least some of the cells within the fabric network.

[0195] In one embodiment, the fabric is biocompatible and resorbable, and includes stem cells derived from bone marrow and/or adipose tissue. This embodiment can also include an adipogenic agent dispersed within the fabric. The adipogenic agent can be, without limitation, proglitazone, growth factors of the 13-family, prostaglandins, ciglitazone, dexamethasone or combinations thereof.

[0196] The disclosed fabric can also be used as a therapeutic agent, or drug, release depot. The variety of different therapeutic agents that can be used in conjunction with the disclosed fabric is vast. In general, therapeutic agents that can be administered via the disclosed fabric include, without limitation: anti-rejection agents, analgesics, anti-oxidants, anti-apoptotic agents such as erythropoietin, anti-inflammatory agents such as anti-tumor necrosis factor α, and combinations thereof.

[0197] To form such a release depot, the silk fibroin could be mixed with a therapeutic agent prior to forming the fabric. Alternatively, a therapeutic agent could be coated onto the fabric, in one embodiment with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The therapeutic agent can be present as a liquid, a finely divided solid, or any other appropriate physical form. Typically, but optionally, the depot can include one or more additives, such as diluents, carriers, excipients, stabilizers or the like.

[0198] The amount of therapeutic agent can depend on the particular agent being employed and the particular goal of providing the therapeutic agent. Typically, the amount of agent can represent about 0.001 percent to about 70 percent, about 0.001 percent to about 50 percent, or about 0.001 percent to about 20 percent by weight of the depot. The quantity and type of polymer incorporated into the therapeutic agent delivery depot can vary depending on the release profile desired and the amount of agent employed.

[0199] In another embodiment, a disclosed cell-seeded fabric undergoes gradual degradation with concomitant release of the dispersed therapeutic agent for a sustained or extended period. This can result in prolonged delivery, e.g. over about 1 to about 5,000 hours or over about 2 to about 800 hours, of effective amounts, e.g. from about 0.0001 mg/kg/hour to about 10 mg/kg/hour, of the therapeutic agent. This dosage form can be administered as is necessary depending on the particular situation at hand. Following this or similar procedures, those skilled in the art will be able to prepare a variety of formulations.

[0200] In one embodiment, the structure of the fabric is effective to facilitate tissue in-growth. In one embodiment, the fabric has openings of a sufficient size to permit cell growth therein. An effective opening size is one in which the openings have an average diameter in the range of from about 10 to about 1,000 microns, or from about 20 to about 90 microns.

[0201] In one embodiment, the fabric comprises one or more of stem cells derived from bone marrow and/or adipose tissue, an adipogenic agent, a nutrient medium, optionally a growth factor, and at least one antibiotic. Exemplary adipogenic agents, nutrients and antibiotics include, without limitation, amphotericin B, ciglitazone, biotin, dexamethasone, gentamicin, insulin, 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine, L-thyroxine or combinations thereof.

[0202] Fabrics designed to serve as tissue supports and/or scaffolds for breast reconstruction may be used in a wide range of procedures involving breast augmentation or mastopexy, including, for example, in breast lift procedures, breast augmentation procedures, in post-mastectomy reconstruction.

[0203] One aspect of the invention relates to the use of the fabric described herein in a method for supporting a breast structure within a patient. The method involves positioning the fabric (e.g., configured as a scaffold for support and new tissue in-growth) within the patient in a supporting position relative to the breast structure. The breast structure may comprise native breast tissue (e.g., a mammary gland), or a breast prosthesis (e.g., a breast implant), or a combination thereof. Generally this involves implanting the fabric structure at an anatomical location between the skin covering the breast tissue and the breast tissue and/or breast implant to be supported within the patient. The specific position (e.g., depth) between the skin and the supported tissue will vary with the actual procedure, and can be determined by the skilled practitioner. In one embodiment, positioning the fabric comprises covering the lower and lateral sections of the breast area. In one embodiment, the fabric is inserted in a medial side of the breast to support medial positioning of the breast and/or implant, and reduce medial displacement of the breast and/or implant. In one embodiment, the fabric is inserted in a lateral side of the breast to support lateral positioning of the breast and/or implant, and reduce lateral displacement of the breast and/or implant. In one embodiment, the fabric comprises one or more biomechanical properties of a tissue that would be present naturally in the breast at such a supportive position. Such tissues are described herein.

[0204] Methods for using supportive matrices as surgical tools are well known in the art and can be applied to the fabrics described herein by the skilled practitioner. Implanting the fabric typically involves inserting the fabric structure and fixing the matrix in the desired position. Such methods typically involve fixation of the matrix in the desired position (e.g., across the lower and lateral sections of the breast to support the lower pole of a breast prosthesis/breast tissue, or on the lateral or medial side of the breast to inhibit lateral or medial displacement). Fixation or attachment may be achieved using any suitable method known in the art, for example, by placement of sutures or staples, or with use of a tacking device. Appropriate methods for attachment of the fabric described herein, during the implantation procedure, is to be determined by the skilled practitioner. The fabric described herein can be attached to bone (e.g., one or more ribs), muscle, or soft tissue. In one embodiment, the fabric is attached to one or more soft tissues within the breast region, described herein. Various methods of attachment are known in the art, and include, without limitation, suturing, stapling, gluing, and laying in place. Various attachment methods are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,584,884.

[0205] The exact position of attachment will vary with the specific procedure being performed and can be determined by the skilled artisan. In one embodiment, attachment or fastening of the fabric is to tissue surrounding the chest cavity of the patient. In one embodiment, attachment or fastening is to soft tissue surrounding the breast tissue and/or the prosthetic implant within the patient. The fabric can alternatively be attached or fastened to a boney structure adjacent to the breast tissue and/or the prosthetic implant within the patient.

[0206] It may be beneficial or necessary for the skilled practitioner to form the fabric structure into a predefined shape that is adapted to conform to a region, or at least a portion, of the natural breast tissue and/or the prosthetic implant within the patient. Such useful shapes include, without limitation, circular shapes, oval shapes, crescent shapes, cup shapes, and elongated strips.

[0207] It may be beneficial to treat the fabric structure with one or more agents that promote cellular in-growth, as described herein.

[0208] In one embodiment, the fabric described herein is used as a surgical tool in breast augmentation. “Breast augmentation” as the term is used herein, refers to increasing the size of a breast, such as is generally achieved by the insertion of prosthetic implants.

[0209] The fabric of the instant invention can be used to promote wound healing and soft tissue reconstruction by providing strength and covering at the site of a surgical incision (e.g., at the site of breast implant insertion. It can provide immediate strength to an incision site or site of soft tissue reconstruction/augmentation, and also provide a substrate for new tissue in-growth. In one embodiment, the fabric comprises interconnecting cells or a fibrous network with enough strength to provide closure and protection of incision sites.

[0210] In one embodiment, the fabric described herein is used in placement or repositioning of a breast prosthesis. The fabric, for example, can be used to support the lower pole position of breast implants or can be used as a partial or complete covering of the breast implant. Covering of the implants within the fabric provides a beneficial interface with host tissue and reduces the potential for malpositioning or capsular contracture. Covering of the implant also reduces or prevents tissue adhesions to the implant. Ultimately the fabric can be absorbed and replaced by the infiltrating tissue. As such, the fabric can provide temporary scaffolding and well-defined structure until it is no longer needed.

[0211] The fabric of the instant invention can be used to reposition a breast implant in follow-up corrective surgery, or can be used prophylactically at the time of initial implant placement to prevent displacement. The fabric can be configured and implanted to position the breast implant in the desired position within the patient (e.g., in completely sub-muscular, partial sub-muscular, or sub-glandular placement).

[0212] Implants are typically positioned within the chest in one of three positions: (1) implant over the pectoralis major muscle and under the breast tissue (subglandular); (2) implant partially under the muscle (partial submuscular); and (3) implant completely under the muscle (submuscular). The subglandular placement puts the implant directly behind the breast tissue and mammary gland and in front of the pectoralis major muscle. This placement requires the least complicated surgery and yields the quickest recovery. The downsides of this placement are increased chances for capsular contracture, greater visibility and vulnerability for the implant. This is because only the skin and breast tissue separate the implant from the outside world. Depending on the amount of available breast tissue, the implant may be seen “rippling” through the skin.

[0213] Partial submuscular placement involves placing the implant under the pectoralis major muscle. Because of the structure of this muscle, the implant is only partially covered. This alternative reduces the risk of capsular contracture and visible implant rippling, but recovery time from this positioning is typically longer and more painful because the surgeon has to manipulate the muscle during surgery. Also, because of increased swelling, the implant may take longer to drop into a natural position after surgery. Completely submuscular placement puts the implant firmly behind the chest muscle wall. The implant is placed behind the pectoralis major muscle and behind all of the supporting fascia (connective tissue) and non-pectoral muscle groups. This placement has even longer recovery time, potential loss of inferior pole fullness, and involves a more traumatic surgical procedure.

[0214] Regardless of location of the implant, in the case of breast augmentation the surgery is carried out through an incision placed to minimize long-term scarring. The incision is made in one of three areas: (1) peri-areolar incision; (2) inframammary fold incision; and (3) transaxillary incision. The peri-areolar incision enables the surgeon to place the implant in the subglandular, partial submuscular or completely submuscular position, with the implant being inserted, or removed, through the incision. Like the peri-areolar incision, the inframammary fold incision provides for all three placement types and both insertion and removal of the implant through the incision. The incision is made in the crease under the breast, allowing for discreet scarring. Once the incision is made, the implant is inserted and worked vertically into place.

[0215] Presently, there are very few techniques to reliably maintain the position of implants placed as part of cosmetic or reconstructive surgical procedures. Implant malposition may be the result of several factors, including poor surgical technique, i.e. the implant pocket is too big or too low; implant weight; or lack of soft tissue support. In addition, in reconstructive patients cancer treatments, such as chemotherapy, weaken the soft tissue and surgery, in general, interrupts the natural anatomic plains of the soft tissue. These factors are more profound in patients who have lost excessive amounts of weight. Such situations typically provide extremely poor soft tissue support and the inability of the usual support structures within the breast, such as the inframammary fold, to support the weight of the implant.

[0216] In one embodiment, the fabric described herein is implanted within a patient for initial positioning of a breast implant within the patient. In such an embodiment, the fabric may be configured to form a receiving area for receiving the breast implant. The fabric may further comprise one or more regions for tissue affixation. One of the regions may be adapted to attach the fabric to soft tissue surrounding the breast implant or a boney structure within the patient, such as the periosteum of the chest cavity, with a first suture or by conventional or endoscopic tacking.

[0217] During implant positioning or repositioning procedures the surgeon can use the initial incision made to insert the fabric, provided the initial incision was peri-areolar or in the inframammary fold, to access and position the implant with the fabric. However, in certain circumstances, such as if the initial incision is in the transaxillary position, it may be necessary to create a new incision. Once the incision is made, the fabric (e.g., rolled up) can be inserted into the body through the incision. The fabric may comprise a suture or tack at the distal end which can be removed enabling the end to unroll once in the desired position for implanting.

[0218] The fabric of the present invention can be configured to be implanted within the patient in varying orientations, depending on the specific situation to be remedied or prevented. For example, when used to correct medial displacement (symmastia) or lateral displacement of an implant, the fabric is positioned in a substantially vertical position on the medial or lateral side, respectively, of the implant. When the fabric is used to correct inferior displacement of an implant (otherwise known in the art as bottoming out), the fabric is placed in a substantially horizontal position, supporting the implant from below. Proper positioning of the fabric during the initial implant placement procedure is dependent on the tissue structure surrounding the implant and the desired placement of the implant within the patient.

[0219] Fixation of the fabric is achieved, for example, by placement of permanent sutures at key locations via the tissue affixation regions, or with use of a tacking device, either conventional or endoscopic, depending on the placement of the incision. An inframammary fold incision may require suturing of the fabric in place whereas a peri-areolar incision will enable the use of an endoscopic tacking device.

[0220] When the fabric is orientated in vertical position to fix or prevent medial displacement of the implant, the fabric can be secured at tissue affixation regions to one or more of the following structures and soft tissue: 1) the backwall to the periosteum of the chest wall, 2) the upper intersection of the first and second portions to the sternal border of the chest wall, 3) at the lower intersection of the first and second portions to periosteum of the chest wall, and 4) on the frontwall to the posterior aspect of the pectoralis fascia.

[0221] Mastopexy, or breast lift, is a procedure designed to improve the appearance of sagging or ptotic breasts. Mastopexy presents one of the greatest challenges to the breast surgeon. Numerous techniques provide improvement in the shape of the breast, but aesthetic improvements comes at the cost of scars. In addition, the use of implants in mastopexy presents specific risks and complications. Four main types of breast lifts exist, crescent mastopexy, donut mastopexy, lollipop or vertical mastopexy and anchor mastopexy, based on the shape of the incision and the resulting scar.

[0222] Crescent mastopexy is for patients with mild sagging, excess breast skin in the upper half of the breast, and a normal amount of skin in the lower half, a semi-circular incision is made on the upper portion of the areola. A crescent shaped piece of skin is removed, and when the skin edges are sewn back together, the nipple and areola are raised slightly (1 to 2 inches). A crescent mastopexy is best for women with only mild breast ptosis (sagging).

[0223] Donut mastopexy, also called a Benelli mastopexy or circumareolar mastopexy since the incision is around the areola, a donut mastopexy removes a ring of skin from outside the areola. Sutures are then placed around the areola and the skin is tightened like a purse string to lift the breast. Puckering of the skin may occur, and usually resolves on its own within a few months. The donut mastopexy is also useful for women with a projecting nipple/areola complex (sometimes called torpedo or missile shaped breasts), and can also be used to reduce the size of the areola at the same time.

[0224] Lollipop or vertical mastopexy, as the name implies, is when an incision for a lollipop mastopexy is made around the areola and then down the center of the breast to the inframammary fold. This technique is used for mild to moderate breast ptosis. As with the circumareolar or donut lift, the size of the areola may be reduced at the same time.

[0225] Anchor mastopexy, also referred to as a Wise pattern (or sometimes Weiss pattern) mastopexy, full breast lift, or inverted-T incision, is considered the traditional technique for breast lifting. The incisions are made around the areola, down the center of the lower portion of the breast and then across the breast in the inframammary fold. Like the donut and lollipop incisions, the areola can be made smaller at the same time. The resulting scar is in the shape of an anchor. Although the Wise pattern or anchor mastopexy used to be the standard, it is now usually reserved only for those with moderate to severe breast sagging.

[0226] Mastopexy can be performed with or without a corresponding change in the breast size (either breast reduction or breast augmentation).

[0227] The fabric described herein can be used in any of these types of procedures. In one embodiment, the fabric described herein is used to promote wound healing and/or tissue support in the procedure. The fabric can be also be used to augment or replace pre-existing breast tissue.

[0228] In one embodiment, the fabric is used in a method to reduce breast volume. By way of non-limiting example, the method can be performed as follows:

• • [0229] 1. Marking four points on the breast around the areola to determine the amount of skin necessary for both the external skin lining of the new breast and the excess skin in the periareolar region for the dermal flap to be used for the internal skin lining.
  • [0230] 2. De-epithelializing the flap to retain the central pedicle.
  • [0231] 3. Displace the breast subcutaneous down to the level of the pectoral fascia.
  • [0232] 4. Dissecting the skin on the bias in the upper hemisphere in order to progressively increase the thickness of the subcutaneous fat tissue close to the skin.
  • [0233] 5. Resecting a central wedge of tissue and shortening the upper hemisphere ray.
  • [0234] 6. Dissecting the skin from the parenchymal tissue in the lower hemisphere of the breast.
  • [0235] 7. Optionally resecting a second central wedge of tissue in the lower hemisphere.
  • [0236] 8. Applying the appropriately shaped fabric over the dermal flap in the lower hemisphere to sling the underside of the breast.
  • [0237] 9. Suturing the fabric to the pectoralis fascia to promote elevation and shape of the mammary cone.
  • [0238] 10. Suturing closed the external skin lining while fixing the areolar skin to the external skin lining.
  • [0239] 11. Dressing the breast in a supportive way that allows drainage of exudates.

[0240] In another embodiment, the fabric is used in a method to lift breast tissue. By way of non-limiting example, the method can be performed as follows:

• • [0241] 1. Marking four points on the breast around the areola to determine the amount of skin necessary for both the external skin lining of the new breast and the excess skin in the periareolar region for the dermal flap to be used for the internal skin lining.
  • [0242] 2. De-epithelializing the flap to retain the central pedicle.
  • [0243] 3. Displace the breast subcutaneous down to the level of the pectoral fascia.
  • [0244] 4. Dissecting the skin on the bias in the upper hemisphere in order to progressively increase the thickness of the subcutaneous fat tissue close to the skin.
  • [0245] 5. Dissecting the skin from the parenchymal tissue in the lower hemisphere of the breast.
  • [0246] 6. Applying the appropriately shaped fabric over the dermal flap in the lower hemisphere to sling the underside of the breast.
  • [0247] 7. Suturing the fabric to the pectoralis fascia to promote elevation and shape of the mammary cone.
  • [0248] 8. Suturing closed the external skin lining while fixing the areolar skin to the external skin lining.
  • [0249] 9. Dressing the breast in a supportive way that allows drainage of exudates.

[0250] In another embodiment, the fabric is used in a method of mastopexy treatment with breast augmentation. By way of non-limiting example, the method can be performed as follows:

• • [0251] 1. Inserting a breast implant either under the muscle in a submuscular pocket where the implant is large and the degree of sagging is greater, or under the breast gland in a subglandular pocket if the implant is small.
  • [0252] 2. Marking four points on the breast around the areola to determine the amount of skin necessary for both the external skin lining of the new breast and the excess skin in the periareolar region for the dermal flap to be used for the internal skin lining.
  • [0253] 3. De-epithelializing the flap to retain the central pedicle.
  • [0254] 4. Displace the breast subcutaneous down to the level of the pectoral fascia.
  • [0255] 5. Dissecting the skin on the bias in the upper hemisphere in order to progressively increase the thickness of the subcutaneous fat tissue close to the skin.
  • [0256] 6. Dissecting the skin from the parenchymal tissue in the lower hemisphere of the breast.
  • [0257] 7. Applying a mastopexy prosthesis over the dermal flap in the lower hemisphere to sling other underside of the breast.
  • [0258] 8. Suturing the mastopexy prosthesis to the pectoralis fascia to promote elevation and shape of the mammary cone.
  • [0259] 9. Suturing closed the external skin lining while fixing the areolar skin to the external skin lining.
  • [0260] 10. Dressing the breast in a supportive way that allows drainage of exudates.

[0261] Breast reconstruction is the re-creation of a breast following mastectomy. Mastectomy is the most common treatment of localized breast cancer. While breast reconstruction can be performed at the time of mastectomy, the better candidates are those who have confirmed elimination of the cancer as sometimes implant materials and reconstruction will interfere with detection of recurrence. Reconstruction usually involves a two part process, where in the first series of surgeries, a tissue expander is inserted beneath the skin and the pectoralis muscle. The expander is an air or saline-filled balloon that is periodically injected over a number of months with additional saline in order to gradually stretch the skin and muscle. When the skin and muscle are sufficiently lengthened, an implant (saline or silicone) is inserted to recapitulate the native breast structure. However, in order to retain the implant properly, an additional section of a patient's tissue, an autograft, must be used along the lateral side of the breast, usually the latissimus dorsi or abdominus recti. Autograft tissue bears a risk of tissue morbidity and total coverage and support of the implant or the expander with the muscle tissue in the mastectomy pocket is a challenge. Without appropriate coverage, the implant can become exposed and reduce cosmetic outcome.

[0262] The fabric described herein can be used for to promote wound healing and/or tissue support in the procedure. The fabric can also be also be used to augment or replace pre-existing breast tissue. The fabric can further be used in implant placement as described herein in the breast reconstruction procedure. In one embodiment, the fabric described herein is used in complement or in place of autograft tissue in the breast reconstruction procedure (e.g., to cover and/or support the implant or the expander at the lower breast pole).

[0263] In one embodiment, the fabric of the present invention is used to provide strength to breast fascia and/or soft tissue weakened by the mastectomy surgery. During mastectomy, as much of the superficial fascial system in the inframammary fold is preserved as possible. Generally, Cooper's ligaments are cut in the course of the surgery. In one embodiment the fabric of the present invention is used to recreate the inframammary fold following mastectomy. In one embodiment, the fabric of the present invention is designed to have one or more biomechanical properties of the inframammary fold tissue that is damaged during the mastectomy process. This fabric can be implanted at the location of the damaged tissue. Such implanted fabric supports the reconstructed breast and also serves as a scaffold for the generation of new tissue at that site within the body.

[0264] In one embodiment, the fabric of the present invention can be used in place of, or in combination with, the omental flap, in postmastectomy breast reconstruction. One such procedure is described by Goes and Macedo (The Surgery of the Breast, Principles and Art, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, Second Edition, Chapter 52, pages 786-793, 2006).

[0265] In one embodiment, the fabric or matrix, or a portion thereof, for use described herein, is designed such that upon implantation in the body of a subject, it provides structural support at the site of implantation while promoting cellular in-growth. Preferably the matrix is biocompatible (e.g., elicits only a mild, transient foreign body reaction in the absence of an antigenic response). The fabric or portion thereof is further biodegradable. In one embodiment, the matrix is designed such that it remains sufficiently intact during the process of in-growth to continue to provide structural support, degrading at a rate whereby the diminishment of the support from the matrix is substantially replaced by tissue which develops from the cellular in-growth. The rate of degradation will affect the strength and integrity of the developing tissue.

[0266] The ordinary skilled artisan can consider the biomechanical stresses experienced by tissue at the implantation site, and use that information to design an appropriate matrix by coordinating various properties (e.g., structural, chemical) of the matrix to provide the required structural support and achieve an appropriate rate of degradation for appropriate tissue development. As disclosed herein, various aspects of the matrix contribute to the rate of biodegradation. By way of non-limiting example, such properties include the matrix components (e.g., fibroin fibers versus fiber composites) and the integrity of the fibroin fibers themselves (e.g., affected by the method of sericin extraction), and also the geometrical structure of the matrix. Another such property is the presence or absence of modifications that affect cell in-growth (e.g., surface modification of the fibroin fiber or other matrix components with RGD). Such modifications can be used to control the rate of tissue ingrowth, e.g., enhance the tissue ingrowth, such that the new infiltrating tissue develops prior to resorbtion of the matrix. As such, aspects of the invention relate to an implantable prosthesis comprising a fabric with one or more of the properties described herein, designed to provide the appropriate structural support and further exhibit an appropriate rate of biodegradation at the site of implantation, for the desired tissue development.

[0267] Unless otherwise defined herein, scientific and technical terms used in connection with the present application shall have the meanings that are commonly understood by those of ordinary skill in the art. Further, unless otherwise required by context, singular terms shall include pluralities and plural terms shall include the singular.

[0268] It should be understood that this invention is not limited to the particular methodology, protocols, and reagents, etc., described herein and as such may vary. The terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to limit the scope of the present invention, which is defined solely by the claims.

[0269] In one respect, the present invention relates to the herein described compositions, methods, and respective component(s) thereof, as essential to the invention, yet open to the inclusion of unspecified elements, essential or not (“comprising). In some embodiments, other elements to be included in the description of the composition, method or respective component thereof are limited to those that do not materially affect the basic and novel characteristic(s) of the invention (“consisting essentially of”). This applies equally to steps within a described method as well as compositions and components therein. In other embodiments, the inventions, compositions, methods, and respective components thereof, described herein are intended to be exclusive of any element not deemed an essential element to the component, composition or method (“consisting of”).

[0270] All patents, patent applications, and publications identified are expressly incorporated herein by reference for the purpose of describing and disclosing, for example, the methodologies described in such publications that might be used in connection with the present invention. These publications are provided solely for their disclosure prior to the filing date of the present application. Nothing in this regard should be construed as an admission that the inventors are not entitled to antedate such disclosure by virtue of prior invention or for any other reason. All statements as to the date or representation as to the contents of these documents is based on the information available to the applicants and does not constitute any admission as to the correctness of the dates or contents of these documents.

[0271] Additional aspects of this invention are further exemplified in the following examples. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art that many modifications, both to the materials and methods, may be practiced without departing from the invention.

[0272] In a first example, raw Bombyx mori silkworm fibers, shown in FIG. 1A, were extracted to remove sericin, the glue-like protein coating the native silk fibroin (see FIGS. 1A-C). The appropriate number of fibers per group were arranged in parallel and extracted in an aqueous solution of 0.02 M Na2CO3 and 0.3% (w/v) IVORY soap solution for 60 minutes at 90° C., then rinsed thoroughly with water to extract the glue-like sericin proteins.

[0273] Costello's equation for a three-strand, helical rope geometry was derived to predict mechanical properties of the silk-fiber-based construct. The derived model is a series of equations that when combined, take into account extracted silk fiber material properties and desired fiber construct geometrical hierarchy to compute the overall strength and stiffness of the fiber construct as a function of pitch angle for a given level of geometrical hierarchy.

[0274] The material properties of a single silk fiber include fiber diameter, modulus of elasticity, Poisson's ratio, and the ultimate tensile strength (UTS). Geometrical hierarchy may be defined as the number of twisting levels in a given fiber construct level. Each level (e.g., group, bundle, strand, cord, ligament) is further defined by the number of groups of fibers twisted about each other and the number of fibers in each group of the first level twisted where the first level is define as a group, the second level as a bundle, the third as a strand and the fourth as a cord, the fifth as the ligament.

[0275] The model assumes that each group of multiple fibers act as a single fiber with an effective radius determined by the number of individual fibers and their inherent radius, i.e., the model discounts friction between the individual fibers due to its limited role in given a relatively high pitch angle.

[0276] Two applicable geometries (Matrix 1 and Matrix 2) of the many fiber construct geometrical configurations (see Table 10, supra) computed to yield mechanical properties mimicking those of a native ACL were derived for more detailed analysis. A six-cord construct was selected for use as the ACL replacement. Matrix configurations are as follows: Matrix 1:1 ACL prosthesis=6 parallel cords; 1 cord=3 twisted strands (3 twists/cm); 1 strand=6 twisted bundles (3 twists/cm); 1 bundle=30 parallel washed fibers; and Matrix 2: 1 ACL matrix=6 parallel cords; 1 cord=3 twisted strands (2 twists/cm); 1 strand=3 twisted bundles (2.5 twists/cm); 1 bundle=3 groups (3 twists/cm); 1 group=15 parallel extracted silk fibroin fibers. The number of fibers and geometries were selected such that the silk prostheses are similar to the ACL biomechanical properties in UTS, linear stiffness, yield point and % elongation at break (see Table 10, supra), thus serving as a solid starting point for the development of a tissue engineered ACL.

[0277] Mechanical properties of the silk fibroin were characterized using a servohydraulic Instron 8511 tension/compression system with Fast-Track software (Instron Corp., Canton, Mass., USA) (see FIG. 1D). Single pull-to-failure and fatigue analyses were performed on single silk fibers, extracted fibroin and organized cords. Fibers and fibroin were organized in both the parallel helical geometries of Matrix 1 (see FIG. 2C) and of Matrix 2 (see FIG. 2D) for characterization. Single pull to failure testing was performed at a strain rate of 100%/sec; force elongation histograms were generated and data analyzed using Instron Series IX software. Both Matrix 1 and Matrix 2 yielded similar mechanical and fatigue properties to the ACL in UTS, linear stiffness, yield point and percent elongation at break (see Table 10 and FIGS. 3A-D).

[0278] Fatigue analyses were performed using a servohydraulic Instron 8511 tension/compression system with Wavemaker software on single cords of both Matrix 1 and Matrix 2. Data was extrapolated to represent the 6-cord ACL prostheses, which is shown in FIGS. 3B and 3D. Cord ends were embedded in an epoxy mold to generate a 3-cm-long construct between anchors. Cycles to failure at UTS's of 1,680 N and 1,200 N (n=5 for each load) for Matrix 1 (see FIG. 3B) and at UTS's of 2280 N, 2100 N and 1800 N loads (n=3 for each load) for Matrix 2 (see FIG. 3D) were determined using a H-sine wave function at 1 Hz generated by Wavemaker 32 version 6.6 software (Instron Corp.). Fatigue testing was conducted in a neutral phosphate buffered saline (PBS) solution at room temperature.

[0279] Complete sericin removal was observed after 60 min at 90° C. as determined by SEM (see FIGS. 1A-C). Removal of sericin from silk fibers altered the ultrastructure of the fibers, resulting in a smoother fiber surface, and the underlying silk fibroin was revealed (shown in FIGS. 1A-C), with average diameter ranging between 20-40 μm. The fibroin exhibited a significant 15.2% decrease in ultimate tensile strength (1.033+/−0.042 N/fiber to 0.876+/−0.1 N/fiber) (p<0.05, paired Students t-test) (see FIG. 1D). The mechanical properties of the optimized silk matrices (see FIG. 2A-D & FIG. 3A-D) are summarized in Table 11 above and in FIG. 3A (for Matrix 1) and in FIG. 3C (for Matrix 2). It is evident from these results that the optimized silk matrices exhibited values comparable to those of native ACL, which have been reported to have an average ultimate tensile strength (UTS) of ˜2100 N, stiffness of ˜250 N/nm, yield point ˜2100 N and 33% elongation at break (See Woo, SL-Y, et al., The Tensile Properties of Human Anterior Cruciate Ligament (ACL) and ACL Graft Tissue in Knee Ligaments: Structure, Function, Injury and Repair, 279-289, Ed. D. Daniel et al., Raven Press 1990).

[0280] Regression analysis of fiber construct fatigue data, shown in FIG. 3B for Matrix 1 and in FIG. 3D for Matrix 2, when extrapolated to physiological load levels (400 N) predict the number of cycles to failure in vivo, indicate a fiber construct life of 3.3 million cycles for Matrix 1 and a life of greater than 10 million cycles for Matrix 2. The helical fiber construct design utilizing washed silk fibers resulted in a fiber construct with physiologically equivalent structural properties, confirming its suitability as a scaffold for ligament tissue engineering.

[0281] In another example involving cell isolation and culture, bone marrow stromal cells (BMSC), pluripotent cells capable of differentiating into osteogenic, chondrogenic, tendonogenic, adipogenic and myogenic lineages, were chosen since the formation of the appropriate conditions can direct their differentiation into the desired ligament fibroblast cell line (Markolf et al., J. Bone Joint Surg. 71A: 887-893, 1989; Caplan et al., Mesenchymal stem cells and tissue repair, The Anterior Cruciate Ligament: Current and Future Concepts, Ed. D. W. Jackson et al., Raven Press, Ltd, New York, 1993; Young et al., J. Orthopaedic Res. 16: 406-413, 1998).

[0282] Human BMSCs were isolated from bone marrow from the iliac crest of consenting donors at least 25 years of age by a commercial vendor (Cambrex, Walkersville, Md.). Twenty-two milliliters of human marrow was aseptically aspirated into a 25 ml syringe containing three milliliters of heparinized (1000 units per milliliter) saline solution. The heparinized marrow solution was shipped overnight on ice to the laboratory for bone marrow stromal cells isolation and culture. Upon arrival from the vendor, the twenty-five milliliter aspirates were resuspended in Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum (FBS), 0.1 mM nonessential amino acids, 100 U/ml penicillin, 100 mg/L streptomycin (P/S), and 1 ng/ml basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) (Life Technologies, Rockville, Md.) and plated at 8-10 microliters of aspirate/cm2 in tissue culture flasks. Fresh medium was added to the marrow aspirates twice a week for up to nine days of culture. BMSCs were selected based on their ability to adhere to the tissue culture plastic; non-adherent hematopoietic cells were removed during medium replacement after 9-12 days in culture. Medium was changed twice per week thereafter. When primary BMSC became near confluent (12-14 days), they were detached using 0.25% trypsin/1 mM EDTA and replated at 5×103 cells/cm2. First passage (P1) hBMSCs were trypsinized and frozen in 8% DMSO/10% FBS/DMEM for future use.

[0283] Frozen P1 hBMSCs were defrosted, replated at 5×103 cells/cm2 (P2), trypsinized when near confluency, and used for fiber construct seeding. Sterilized (ethylene oxide) silk matrices (specifically, single cords of Matrices 1 and 2, bundles of 30 parallel extracted silk fibers, and helical ropes of collage fibers) were seeded with cells in customized seeding chambers (1 ml total volume) machined in Teflon blocks to minimize cell-medium volume and increase cell-fiber construct contact. Seeded matrices, following a 4 hour incubation period with the cell slurry (3.3×106 BMSCs/ml) were transferred into a petri dish containing an appropriate amount of cell culture medium for the duration of the experiments.

[0284] To determine the degradation rate of the silk fibroin, ultimate tensile strength (UTS) was measured as a function of cultivation period in physiological growth conditions, i.e., in cell culture medium. Groups of 30 parallel silk fibers 3 cm in length were extracted, seeded with hBMSCs, and cultured on the fibroin over 21 days at 37° C. and 5% CO2. Non-seeded control groups were cultured in parallel. Silk fibroin UTS was determined as a function of culture duration for seeded and non-seeded groups.

[0285] The response of bone marrow stromal cells to the silk fiber construct was also examined.

[0286] BMSCs readily attached and grew on the silk and collagen matrices after 1 day in culture (See FIG. 7A-C and FIG. 16A), and formed cellular extensions to bridge neighboring fibers. As shown in FIG. 7D and FIG. 16B, a uniform cells sheet covering the construct was observed at 14 and 21 days of culture, respectively. MTT analysis confirmed complete fiber construct coverage by seeded BMSCs after 14 days in culture (see FIG. 8A-B). Total DNA quantification of cells grown on Matrix 1 (see FIG. 9A) and Matrix 2 (see FIG. 9B) confirmed that BMSCs proliferated and grew on the silk construct with the highest amount of DNA measured after 21 and 14 days, respectively, in culture.

[0287] Both BMSC-seeded or non-seeded extracted control silk fibroin groups of 30 fibers, maintained their mechanical integrity as a function of culture period over 21 days (see FIG. 10).

[0288] RT-PCR analysis of BMSCs seeded on cords of Matrix 2 indicated that both collagen I & III were upregulated over 14 days in culture (FIG. 14). Collagen type II and bone sialoprotein (as indicators of cartilage and bone specific differentiation, respectively) were either not detectable or negligibly expressed over the cultivation period. Real-time quantitative RT-PCR at 14 days yielded a transcript ratio of collagen Ito collagen III, normalized to GAPDH, of 8.9:1 (see FIG. 17). The high ratio of collagen Ito collagen III indicates that the response is not wound healing or scar tissue formation (as is observed with high levels of collagen type III), but rather ligament specific; the relative ratio of collagen Ito collagen III in a native ACL is ˜6.6:1 (Amiel et al., Knee Ligaments: Structure, Function, Injury, and Repair, 1990).

[0289] Additionally, studies are conducted to provide insight into the influence of directed multi-dimensional mechanical stimulation on ligament formation from bone marrow stromal cells in the bioreactor system. The bioreactor is capable of applying independent but concurrent cyclic multi-dimensional strains (e.g., translation, rotation) to the developing ligaments. After a 7 to 14 day static rest period (time post seeding), the rotational and translation strain rates and linear and rotational deformation are kept constant for 1 to 4 weeks. Translational strain (3.3%-10%, 1-3 mm) and rotational strain (25%, 90° are concurrently applied at a frequency of 0.0167 Hz (one full cycle of stress and relaxation per minute) to the silk-based matrices seeded with BMSCs; an otherwise identical set of bioreactors with seeded matrices without mechanical loading serve as controls. The ligaments are exposed to the constant cyclic strains for the duration of the experiment days.

[0290] Following the culture period, ligament samples, both the mechanically challenged as well as the controls (static) are characterized for: (1) general histomorphological appearance (by visual inspection); (2) cell distribution (image processing of histological and MTT stained sections); (3) cell morphology and orientation (histological analysis); and (4) the production of tissue specific markers (RT-PCR, immunostaining).

[0291] Mechanical stimulation markedly affects the morphology and organization of the BMSCs and newly developed extracellular fiber construct, the distribution of cells along the fiber construct, and the upregulation of a ligament-specific differentiation cascade; BMSCs align along the long axis of the fiber, take on a spheroid morphology similar to ligament/tendon fibroblasts and upregulate ligament/tendon specific markers. Newly formed extracellular fiber construct (i.e., the composition of proteins produced by the cells) is expected to align along the lines of load as well as the long axis of the fiber construct. Directed mechanical stimulation is expected to enhance ligament development and formation in vitro in a bioreactor resulting from BMSCs seeded on the novel silk-based fiber construct. The longitudinal orientation of cells and newly formed fiber construct is similar to ligament fibroblasts found within an ACL in vivo (Woods et al., Amer. J. Sports Med. 19: 48-55, 1991). Furthermore, mechanical stimulation maintains the correct expression ratio between collagen type I transcripts and collagen type III transcripts (e.g., greater than 7:1) indicating the presence of newly formed ligament tissue versus scar tissue formation. The above results will indicate that the mechanical apparatus and bioreactor system provide a suitable environment (e.g., multi-dimensional strains) for in vitro formation of tissue engineered ligaments starting from bone marrow stromal cells and the novel silk-based fiber construct.

[0292] The culture conditions used in these preliminary experiments can be further expanded to more accurately reflect the physiological environment of a ligament (e.g., increasing the different types of mechanical forces) for the in vitro creation of functional equivalents of native ACL for potential clinical use. These methods are not limited to the generation of a bioengineered ACL. By applying the appropriate magnitude and variety of forces experienced in vivo, any type of ligament in the body as well as other types of tissue can be produced ex vivo by the methods of this disclosure.

[0293] Other embodiments are within the following claims.

TABLE 1
I. ULTIMATE TENSILE STRENGTH AND STIFFNESS (N/MM GIVEN A 3 CM LONG
SAMPLE) AS A FUNCTION OF SERICIN EXTRACTION FROM A 10-FIBER SILKWORM
SILK YARN WITH 0 TWISTS PER INCH (I.E., PARALLEL) AND (I) TEMPERATURE
AND (II) TIME. REPEAT SAMPLES WERE PROCESSED TWO YEARS AFTER INITIAL
SAMPLES WITH NO SIGNIFICANT CHANGE IN PROPERTIES.
									Stiffness/
	# of			UTS		Stiff		UTS/	fiber
Yarn	fibers	Temp	Time	(N)	stdev	(N/mm)	stdev	fiber (N)	(N/mm)
10(0)	10	RT	60 min	10.74	0.83	6.77	0.65	1.07	0.68
10(0)	10	RT	60 min (repeat)	10.83	0.28	6.36	0.14	1.08	0.64
10(0)	10	33 C.	60 min	10.44	0.17	6.68	0.55	1.04	0.67
10(0)	10	37 C.	60 min	9.60	0.84	6.09	0.59	0.96	0.61
10(0)	10	37 C.	60 min (repeat)	9.54	0.74	5.81	0.67	0.95	0.58
10(0)	10	90 C.	15 min	9.22	0.55	4.87	0.62	0.92	0.49
10(0)	10	90 C.	30 min	8.29	0.19	4.91	0.33	0.83	0.49
10(0)	10	90 C.	60 min	8.60	0.61	4.04	0.87	0.86	0.40
10(0)	10	90 C.	60 min (repeat)	8.65	0.67	4.55	0.69	0.87	0.46
10(0)	10	94 C.	60 min	7.92	0.51	2.42	0.33	0.79	0.24
9(12s) × 3(9z)	27	non-extracted		24.50	0.38	8.00	0.49	0.91	0.30
9(12s) × 3(9z)	27	90 C.	60 min	21.88	0.18	7.38	0.34	0.81	0.27
9(6s) × 3(3z)	27	non-extracted		24.94	0.57	9.51	0.57	0.92	0.35
9(6s) × 3(3z)	27	90 C.	60 min	21.36	0.40	7.95	1.00	0.79	0.29
9(12s) × 3(6z)	27	non-extracted		24.69	0.65	9.08	0.56	0.91	0.34
9(12s) × 3(6z)	27	90 C.	60 min	21.80	0.47	7.48	0.97	0.81	0.28
N = 5 FOR ALL SAMPLES.

TABLE 2
Mass loss as a function of sericin extraction. +/−
0.43% standard deviation of an N = 5
accuracy that can be achieved when confirming sericin
removal, i.e. , 0.87 or 1% error will always be inherent to
the methods used and a mass loss of about 24%
represents substantially sericin free constructs.
		non-extracted	extracted and	% mass
	yarn	and dried (mg)	dried (mg)	loss
	9(12) × 3(6)	57.6	43.6	24.31
	9(12) × 3(6)	58.3	43.9	24.70
	9(12) × 3(6)	57.0	42.9	24.74
	9(12) × 3(6)	57.2	42.7	25.35
	average	57.53	43.28	24.77
	stdev	0.57	0.57	0.43

TABLE 3
Illustrates the change in mass as a function of a
second sericin extraction. Correlated to FIGURE 1E-1G,
less than a 3% mass loss is likely indicative of fibroin
mass loss due to mechanical damage during the 2nd
extraction.
		mass after lx	mass after 2x
		extraction,	extracted,	% mass
	yarn	dried (mg)	dried (mg)	loss
	9(12) × 3(6)	42.5	41.7	1.88
	9(12) × 3(6)	43.1	42	2.55
	9(12) × 3(6)	43.1	42.1	2.32
	9(12) × 3(6)	42.5	41.7	1.88
	9(12) × 3(6)	42.6	42.4	0.47
	9(12) × 3(6)	43.7	42.4	2.97
	9(12) × 3(6)	43.4	42.9	1.15
	9(12) × 3(6)	43.7	43.1	1.37
	9(12) × 3(6)	44	43.2	1.82
	average	43.18	42.39	1.82
	stdev	0.56	0.57	0.76

TABLE 4
			# of	Total	UTS	UTS			Stiffness	Stiffness	UTS	Stiff-
	Ply		levels of	# of	average	stdev	% Elong	% Elong	avg	stdev	per	ness per
Geometry	Method	Condition	plying	Fibers	(N)	(N)	average	stdev	(N/mm)	(N/mm)	fiber	fiber
1(0) × 3(10)	cable	extracted	2	3	1.98	0.05	10.42	1.63	2.17	0.51	0.66	0.72
1(0) × 4(10)	cable	extracted	2	4	2.86	0.14	11.98	1.54	2.08	0.31	0.72	0.52
3(0) × 3(3)	cable	extracted	2	9	6.72	0.17	12.30	0.72	4.54	0.16	0.75	0.50
1(0) × 3(10) ×	cable	extracted	3	9	6.86	0.23	13.11	1.45	4.06	0.36	0.76	0.45
3(9)
2(0) × 6(11)	cable		2	12	7.97	0.26	10.05	0.91			0.66
4(6) × 3(3)	twist	non-	2	12	10.17	0.18	19.86	1.16			0.85
		extracted
1(0) × 3(10) ×	cable	extracted	3	12	9.29	0.19	14.07	0.98	5.10	0.31	0.77	0.43
4(9)
1(0) × 4(11) ×	twist	extracted	3	12	9.70	0.14	12.56	1.03	7.60	0.33	0.81	0.63
3(11)
1(0) × 4(10) ×	cable	extracted	3	12	8.78	0.17	14.25	1.09	5.10	0.32	0.73	0.43
3(9)
15 (textured)	textured	non-	1	15	10.62	0.68	10.76	1.70	4.75	0.30	0.71	0.316
		extracted,
		dry
30(0)	parallel	extracted,	1	30	20.24	1.46	26.32	3.51	1.14	0.15	0.67	0.038
		wet
30(0)	parallel	incubated	1	30	19.73	2.10	20.70	6.03			0.66
		21 days,
		wet
30(0)	parallel	cell-seeded	1	30	20.53	1.02	29.68	7.08			0.68
		21 days,
		wet
2 fibers/carrier	braid	extracted,	2	16	10.93	0.13			6.96	1.14	0.68	0.435
in an 8		dry
4 fibers/carrier	braid	extracted,	2	32	24.60	0.22			12.39	0.53	0.77	0.387
in an 8		dry
4(6) × 3(3) in	braid	extracted,	3	48	37.67	0.18	22.38	0.98			0.78
4 carrier		dry
15(0) × 3(12)	cable	dry	2	45	27.39	0.62	31.68	1.35	4.63	0.49	0.61	0.102889
15(0) × 3(12) ×	cable	non-	3	135	73.61	6.00	33.72	5.67	12.33	1.53	0.55	0.091333
3(10)		extracted, 1
		day after
		manufacturing
15(0) × 3(12) ×	cable	non-	3	135	72.30	5.68	31.18	4.35			0.54
3(10)		extracted, 2
		days after
		manufacturing
15(0) × 3(12) ×	cable	non-	3	135	70.74	2.97	29.50	4.47			0.52
3(10)		extracted, 3
		days after
		manufacturing
15(0) × 3(12) ×	cable	non-	3	135	75.90	1.57	34.57	4.12			0.56
3(10)		extracted, 4
		day after
		manufacturing
15(0) × 3(12) ×	cable	non-	3	135	71.91	5.71	36.72	3.75			0.53
3(10)		extracted, 5
		days after
		manufacturing
15(0) × 3(12) ×	cable	non-	3	135	74.57	1.45	37.67	4.27			0.55
3(10)		extracted, 6
		days after
		manufacturing
13(0) × 3(11) ×	cable	non-	4	351	189.01	14.00	45.87	3.72			0.54
3(10) × 3(0)		extracted,
		dry
13(0) × 3(11) ×	cable	non-	4	351	170.12	7.37	39.95	1.37			0.48
3(10) × 3(0)		extracted,
		cycled 30x to
		pretension, dry

TABLE 5
Comparison of UTS and stiffness between wet (2 hr incubation
in PBS at 37° C.) and dry mechanical testing conditions.
								Stiffness/
	# of	Yarn Test	UTS	UTS	Stiffness	Stiffness	UTS/	fiber
Yarn	Fibers	Conditions	(N)	stdev	(N/mm)	stdev	fiber (N)	(N/mm)
9(12s) × 3(9z)	27	extracted - dry	21.88	0.18	7.38	0.34	0.81	0.27
9(12s) × 3(9z)	27	extracted - wet	18.52	0.25	2.56	0.31	0.69	0.09
9(6s) × 3(3z)	27	extracted - dry	21.36	0.40	7.95	1.00	0.79	0.29
9(6s) × 3(3z)	27	extracted - wet	17.94	0.30	2.40	0.28	0.66	0.09
9(12s) × 3(6z)	27	extracted - dry	21.80	0.47	7.48	0.97	0.81	0.28
9(12s) × 3(6z)	27	extracted - wet	18.74	0.22	2.57	0.11	0.69	0.10
12(0) × 3(10s)	36	extracted - dry	30.73	0.46	16.24	0.66	0.85	0.45
12(0) × 3(10s)	36	extracted - wet	25.93	0.29	6.68	0.70	0.72	0.19
4(0) × 3(10s) × 3(9z)	36	extracted - dry	30.07	0.35	15.49	1.06	0.84	0.43
4(0) × 3(10s) × 3(9z)	36	extracted - wet	22.55	0.66	7.63	1.00	0.63	0.21
N = 5. Results show approximately a 17% drop in UTS as a function of testing wet.

TABLE 6
Effect of TPI on UTS and Stiffness.
							Stiffness/
		UTS		Stiffness		UTS/	fiber
Yarn	TPI	(N)	stdev	(N/mm)	stdev	fiber (N)	(N/mm)
12(0) × 3(2)	2	23.27	0.28	6.86	0.60	0.65	0.19
12(0) × 3(4)	4	24.69	0.31	7.61	1.17	0.69	0.21
12(0) × 3(6)	6	25.44	0.42	6.51	1.35	0.71	0.18
12(0) × 3(8)	8	25.21	0.23	5.80	0.67	0.70	0.16
12(0) × 3(10)	10	25.94	0.24	6.45	0.77	0.72	0.18
12(0) × 3(12)	12	25.87	0.19	6.01	0.69	0.72	0.17
12(0) × 3(14)	14	22.21	0.58	5.63	0.71	0.62	0.16
N = 5

TABLE 7
Additional tpi data to verify that up to 30 tpi can be used without causing damage to the yarn that would
result in a dramatic decrease in UTS and stiffness; note, all matrices (N = 5 per group) were twisted.
							Stiffness/
	# of	UTS	stdev	Stiffness	stdev	UTS/	fiber
Yarn	fibers	(N)	(N)	(N/mm)	(N/mm)	fiber (N)	(N/mm)	Conditions
1(30) × 6(20) × 3(4.5)	18	10.92	0.44	1.21	0.02	0.61	0.07	non-extracted, wet
1(30) × 6(20) × 3(10)	18	11.48	0.37	1.25	0.06	0.64	0.07	non-extracted, wet
1(30) × 6(6)	6	3.83	0.24	0.37	0.04	0.64	0.06	non-extracted, wet
15(20)	15	13.19	0.27	6.03	0.67	0.88	0.40	extracted, dry

TABLE 8
Effect of yarn hierarchy on mechanical properties (i.e. the number of levels and the
number of fibers per level can significantly influence yarn and fabric outcomes.
		# of						Stiffness	Stiffness	UTS	Stiff-
		levels of	Total #	UTS	UTS	% Elong	% Elong	avg	stdev	per	ness per
Geometry	Condition	plying	of Fibers	(N)	stdev (N)	average	stdev	(N/mm)	(N/mm)	fiber	fiber
1(0) × 3(10)	extracted	2	3	1.98	0.05	10.42	1.63	2.17	0.51	0.66	0.72
1(0) × 3(10) × 3(9)	extracted	3	9	6.86	0.23	13.11	1.45	4.06	0.36	0.76	0.45
1(0) × 3(10) × 4(9)	extracted	3	12	9.29	0.19	14.07	0.98	5.10	0.31	0.77	0.43
1(0) × 4(10)	extracted	2	4	2.86	0.14	11.98	1.54	2.08	0.31	0.72	0.52
1(0) × 4(10) × 3(9)	extracted	3	12	8.78	0.17	14.25	1.09	5.10	0.32	0.73	0.43
15(0) × 3(12)	non-	2	45	27.39	0.62	31.68	1.35	4.63	0.49	0.61	0.10
	extracted dry
15(0) × 3(12) × 3(10)	non-	3	135	73.61	6.00	33.72	5.67	12.33	1.53	0.55	0.09
	extracted dry

TABLE 9
Surface modification (RGD and ETO gas sterilization) effects on extracted silk matrix mechanical
properties; PBS was used as a negative control during modification treatments.
		Surface					UTS/	Stiffness/
	# of	Modification/	UTS		Stiffness		fiber	fiber
Yarn	fibers	Sterilization	(N)	stdev	(N/mm)	stdev	(N)	(N/mm)
12(0) × 3(10s)	36	Non-treated	25.94	0.24	6.45	0.77	0.72	0.18
12(0) × 3(10s)	36	RGD	23.82	2.10	3.79	2.06	0.66	0.11
12(0) × 3(10s) × 3(9z)	108	Non-treated	48.89	4.84	9.22	0.84	0.45	0.09
12(0) × 3(10s) × 3(9z)	108	RGD	55.28	3.28	8.17	0.81	0.51	0.08
4(11s) × 3(11z) × 3(10s)	36	ETO	18.72	0.45	5.52	0.42	0.52	0.15
4(11s) × 3(11z) × 3(10s)	36	RGD + ETO	19.30	0.62	4.67	0.3	0.54	0.13

TABLE 10
	UTS	Stiffness	Yield Pt.	Elongation
	(N)	(N/mm)	(N)	(%)
Silk matrix 1	2337 +/− 72	354 +/− 26	1262 +/− 36	38.6 +/− 2.4
Silk Matrix 2	3407 +/− 63	580 +/− 40	1647 +/− 214	29 +/− 4
Human ACL	2160 +/−157	242 +/− 28	~ 1200	~ 26 − 32%
Mechanical properties for two different cords based on a cord length of 3 cm as compared to human ACL properties.

TABLE 11
Twisting Level
(# of twists/cm)	Matrix 1	Matrix 2	Matrix 3	Matrix 4	Matrix 5	Matrix 6	Matrix 7
# fibers per group	30 (0)	15 (0)	1300 (0)	180 (0)	20 (0)	10 (0)	15 (0)
# groups per bundle	6 (3)	3 (3)	3 (2)	3 (3.5)	6 (3)	6 (3)	3 (3)
# bundles per strand	3 (3)	6 (2.5)	1 (0)	3 (2)	3 (2)	3 (2.5)	3 (2.5)
# strands per cord	6 (0)	3 (2.0)	—	2 (0)	3 (1)	3 (2)	3 (2)
# cords per ACL	—	6 (0)	—	—	3 (0)	6 (0)	12 (0)
UTS (N)	2337	3407	2780	2300	2500	2300	3400
Stiffness (N/mm)	354	580	300	350	550	500	550
Examples of several geometry hierarchies that would result in suitable mechanical properties for replacement of the ACL.
Note:
Matrix 1 and 2 have been developed as shown in the examples; Matrix 3 would yield a single bundle prosthesis, Matrix 4 would yield a 2 strand prosthesis, Matrix 5 would yield a 3 cord prosthesis, Matrix 6 is another variation of a 6 cord prosthesis, and Matrix 7 will yield a 12 cord prosthesis.