Neural tourniquet

[0001] This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/556,096, filed Mar. 25, 2004.

[0002] The entire teachings of the above application are incorporated herein by reference.

[0003] The invention was supported, in whole or in part, by a grant N66001-03-1-8907 P00003 from Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center-San Diego and Defense Advanced Research Programs Agency. The Government has certain rights in the invention.

[0004] Excessive bleeding can occur as a consequence of injury, surgery, inherited bleeding disorders, or bleeding disorders which are developed during certain illnesses (such as vitamin K deficiency, severe liver damage) or treatments (such as the use of anticoagulant drugs or prolonged use of antibiotics).

[0005] Some of the risks associated with bleeding disorders include scarring of the joints or joint disease, vision loss from bleeding into the eye, chronic anemia from blood loss, and death which may occur with large amounts of blood loss or bleeding in critical areas such as the brain.

[0006] Bleeding disorders result from an inability of the blood to clot. This inability is most commonly caused by a deficiency of blood coagulation factors. Other less common causes include a deficiency in blood platelets or a disorder in platelet function.

[0007] Hemophilia A is one of the most frequently occurring inherited coagulation disorders. Patients with hemophilia A are prone to frequent hemorrhages as a result of a deficiency in Factor VIII. Common treatments for people with bleeding disorders such as hemophilia A, include factor replacement therapy. This is the injection into the bloodstream of Factor VIII concentrates to prevent or control bleeding.

[0008] Factor replacement therapy can also be used to reduce postoperative bleeding in high risk surgical procedures. The main disadvantage of factor replacement therapy, however, is the increased risk of exposure to blood-borne infections such as hepatitis due to infusions of blood products.

[0009] It has now been discovered that bleed time can be reduced in a subject by activation of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway in said subject. The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway can be activated by direct stimulation of the vagus nerve in the subject. For example, it has been shown by the inventor that electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve leads to decreased bleed time in laboratory mice (see Examples 1 and 2). The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway can also be activated by administering an effective amount of a cholinergic agonist to the subject. For example, it has been further shown by the inventor that administration of nicotine to laboratory mice, decreases bleed time in the mice (see Example 3). Based on these discoveries methods of reducing bleed time in a subject in need of such treatment are disclosed herein.

[0010] One embodiment of the present invention is a method of reducing bleed time in a subject by activating the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway. For example, the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway can be activated by stimulating the vagus nerve in the subject. The vagus nerve can be indirectly stimulated by administering an effective amount of muscarinic agonist to the subject. Suitable examples of muscarinic agonists include: muscarine, McN-A-343, MT-3 and CNI-1493. The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway can also be activated by administering an effective amount of cholinergic agonist to the subject. One example of a suitable cholinergic agonist is nicotine. Most preferably, the cholinergic agonist is selective for an α-7 nicotinic receptor; examples of suitable α-7 selective nicotinic agonists include: GTS-21, 3-(4-hydroxy-2-methoxybenzylidene) anabaseine, choline, cocaine methiodide, trans-3-cinnamylidene anabaseine, trans-3-(2-methoxy-cinnamylidene)anabaseine, or trans-3-(4-methoxycinnamylidene)anabaseine. The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway can also be activated by electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve in the subject or mechanical stimulation of the vagus nerve.

[0011] FIG. 1 is a graph showing the decrease in bleed time in seconds in laboratory mice, after vagus nerve stimulation at 1 volt for 20 minutes. This result is compared to a longer bleed time in a control group in which the vagus nerve was isolated but not stimulated.

[0012] FIG. 2 is a graph showing the decrease in bleed time in seconds in laboratory mice, after vagus nerve stimulation at 1 volt for 30 seconds. This result is compared to a longer bleed time in a control group in which the vagus nerve was isolated but not stimulated.

[0013] FIG. 3 is a graph showing the decrease in bleed time in seconds in laboratory mice after administration of nicotine. This result is compared to a longer bleed time in a control group to which a saline solution was administered.

[0014] FIG. 4 is a graph showing the decrease in bleed time in seconds in two groups of laboratory mice after tail amputation. The first group was administered GTS-21 prior to amputation; a control group was administered saline.

[0015] FIG. 5 is a graph showing the prothrombin time in (PT) seconds in laboratory mice after electrical vagus nerve stimulation (1V, 2 ms pulse width, 1 Hz for 30 seconds).

[0016] FIG. 6 is a graph showing the activated partial thromboplastin (APTT) time in seconds in laboratory mice after electrical vagus nerve stimulation (1V, 2 ms pulse width, 1 Hz for 30 seconds).

[0017] FIG. 7 is a graph showing the activated clotting time (ACT) in seconds in laboratory mice after electrical vagus nerve stimulation (1V, 2 ms pulse width, 1 Hz for 30 seconds).

[0018] FIG. 8 is a graph showing the decrease in bleed time in seconds in conscious laboratory mice after administration of nicotine. This result is compared to a longer bleed time in a control group to which a saline solution was administered.

[0019] FIG. 9 is a graph showing the effect of administration of the alpha-7 antagonist MLA to mice prior to administration of nicotine.

[0020] The present invention is based on the discovery that bleed time can be reduced in a subject by activation of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway (CAP) in said subject. As used herein, a subject is preferably a mammal, more preferably a human patient but can also be a companion animal (e.g., dog or cat), a farm animal (e.g., horse, cow, or sheep) or a laboratory animal (e.g., rat, mouse, or guinea pig).

[0021] The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway, as used herein, refers to a biochemical pathway in a subject, that is activated by cholinergic agonists and reduces inflammation in the subject. The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway is described in U.S. Patent Publication No. 2004/0204355 filed Dec. 5, 2003 and U.S. Pat. No. 6,610,713 filed May 15, 2001, the entire teachings of each of which are incorporated herein by reference. It has now been found that activation of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway also results in the reduction of bleed time in a subject.

[0022] The cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway may also be activated by stimulation (direct or indirect) of the vagus nerve in a subject. It is well known in the art that stimulation of the vagus nerve results in the release acetylcholine from efferent vagus nerve fibers (this is described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,610,713 B2, filed May 15, 2001, the entire teachings of which are incorporated herein by reference). As used herein, the vagus nerve includes nerves that branch off from the main vagus nerve, as well as ganglions or postganglionic neurons that are connected to the vagus nerve. The effect of vagus nerve stimulation on bleed time is not necessarily limited to that caused by acetylcholine release. The scope of the invention also encompasses other mechanisms which are partly or wholly responsible for the reduction of bleed time by vagus nerve stimulation. Nonlimiting examples include the release of serotonin agonists or stimulation of other neurotransmitters.

[0023] The terms ‘reduce’ or ‘reduced’ when referring to bleed time in a subject, encompass at least a small but measurable reduction in bleed time over non-treated controls. In preferred embodiments, the bleed time is reduced by at least 20% over non-treated controls; in more preferred embodiments, the reduction is at least 70%; and in still more preferred embodiments, the reduction is at least 80%.

[0024] In one embodiment of the present invention, activation of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway, and the reduction of bleed time in a subject is achieved by indirect stimulation of the vagus nerve. As used herein, indirect stimulation includes methods which involve secondary processes or agents which stimulate the vagus nerve. One example of such a secondary agent is a pharmacological vagus nerve stimulator.

[0025] In a preferred embodiment the pharmacological vagus nerve stimulator is an agonist (such as a muscarinic agonist) that activates a muscarinic receptor in the brain. As used herein, a muscarinic agonist is a compound that can bind to and activate a muscarinic receptor to produce a desired physiological effect, here, the reduction of bleed time. A muscarinic receptor is a cholinergic receptor which contains a recognition site for a muscarinic agonist (such as muscarine). In one embodiment, the muscarinic agonist is non-selective and can bind to other receptors in addition to muscarinic receptors, for example, another cholinergic receptor. An example of such a muscarinic agonist is acetylcholine. In a preferred embodiment, the muscarinic agonist binds muscarinic receptors with greater affinity than other cholinergic receptors, for example, nicotinic receptors (for example with at least 10% greater affinity, 20% greater affinity, 50% greater affinity, 75% greater affinity, 90% greater affinity, or 95% greater affinity).

[0026] In a preferred embodiment the muscarinic agonist is selective for an M1, M2, or M4 muscarinic receptor (as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 6,602,891, U.S. Pat. No. 6,528,529, U.S. Pat. No. 5,726,179, U.S. Pat. No. 5,718,912, U.S. Pat. No. 5,618,818, U.S. Pat. No. 5,403,845, U.S. Pat. No. 5,175,166, U.S. Pat. No. 5,106,853, U.S. Pat. No. 5,073,560 and U.S. Patent Publication No. 2004/0048795 filed Feb. 26, 2003, the contents of each of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety). As used herein, an agonist that is selective for an M1, M2, or M4 receptor is an agonist that binds to an M1, M2, and/or M4 receptor with greater affinity than it binds to at least one, or at least two, or at least five other muscarinic receptor subtypes (for example, M3 or M5 muscarinic receptors) and/or at least one, or at least two, or at least five other cholinergic receptors. In a preferred embodiment, the agonist binds with at least 10% greater affinity, 20% greater affinity, 50% greater affinity, 75% greater affinity, 90% greater affinity, or 95% greater affinity than it binds to muscarinic and/or cholinergic receptor subtypes other than M1, M2, and/or M4 receptors. Binding affinities can be determined using receptor binding assays known to one of skill in the art.

[0027] Nonlimiting examples of preferred muscarinic agonists useful for these methods include: muscarine, McN-A-343, and MT-3. In a most preferred embodiment, the muscarinic agonist is N,N′-bis (3,5-diacetylphenyl) decanediamide tetrakis (amidinohydrazone) tetrahydrochloride (CNI-1493), which has the following structural formula:

[0028] In another embodiment, the muscarinic agonist is a CNI-1493 compound. As used herein, a CNI-1493 compound is an aromatic guanylhydrazone (more properly termed amidinohydrazone, i.e., NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═), for example, a compound having the structural formula I:

[0029] X₂ is NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CH—, NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CCH₃—, or H—; X₁, X′₁ and X′₂ independently are NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CH— or NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CCH₃—; Z is —NH(CO)NH—, —(C₆H₄)—, —(C₅H₃)—, or -A-(CH₂)_n-A-, n is 2-10, which is unsubstituted, mono- or di-C-methyl substituted, or a mono or di-unsaturated derivative thereof; and A, independently, is —NH(CO)—, —NH(CO)NH—, —NH—, or —O—, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. A preferred embodiment includes those compounds where A is a single functionality. Also included are compounds having the structural formula I when X₁ and X₂ are H; X′₁ and X′₂ independently are NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CH— or NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CCH₃—; Z is -A-(CH₂)_n-A-, n is 3-8; A is —NH(CO)— or —NH(CO)NH—; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Also included are compounds of structural formula I when X₁ and X₂ are H; X′₁ and X′₂ independently are NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CH— or NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CCH₃—; Z is —O—(CH₂)₂—O—; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof.

[0030] Further examples of CNI-1493 compounds include compounds of structural formula I when X₂ is NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CH—, NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CCH₃— or H—; X₁, X′₁ and X′₂ are NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CH— or NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CCH₃—; and Z is —O—(CH₂)_n—O—, n is 2-10; pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof; and the related genus, when X₂ is other than H, X₂ is meta or para to X₁ and when, X′₂ is meta or para to X′₁. Another embodiment includes a compound having structural formula I when X₂ is NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CH—, NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CCH₃—, or H; X₁, X′₁ and X′₂, are NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CH— or NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CCH₃—; Z is —NH— (C═O)—NH—; pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof; and the related genus when X₂ is other than H, X₂ is meta or para to X₁ and when X′₂ is meta or para to X′₁.

[0031] A CNI-1493 compound also includes an aromatic guanylhydrazone compound having the structural formula II:

[0032] X₁, X₂, and X₃ independently are NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CH— or NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CCH₃—, X′₁, X′₂, and X′₃ independently are H, NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CH— or NH₂(CNH)—NH—N═CCH₃—; Z is (C₆H₃), when m₁, m₂, and m₃ are 0 or Z is N, when, independently, m₁, m₂, and m₃ are 2-6, and A is —NH(CO)—, —NH(CO)NH—, —NH—, or —O—; and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Further examples of compounds of structural formula II include the genus wherein, when any of X′₁, X′₂, and X′₃ are other than H, then the corresponding substituent of the group consisting of X₁, X₂, and X₃ is meta or para to X′₁, X′₂, and X′₃, respectively; the genus when m₁, m₂, and m₃ are 0 and A is —NH(CO)—; and the genus when m₁, m₂, and m₃ are 2-6, A is —NH(CO)NH—, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. Examples of CNI-1493 compounds and methods for making such compounds are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,854,289 (the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference).

[0033] Alternatively, the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway is activated by administering an effective amount of cholinergic agonist to a subject, thus reducing bleed time in said subject. As used herein, a cholinergic agonist is a compound that binds to and activates a cholinergic receptor producing a desired physiological effect, here, the reduction of bleed time in a subject. The skilled artisan can determine whether any particular compound is a cholinergic agonist by any of several well known methods. In preferred embodiments the cholinergic agonist has been used therapeutically in vivo or is naturally produced. Nonlimiting examples of cholinergic agonists suitable for use in the disclosed invention include: acetylcholine, nicotine, muscarine, carbachol, galantamine, arecoline, cevimeline, and levamisole. In a preferred embodiment the cholinergic agonist is acetylcholine, nicotine, or muscarine.

[0034] In a more preferred embodiment the cholinergic agonist is an α7 selective nicotinic cholinergic agonist. As used herein an α7 selective nicotinic cholinergic agonist is a compound that selectively binds to and activates an α7 nicotinic cholinergic receptor in a subject. Nicotinic cholinergic receptors are a family of ligand-gated, pentameric ion channels. In humans, 16 different subunits (α1-7, α9-10, β1-4, δ, ε, and γ) have been identified that form a large number of homo- and hetero-pentameric receptors with distinct structural and pharmacological properties (Lindstrom, J. M., Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors. In “Hand Book of Receptors and Channels: Ligand- and Voltage-Gated Ion Channels” Edited by R. Alan North CRC Press Inc., (1995); Leonard, S., & Bertrand, D., Neuronal nicotinic receptors: from structure to function. Nicotine &Tobacco Res. 3:203-223 (2001); Le Novere, N., & Changeux, J-P., Molecular evolution of the nicotinic acetylcholine receptor: an example of multigene family in excitable cells, J. Mol. Evol., 40:155-172 (1995)).

[0035] As used herein, a cholinergic agonist is selective for an α7 nicotinic cholinergic receptor if that agonist activates an α7 nicotinic cholinergic receptor to a greater extent than the agonist activates at least one other nicotinic receptor. It is preferred that the α7 selective nicotinic agonist activates the α7 nicotinic receptor at least two-fold, at least five-fold, at least ten-fold, and most preferably at least fifty-fold more than at least one other nicotinic receptor (and preferably at least two, three, or five other nicotinic receptors). Most preferably, the α7 selective nicotinic agonist will not activate another nicotinic receptor to any measurable degree (i.e., significant at P=0.05 vs. untreated receptor in a well-controlled comparison).

[0036] Such an activation difference can be measured by comparing activation of the various receptors by any known method, for example using an in vitro receptor binding assay, such as those produced by NovaScreen Biosciences Corporation (Hanover Md.), or by the methods disclosed in WO 02/44176 (α4β2 tested), U.S. Pat. No. 6,407,095 (peripheral nicotinic receptor of the ganglion type), U.S. Patent Application Publication No. 2002/0086871 (binding of labeled ligand to membranes prepared from GH₄Cl cells transfected with the receptor of interest), and WO 97/30998. References which describe methods of determining agonists that are selective for α7 receptors include: U.S. Pat. No. 5,977,144 (Table 1), WO 02/057275 (pg 41-42), and Holladay et al., Neuronal Nicotinic Acetylcholine Receptors as Targets for Drug Discovery, Journal of Medicinal Chemistry, 40:4169-4194 (1997), the teachings of these references are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety. Assays for other nicotinic receptor subtypes are known to the skilled artisan.

[0037] In one embodiment the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is a compound of structural formula III:

[0038] R is hydrogen or methyl, and n is 0 or 1, and pharmaceutically acceptable salts thereof. In a preferred embodiment the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is (−)-spiro[1′-azabicyclo[2.2.2] octane-3,5′-oxazolidin-2′-one]. Methods of preparation of compounds of structural formula III are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,902,814, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0039] In another embodiment, the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is a compound of structural formula IV:

[0040] m is 1 or 2; n is 0 or 1; Y is CH, N or NO; X is oxygen or sulfur; W is oxygen, H₂ or F₂; A is N or C(R²); G is N or C(R³); D is N or C(R⁴); with the proviso that no more than one of A, G and D is nitrogen but at least one of Y, A, G, and D is nitrogen or NO; R¹ is hydrogen or C, to C₄ alkyl, R², R³, and R⁴ are independently hydrogen, halogen, C₁-C₄ alkyl, C₂-C₄ alkenyl, C₂-C₄ alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, OH, OC₁-C₄ alkyl, CO₂R¹—CN, —NO₂, —NR⁵R⁶, —CF₃, or —OSO₂CF₃, or R² and R³, or R³ and R⁴, respectively, may together form another six membered aromatic or heteroaromatic ring sharing A and G, or G and D, respectively, containing between zero and two nitrogen atoms, and substituted with one to two of the following substitutents: independently hydrogen, halogen, C₁-C₄ alkyl, C₂-C₄ alkenyl, C₂-C₄ alkynyl, aryl, heteroaryl, OH, OC₁—C₄ alkyl, CO₂R¹, —CN, —NO₂, —NR⁵R⁶, —CF₃, or —OSO₂CF₃; R⁵ and R⁶ are independently hydrogen, C₁-C₄ alkyl, C(O)R⁷, C(O)NHR⁸, C(O)OR⁹, SO₂R¹⁰ or may together be (CH₂)_jQ(CH₂)_k, where Q is O, S, NR¹¹, or a bond; j is 2 to 7; k is 0 to 2; and R⁷, R⁸, R⁹, R¹⁰ and R¹¹ are independently C₁-C₄, alkyl, aryl, or heteroaryl; an enantiomer thereof, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In preferred embodiments, the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is a compound of structural formula IV when m is 2; n is 0; X is oxygen; A is C(R²); G is C(R³); and D is C(R⁴). In a particular preferred embodiment the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is (R)-(−)-5′-phenylspiro[1-aziobicyclo[2.2.2]octane-3,2′(3′H)-furo[2,3-b]pyridine]. Methods of preparation of compounds of structural formula IV are described in the U.S. Pat. No. 6,110,914, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0041] In yet another embodiment the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is a compound of structural formula V:

[0042] R¹, R⁶ and R⁷ are hydrogen or C₁-C₄ alkyl; alternatively R¹ is hydrogen or C₁-C₄ alkyl, and R⁶ and R⁷ are absent, hydrogen or C₁-C₄ alkyl; and R² is:

[0043] R³, R⁴, and R⁵ are hydrogen, C₁-C₄ alkyl optionally substituted with N,N-dialkylamino having 1 to 4 carbons in each of the alkyls, C₁-C₆ alkoxy optionally substituted with N,N-dialkylamino having 1 to 4 carbons in each of the alkyls, carboalkoxy having 1 to 4 carbons in the alkoxy, amino, amido having 1 to 4 carbons in the acyl, cyano, and N,N-dialkylamino having 1 to 4 carbons in each of the alkyls, halo, hydroxyl or nitro.

[0044] In preferred embodiments, the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is a compound of structural formula V when R² is attached to the 3-position of the tetrahydropyridine ring. In another preferred embodiment when R³, which may preferably be attached to the 4- or the 2-position of the phenyl ring, is: amino, hydroxyl, chloro, cyano, dimethylamino, methyl, methoxy, acetylamino, acetoxy, or nitro. In one particular preferred embodiment the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is a compound of structural formula V, when R³ is hydroxyl, and R¹, R⁴, and R⁵ are hydrogen. In another particular preferred embodiment the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is a compound of structural formula V, when R³ is acetylamino and R¹, R⁴, and R⁵ are hydrogen. In another particular preferred embodiment the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is a compound of structural formula V, when R³ is acetoxy and R¹, R⁴, and R⁵ are hydrogen. In another particular preferred embodiment the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is a compound of structural formula V, when R³ is methoxy and R¹, R⁴, and R⁵ are hydrogen. In another particular preferred embodiment the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is a compound of structural formula V, when R³ is methoxy and R¹ and R⁴ are hydrogen, and further when, R³ is attached to the 2-position of the phenyl ring, and R⁵, which is attached to the 4-position of the phenyl ring, is methoxy or hydroxy.

[0045] In a preferred embodiment the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is: 3-(2,4-dimethoxybenzylidine) anabaseine (GTS-21) (also known as DMXB-A), 3-(4-hydroxybenzylidene)anabaseine, 3-(4-methoxybenzylidene)anabaseine, 3-(4-aminobenzylidene)anabaseine, 3-(4-hydroxy-2-methoxybenzylidene)anabaseine, 3-(4-methoxy-2-hydroxybenzylidene)anabaseine, trans-3-cinnamylidene anabaseine, trans-3-(2-methoxy-cinnamylidene)anabaseine, or trans-3-(4-methoxycinnamylidene)anabaseine.

[0046] Methods of preparation of compounds of structural formula V are described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,977,144, and U.S. Pat. No. 5,741,802 the contents of each of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0047] In further embodiments the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is a compound of structural formula VI:

[0048] X is O or S; R is H, OR¹, NHC(O)R¹, or a halogen; and R¹ is C₁-C₄ alkyl; or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof. In a particular preferred embodiment the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is:

• [0049] N-[(3R)-1-azabicyclo[2.2.2]oct-3-yl]-4-(4-hydroxyphenoxy)benzamide,
• [0050] N-[(3R)-1-azabicyclo[2.2.2]oct-3-yl]-4-(4-acetamidophenoxy)benzamide,
• [0051] N-[(3R)-1-azabicyclo[2.2.2]oct-3-yl]-4-(phenylsulfanyl)benzamide, or
• [0052] N-[(3R)-1-azabicyclo[2.2.2]oct-3-yl]-4-(3-chlorophenylsulphonyl)benzamide.

[0053] Methods of preparation of compounds with structural formula VI have been described in the U.S. Patent Application 2002/0040035, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0054] In yet another embodiment the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is (1-aza-bicyclo [2.2.2]oct-3-yl)-carbamic acid 1-(2-fluorophenyl)-ethyl ester. Methods of preparation of this compound have been described in the U.S. Patent Application Publication 2002/0040035, the contents of which are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.

[0055] In an even more preferred embodiment the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is: GTS-21, 3-(4-hydroxy-2-methoxybenzylidene)anabaseine, (R)-(−)-5′-phenylspiro[1-azabicyclo[2.2.2]octane-3,2′octane-3,2′(3′H)-furo[2,3-b]pyridine], (−)-spiro-[1-azabicyclo[2.2.2]octane-3,5′-oxazolidin-2′-one] or cocaine methiodide, additional α7 selective nicotinic agonist include trans-3-cinnamylidene anabaseine, trans-3-(2-methoxy-cinnamylidene)anabaseine or trans-3-(4-methoxycinnamylidene anabaseine.

[0056] In yet another embodiment, the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is an antibody which is a selective agonist (most preferably a specific agonist) for the α7 nicotinic receptor. The antibodies can be polyclonal or monoclonal; may be from human, non-human eukaryotic, cellular, fungal or bacterial sources; may be encoded by genomic or vector-borne coding sequences; and may be elicited against native or recombinant α7 or fragments thereof with or without the use of adjuvants, all according to a variety of methods and procedures well-known in the art for generating and producing antibodies. Other examples of such useful antibodies include but are not limited to chimeric, single-chain, and various human or humanized types of antibodies, as well as various fragments thereof such as Fab fragments and fragments produced from specialized expression systems.

[0057] In additional embodiments, the α7 selective nicotinic agonist is an aptamer which is a selective agonist (more preferably a specific agonist) for the α7 nicotinic receptor. Aptamers are single stranded oligonucleotides or oligonucleotide analogs that bind to a particular target molecule, such as a protein or a small molecule (e.g., a steroid or a drug, etc.). Thus aptamers are the oligonucleotide analogy to antibodies. However, aptamers are smaller than antibodies, generally in the range of 50-100 nt. Their binding is highly dependent on the secondary structure formed by the aptamer oligonucleotide. Both RNA and single stranded DNA (or analog), aptamers are known. See, e.g., Burke et al., J. Mol. Biol., 264(4): 650-666 (1996); Ellington and Szostak, Nature, 346(6287): 818-822 (1990); Hirao et al., Mol Divers., 4(2): 75-89 (1998); Jaeger et al., The EMBO Journal 17(15): 4535-4542 (1998); Kensch et al., J. Biol. Chem., 275(24): 18271-18278 (2000); Schneider et al., Biochemistry, 34(29): 9599-9610 (1995); and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,496,938; 5,503,978; 5,580,737; 5,654,151; 5,726,017; 5,773,598; 5,786,462; 6,028,186; 6,110,900; 6,124,449; 6,127,119; 6,140,490; 6,147,204; 6,168,778; and 6,171,795. Aptamers can also be expressed from a transfected vector (Joshi et al., J. Virol., 76(13), 6545-6557 (2002)).

[0058] Aptamers that bind to virtually any particular target can be selected by using an iterative process called SELEX, which stands for Systematic Evolution of Ligands by EXponential enrichment (Burke et al., J. Mol. Biol., 264(4): 650-666 (1996); Ellington and Szostak, Nature, 346(6287): 818-822 (1990); Schneider et al., Biochemistry, 34(29): 9599-9610 (1995); Tuerk et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 89: 6988-6992 (1992); Tuerk and Gold, Science, 249(4968): 505-510 (1990)). Several variations of SELEX have been developed which improve the process and allow its use under particular circumstances. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,472,841; 5,503,978; 5,567,588; 5,582,981; 5,637,459; 5,683,867; 5,705,337; 5,712,375; and 6,083,696. Thus, the production of aptamers to any particular oligopeptide, including the α7 nicotinic receptor, requires no undue experimentation.

[0059] As described above, the compounds can be administered in the form of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt. This includes compounds disclosed herein which possess a sufficiently acidic, a sufficiently basic, or both functional groups, and accordingly can react with any of a number of organic or inorganic bases, and organic or inorganic acids, to form a salt. Acids commonly employed to form acid addition salts from compounds with basic groups, are inorganic acids such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, hydroiodic acid, sulfuric acid, phosphoric acid, and the like, and organic acids such as p-toluenesulfonic acid, methanesulfonic acid, oxalic acid, p-bromophenyl-sulfonic acid, carbonic acid, succinic acid, citric acid, benzoic acid, acetic acid, and the like. Examples of such salts include the sulfate, pyrosulfate, bisulfate, sulfite, bisulfite, phosphate, monohydrogenphosphate, dihydrogenphosphate, metaphosphate, pyrophosphate, chloride, bromide, iodide, acetate, propionate, decanoate, caprylate, acrylate, formate, isobutyrate, caproate, heptanoate, propiolate, oxalate, malonate, succinate, suberate, sebacate, fumarate, maleate, butyne-1,4-dioate, hexyne-1,6-dioate, benzoate, chlorobenzoate, methylbenzoate, dinitrobenzoate, hydroxybenzoate, methoxybenzoate, phthalate, sulfonate, xylenesulfonate, phenylacetate, phenylpropionate, phenylbutyrate, citrate, lactate, gamma-hydroxybutyrate, glycolate, tartrate, methanesulfonate, propanesulfonate, naphthalene-1-sulfonate, naphthalene-2-sulfonate, mandelatek, and the like.

[0060] Such a pharmaceutically acceptable salt may be made with a base which affords a pharmaceutically acceptable cation, which includes alkali metal salts (especially sodium and potassium), alkaline earth metal salts (especially calcium and magnesium), aluminum salts and ammonium salts, as well as salts made from physiologically acceptable organic bases such as trimethylamine, triethylamine, morpholine, pyridine, piperidine, picoline, dicyclohexylamine, N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine, 2-hydroxyethylamine, bis-(2-hydroxyethyl)amine, tri-(2-hydroxyethyl)amine, procaine, dibenzylpiperidine, -benzyl-β-phenethylamine, dehydroabietylamine, N,N′-bisdehydroabietylamine, glucamine, N-methylglucamine, collidine, quinine, quinoline, and basic amino acid such as lysine and arginine. These salts may be prepared by methods known to those skilled in the art.

[0061] The term “alkyl”, as used herein, unless otherwise indicated, includes saturated monovalent hydrocarbon radicals having straight or branched moieties, typically C₁-C₁₀, preferably C₁-C₆. Examples of alkyl groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, ethyl, propyl, isopropyl, and t-butyl.

[0062] The term “alkenyl”, as used herein, includes alkyl moieties, as defined above, having at least one carbon-carbon double bond. Examples of alkenyl groups include, but are not limited to, ethenyl and propenyl.

[0063] The term “alkynyl”, as used herein, includes alkyl moieties, as defined above, having at least one carbon-carbon triple bond. Examples of alkynyl groups include, but are not limited to, ethynyl and 2-propynyl.

[0064] The term “alkoxy”, as used herein, means an “alkyl-O-” group, wherein alkyl is defined above.

[0065] The term “cycloalkyl”, as used herein, includes non-aromatic saturated cyclic alkyl moieties, wherein alkyl is as defined above. Examples of cycloalkyl include, but are not limited to, cyclopropyl, cyclobutyl, cyclopentyl, cyclohexyl, and cycloheptyl. “Bicycloalkyl” groups are non-aromatic saturated carbocyclic groups consisting of two rings. Examples of bicycloalkyl groups include, but are not limited to, bicyclo-[2.2.2]-octyl and norbornyl. The term “cycloalkenyl” and “bicycloalkenyl” refer to non-aromatic carbocyclic, cycloalkyl, and bicycloaklkyl moieties as defined above, except comprising of one or more carbon-carbon double bonds connecting carbon ring members (an “endocyclic” double bond) and/or one or more carbon-carbon double bonds connecting a carbon ring member and an adjacent non-ring carbon (an “exocyclic” double bond). Examples of cycloalkenyl groups include, but are not limited to, cyclopentenyl and cyclohexenyl. A non-limiting example of a bicycloalkenyl group is norborenyl. Cycloalkyl, cycloalkenyl, bicycloalkyl, and bicycloalkenyl groups also include groups similar to those described above for each of these respective categories, but which are substituted with one or more oxo moieties. Examples of such groups with oxo moieties include, but are not limited to, oxocyclopentyl, oxocyclobutyl, ococyclopentenyl, and norcamphoryl.

[0066] The term “cycloalkoxy”, as used herein, includes “cycloalkyl-O-” group, wherein cycloalkyl is defined above.

[0067] The term “aryl”, as used herein, refers to carbocyclic group. Examples of aryl groups include, but are not limited to, phenyl and naphthyl.

[0068] The term “heteroaryl”, as used herein, refers to aromatic groups containing one or more heteroatoms (O, S, or N). A heteroaryl group can be monocyclic or polycyclic. The heteroaryl groups of this invention can also include ring systems substituted with one or more oxo moieties. Examples of heteroaryl groups include, but are not limited to, pyridinyl, pyridazinal, imidaxolyl, pyrimidinyl, pyrazolyl, triazolyl, pyrazinyl, quinolyl, isoquinolyl, tetrazolyl, furyl, thienyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, oxazolyl, isothiazolyl, pyrrolyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, indolyl, benzimidazolyl, benzofuranyl, cinnolinyl, indazolyl, indolizinyl, phthalazinyl, pyridazinyl, triazinyl, isoindolyl, purinyl, oxadiazolyl, thiazolyl, thiadiazolyl, furazanyl, benzofurazanyl, benzothiophenyl, benzotirazolyl, benzothiazolyl, benzoxazolyl, quinazolinyl, quinoxalinyl, naphthyridinyl, dihydroquinolyl, tetrahydroquinolyl, dihydroisoquinolyl, tetrahydroisoquinolyl, benzofuryl, furophridinyl, pyrolopyrimidinyl, and azaindoyl.

[0069] The foregoing heteroaryl groups may be C-attached or N-attached (where such is possible). For instance, a group derived from pyrrole may be pyrrol-1-yl (N-attached) or pyrrol-3-yl (C-attached).

[0070] In the context of the present invention, a bicyclic carbocyclic group is a bicyclic compound holding carbon only as a ring atom. The ring structure may in particular be aromatic, saturated, or partially saturated. Examples of such compounds include, but are not limited to, indanyl, naphthalenyl or azulenyl.

[0071] In the context of the present invention, an amino group may be primary (—NH₂), secondary (—NHR_a), or tertiary (—NR_aR_b), wherein R_a and R_b may be: alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, alkoxy, cycloalkyl, cycloalkoxy, aryl, heteroaryl, or a bicyclic carbocyclic group.

[0072] In another embodiment, activation of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway, and the reduction of bleed time in a subject is achieved by indirect stimulation of the vagus nerve. The method comprises administering to the subject an effective amount of a non-steriodal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID). Examples of suitable NSAIDs include: aspirin, indomethacin, and ibuprofen. Alternatively, indirect stimulation of the vagus nerve is achieved by administering to the subject an effective amount of amiodarone or α-melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH).

[0073] The route of administration of the pharmacological vagus nerve stimulators (i.e., muscarinic agonists, NSAIDs, AMSH, and amiodarone) and the cholinergic agonists depends on the condition to be treated. The route of administration and the dosage to be administered can be determined by the skilled artisan without undue experimentation in conjunction with standard dose-response studies. Relevant circumstances to be considered in making those determinations include the condition or conditions to be treated, the choice of composition to be administered, the age, weight, and response of the individual subject, and the severity of the subject's symptoms.

[0074] Compositions useful for the present invention can be administered parenterally such as, for example, by intravenous, intramuscular, intrathecal, or subcutaneous injection. Parenteral administration can be accomplished by incorporating the drug into a solution or suspension. Such solutions or suspensions may also include sterile diluents such as water for injection, saline solution, fixed oils, polyethylene glycols, glycerine, propylene glycol, or other synthetic solvents. Parenteral formulations may also include antibacterial agents such as, for example, benzyl alcohol, or methyl parabens, antioxidants, such as, for example, ascorbic acid or sodium bisulfite and chelating agents such as EDTA. Buffers such as acetates, citrates, or phosphates and agents for the adjustment of tonicity such as sodium chloride or dextrose may also be added. The parenteral preparation can be enclosed in ampules, disposable syringes, or multiple dose vials made of glass or plastic.

[0075] Rectal administration includes administering the pharmaceutical compositions into the rectum or large intestine. This can be accomplished using suppositories or enemas. Suppository formulations can be made by methods known in the art. For example, suppository formulations can be prepared by heating glycerin to about 120° C., dissolving the drug in the glycerin, mixing the heated glycerin after which purified water may be added, and pouring the hot mixture into a suppository mold.

[0076] Transdermal administration includes percutaneous absorption of the drug through the skin. Transdermal formulations include patches, ointments, creams, gels, salves, and the like. In a preferred embodiment the cholinergic agonist, nicotine, is administered transdermally by means of a nicotine patch.

[0077] A transesophageal device includes a device deposited on the surface of the esophagus which allows the drug contained within the device to diffuse into the blood which perfuses the esophageal tissue.

[0078] The present invention includes nasally administering to the subject an effective amount of the drug. As used herein, nasal administration includes administering the drug to the mucous membranes of the nasal passage or nasal cavity of the subject. As used herein, pharmaceutical compositions for nasal administration of a drug include effective amounts of the drug prepared by well-known methods to be administered, for example, as a nasal spray, nasal drop, suspension, gel, ointment, cream, or powder. Administration of the drug may also take place using a nasal tampon, or nasal sponge.

[0079] Accordingly, drug compositions designed for oral, lingual, sublingual, buccal, and intrabuccal administration can be used with the disclosed methods and made without undue experimentation by means well known in the art, for example, with an inert diluent or with an edible carrier. The compositions may be enclosed in gelatin capsules or compressed into tablets. For the purpose of oral therapeutic administration, the pharmaceutical compositions of the present invention may be incorporated with excipients and used in the form of tablets, troches, capsules, elixirs, suspensions, syrups, wafers, chewing gums, and the like.

[0080] Tablets, pills, capsules, troches, and the like may also contain binders, recipients, disintegrating agent, lubricants, sweetening agents, and flavoring agents. Some examples of binders include microcrystalline cellulose, gum tragacanth, or gelatin. Examples of excipients include starch or lactose. Some examples of disintegrating agents include alginic acid, corn starch, and the like. Examples of lubricants include magnesium stearate or potassium stearate. An example of a glidant is colloidal silicon dioxide. Some examples of sweetening agents include sucrose, saccharin, and the like. Examples of flavoring agents include peppermint, methyl salicylate, orange flavoring, and the like. Materials used in preparing these various compositions should be pharmaceutically pure and nontoxic in the amounts used.

[0081] Muscarinic agonists, can be administered orally, parenterally, intranasally, vaginally, rectally, lingually, sublingually, buccaly, intrabuccaly, or transdermally to the subject as described above, provided the muscarinic agonist can cross the blood-brain barrier or permeate the brain through circumventricular organs which do not have a blood brain barrier. Brain muscarinic agonists can also be administered by intracerebroventricular injection. NSAIDs, amiodarone, and αMSH may also be administered by intracerebroventricular injection or by one of the techniques described above, provided that they can permeate the brain through the blood-brain barrier or through circumventricular organs which do not have a blood brain barrier.

[0082] An effective amount, is defined herein as a therapeutically or prophylactically sufficient amount of the drug to achieve the desired biological effect, here, the reduction of bleed time in a subject. Examples of effective amounts typically range from about 0.5 g/25 g body weight to about 0.0001 ng/25 g body weight, and preferably about 5 mg/25 g body to about 1 ng/25 g body weight.

[0083] Yet another embodiment of the present invention is directed to methods of reducing bleed time in a subject. The methods comprise activating the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway by directly stimulating the vagus nerve. As used herein, direct stimulation of the vagus nerve includes processes which involve direct contact with the vagus nerve or an organ served by the vagus nerve. One example of such a process, is electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve. Direct stimulation of the vagus nerve releases acetylcholine which results in the reduction of bleed time in the brain or in peripheral organs served by the vagus nerve. The vagus nerve enervates principal organs including, the pharynx, the larynx, the esophagus, the heart, the lungs, the stomach, the pancreas, the spleen, the kidneys, the adrenal glands, the small and large intestine, the colon, and the liver.

[0084] The vagus nerve can be stimulated by stimulating the entire vagus nerve (i.e., both the afferent and efferent nerves), or by isolating efferent nerves and stimulating them directly. The latter method can be accomplished by separating the afferent from the efferent fibers in an area of the nerve where both types of fibers are present. Alternatively, the efferent fiber is stimulated where no afferent fibers are present, for example close to the target organ served by the efferent fibers. The efferent fibers can also be stimulated by stimulating the target organ directly, e.g., electrically, thus stimulating the efferent fibers that serve that organ. In other embodiments, the ganglion or postganglionic neurons of the vagus nerve can be stimulated. The vagus nerve can also be cut and the distal end can be stimulated, thus only stimulating efferent vagus nerve fibers.

[0085] The vagus nerve can be directly stimulated by numerous methods. Nonlimiting examples include: mechanical means such as a needle, ultrasound, or vibration; electromagnetic radiation such as infrared, visible or ultraviolet light and electromagnetic fields; heat, or another energy source. Mechanical stimulation can also be carried out by carotid massage, oculocardiac reflex, dive reflex and valsalva maneuver. The efferent vagal nerve fibers can also be stimulated by electromagnetic radiation such as infrared, visible or ultraviolet light; heat, or any other energy source.

[0086] In preferred embodiments, the vagus nerve is directly stimulated electrically, using for example a commercial vagus nerve stimulator such as the Cyberonics NCP.RTM., or an electric probe. The amount of stimulation useful to reduce bleed time can be determined by the skilled artisan without undue experimentation. Examples of effective amounts of electrical stimulation required to reduce bleed time include, but are not limited to, a constant voltage of 0.1, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, 5, or 10 V, at a pulse width of 2 ms and signal frequency of 1-5 Hz, for 5 seconds, 10 seconds, 30 seconds, 1 minute, 5 minutes, 10 minutes, 20 minutes, 30 minutes, or 1 hour. Alternatively, the electrical stimulation required to reduce bleed time include, but are not limited to, a constant voltage of from about 0.01 to 1 V or from about 0.01 to 0.1 V or from about 0.01 to 0.05V; a signal current range from about 1 mA to about 100 mA, from about 1 mA to about 10 mA from about 1 mA to about 5 mA; a pulse width from about 0.1 to about 5 ms; signal frequencies of about 0.1 to about 30 Hz, or from about 1 to about 30 Hz, or from about 10 to about 30 Hz; a signal on-time from 1 to 120 seconds, or from about 10 to about 60 seconds, or from about 20 to about 40 seconds; signal off-time from 5 minutes, up to 2 hours, over 2 hours, over 4 hours, over 8 hours, over 12, hour, or from about 2 to about 48 hours, from about 4 to about 36 hours, from about 6 to about 36 hours from about 12 to about 36 hours, from about 16 to about 30 hours, from about 20 to about 28 hours. Alternatively, signal off-time can be undefined as one skilled in the art will readily determine the desired time interval between two consecutive signals.

[0087] Examples include, signal voltage to a range from about 0.01 V to about 1 V; pulse width to a range from about 0.1 ms to about 5 ms; signal frequency to a range from about 0.1 Hz to about 30 Hz; signal on-time from about 1 second to about 120 seconds. Signal off-time can be undefined. A signal voltage from about 0.01 V to about 0.1 V; pulse width to a range of about 0.1 ms to about 1 ms; signal frequency to a range from about 1 Hz to about 30 Hz; signal on-time to a range of from about 10 seconds to about 60 seconds; signal off-time to a range of over 2 hours. A signal voltage to a range from about 0.01 V to about 0.05 V; pulse width to a range from about 0.1 ms to about 0.5 ms; signal to a range from about 10 Hz to about 30 Hz; signal on-time to a range from about 20 seconds to about 40 seconds; signal off-time to a range from about 2 hours to about 24 hours. A signal current from about 1 mA to about 5 mA; pulse width to a range from about 0.1 ms to about 0.5 ms; signal to a range of about 10 Hz to about 30 Hz; signal on-time to a range from about 20 seconds to about 40 seconds; signal off-time can be undefined.

[0088] In certain embodiments, electrical vagal nerve stimulation which is sufficient to activate the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway in a subject does not decrease the heart rate of the subject.

[0089] In a preferred embodiment the vagus nerve is stimulated directly by means of an implanted device.

[0090] In another embodiment the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway is activated by administering an effective amount of acetylcholinesterase inhibitor to the subject. Examples of acetylcholinesterase inhibitors include: tacrine, donepezil, rivastigmine, galantamine, metrifonate, physostigmine, neostigmine, edrophonium, pyridostigmine, demacarium, and ambenonium.

[0091] In a still further embodiment the present invention is directed to reducing bleed time in a subject, the method comprising conditioning the subject to reduce bleed time by associating the activation of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway with a sensory stimulus. Conditioning is a method of training an animal by which a perceptible neutral stimulus is temporarily associated with a physiological stimulus so that the animal will ultimately respond to the neutral stimulus as if it were the physiological stimulus. Pavlov, for instance, trained dogs to respond with salivation to the ringing of a bell following prior experiments where the dogs were prescribed a food stimulus (associated with salivation) simultaneously with a ringing bell stimulus.

[0092] Thus, the present invention is directed to methods of conditioning a subject to reduce bleed time in the subject upon experiencing a sensory stimulus. The methods comprise the following steps:

• • [0093] (a) activating the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway, and providing the sensory stimulus to the subject within a time period sufficient to create an association between the stimulus and the stimulation of the vagus nerve; and
  • [0094] (b) repeating step (a) at sufficient time intervals and duration to reinforce the association sufficiently for the bleed time to be reduced by the sensory stimulus alone.

[0095] In the conditioning step of these methods (step (a)), the CAP can be activated by any means previously discussed. The time interval between repetitions of the stimulus-activation procedures should also be short enough to optimize the reinforcement of the association. A common time interval is twice daily. The duration of the conditioning should also be sufficient to provide optimum reinforcement of the association. A common duration is at least one week. Optimum time intervals and durations can be determined by the skilled artisan without undue experimentation by standard methods known in the art.

[0096] The sensory stimulus can be from any of the five senses. Nonlimiting examples of suitable sensory stimuli are sounds such as a bell ring, a buzzer, and a musical passage; a touch such as a pin stick, a feather touch, and an electric shock; a taste, or the ingestion of a particular chemical, such as a sweet taste, a sour taste, a salty taste, and saccharine ingestion; and a visual image such as a still picture, a playing card, or a short video presentation.

[0097] The methods of the present invention are ideally suited to therapeutically or prophylactically treat subjects suffering from or at risk from suffering from excessive bleeding due to injury, surgery, or bleeding disorders such as: Hemophilia A, Hemophilia B, von Willebrand Disease, Afibrinogenemia, Factor II Deficiency, Parahemophilia, Factor VII Deficiency, Stuart Prower Factor Deficiency, Hageman Factor Deficiency, Fibrin Stabilizing Factor Deficiency, Thombophilia, heridetary platelet function disorders (for example: Bernard-Soulier Syndrome, Glanzmann Thrombasthenia, Gray Platelet Syndrome, Scott Syndrome, May-Hegglin Anomaly, Alport Syndrome and Wiskott-Aldrich Syndrome), or acquired platelet function disorders (such as those caused by common drugs: blood thinners, antibiotics and anaesthetics and those caused by medical conditions such as: leukemia, heart bypass surgery and chronic kidney disease). The method is particularly suitable for subjects with bleeding disorders about to undergo, or undergoing surgery.

[0098] The invention is illustrated by the following examples which are not intended to be limiting in any way.

[0099] The mice were divided into two groups. In both groups the mice necks were dissected down to the musculature and the left vagus nerves were isolated. In the first group a 1 volt electric current was passed through the vagus nerve for 20 minutes. In the second group, the control group, the vagus nerve was isolated only, and the group was untreated for 20 minutes.

[0100] The mice tails from both groups were warmed in 37° C. saline for five minutes. The tails were then cut 2 mm from the tip, and the tail blood was collected in a 37° C. saline solution.

[0101] The results of the experiment are presented in FIG. 1. Electrical stimulation of the vagus nerve significantly reduced bleed time in the mice compared with the control group, thus demonstrating that stimulation of the vagus nerve decreases peripheral bleed time in a subject.

[0102] The mice were divided into two groups. In both groups the mice necks were dissected down to the musculature. The mice tails from both groups were warmed in 37° C. saline for five minutes.

[0103] In both groups the left vagus nerves were isolated. In the first group a 1 volt electric current was passed through the vagus nerve for 30 seconds. The second group, the control group, was untreated for 30 seconds.

[0104] The tails were then cut 2 mm from the tip, and the tail blood was collected in a 37° C. saline solution.

[0105] The results of this experiment are presented in FIG. 2. Two parameters in this example were changed from Example 1, firstly the duration of stimulation was decreased from 20 minutes to 30 seconds and secondly the mice tails were prewarmed prior to vagus nerve stimulation. The purpose of prewarming the mice tails prior to vagus nerve stimulation was to minimize the delay between stimulation and transection. This reduction in the delay between stimulation and transection resulted in a reduction in bleed time comparable with that shown in Example 1 where the mice tails were pre-warmed between the electrical stimulation and transection steps.

[0106] The mice were weighed, and ketamine (100 mg/kg) and xylazine (10 mg/kg) was administered to each mouse.

[0107] The mice were then divided into two groups. After 20 minutes group one was injected with nicotine (0.3 mg/kg) and the second group, the control group was injected with saline. The nicotine solution was taken from a 162 mg/ml stock solution and diluted 1:10 in ethanol and then further diluted 1:250 in phosphate buffer saline (PBS), bringing the final solution to 0.0648 μg/μl; 151 μl/25 g mouse was injected into the mice.

[0108] After five minutes the two groups were injected with a saline solution.

[0109] After 20 minutes the mice tails from the two groups of mice were warmed by stirring in 37° C. water. The tails were then cut 2 mm from the tip with a fresh scalpel. The tails were immediately immersed in a fluorescent activated sorting (FACS) tube which contained 3 ml pre-warmed saline. The tubes were held in a beaker of 37° C. water which was continuously stirred. The tails remained near the bottom of the tube the entire bleeding period.

[0110] The bleeding time was counted using a stopwatch.

[0111] The mice were then euthanized by CO₂ via a cardiac puncture with a heparinized needle.

[0112] Administration of nicotine to the mice significantly reduced the bleed time, thus establishing that the activation of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway by cholinergic agonists reduces peripheral bleed time in the subject. The results of this experiment are presented in FIG. 3.

[0113] Male Balb/c mice (around 25 g) were injected (intraperitoneally (IP)) with cholinergic agonist GTS-21 (4 mg/kg in 125 μL PBS) or PBS (vehicle control, 125 μL). 1 hour later, mice were anesthetized with ketamine/xylazine (100 mg/kg/10 mg/kg, intraperitoneally). After immersing tails in 37° C. saline for 5 minutes to normalize vasodilatory state, 2 mm of tail was amputated with a scalpel, and returned to the saline bath (modified from Nagashima et al., Journal of Clinical Investigation (109) 101-110, (2002); Snyder et al., Nature Medicine (5), 64-70, (1999). Total bleeding time was recorded; bleeding was considered to have stopped when no signs of bleeding were observed for 30 seconds. Once bleeding stopped, animals were euthanized by CO₂ asphyxiation. Data were recorded in seconds, and are presented as mean+/−Standard Error (SE). Student's t-test was used for statistical analysis. The results are shown in FIG. 4.

[0114] Administration of GTS-21 to the mice significantly reduced the bleed time, thus establishing that the activation of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway by cholinergic agonists reduces peripheral bleed time in the subject.

[0115] Male Balb/c mice (around 25 g) were subjected to either left vagus nerve isolation only (sham surgery) or left vagus nerve electrical stimulation (1 Volt, 2 ms pulse width, 1 Hz) for 30 seconds. Immediately following stimulation, animals were euthanized, and blood was obtained by cardiac puncture and analyzed with a Hemochron JR whole blood microcoagulation system (International Technidyne Corp, Edison N.J.). Each specific test cuvette: Prothrombin Time (PT), Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time (APTT), Activated clotting time (ACT) is a self-contained disposable test chamber preloaded with a dried preparation of chemical reagents, stabilizers and buffers. The test cuvette was loaded with 50 μl of fresh whole blood. After mixing with cuvette reagents, the sample was monitored for clot formation until the clot endpoint value was achieved. Data are presented as mean+/−Standard Error of the Mean (SEM), and were analyzed by Student's t-test. The results are shown in FIGS. 5-7.

[0116] FIGS. 5-7 demonstrate that the coagulation cascade is not significantly affected by vagus nerve stimulation.

[0117] Animals were injected (intraperitoneally) with cholinergic agonist nicotine (0.3 mg/kg in 125 μL PBS; n=7) or PBS (vehicle control, 125 μL; n=4). 1 hour later, mice were placed in a restraint device, and the tails immersed in 37° C. water for 5 minutes. 20 mm of tail was amputated with a scalpel, and the truncated tail was placed in 37° C. saline. Total bleeding time was measured with a stop watch. Timing was stopped when no visual evidence of bleeding was noted, and no re-bleeding occurred for 30 seconds. Data were recorded in seconds, and are presented as mean+/−SE. Student's t-test was used for statistical analysis. The results can be seen in FIG. 8.

[0118] Administration of nicotine to the mice significantly reduced the bleed time, thus establishing that the activation of the cholinergic anti-inflammatory pathway by cholinergic agonists reduces peripheral bleed time in the conscious subject.

[0119] Male Balb/c mice (around 25 g) were divided into three groups: A, B and C. Groups A and C were injected with the alpha-7 antagonist methyllycaconitine, (MLA; 4 mg/kg, IP, in 200 μL PBS), group B was injected with PBS (vehicle control, 125 μl). 15 minutes later, Group A was injected with PBS (vehicle control, 125 μl) and groups B and C were injected with nicotine (0.3 mg/kg in 125 μL PBS). 30 minutes later, mice were anesthetized (ketamine [100 mg/kg, IP] and xylazine [10 mg/kg, IP]). After immersing tails in 37° C. saline for 5 minutes to normalize vasodilatory state, 2 mm of tail was amputated with a scalpel, and returned to the saline bath (modified from Nagashima et al., Journal of Clinical Investigation (109) 101-110, (2002); Snyder et al., Nature Medicine (5), 64-70, (1999).

[0120] Total bleeding time was recorded; bleeding was considered to have stopped when no signs of bleeding were observed for 30 seconds. Once bleeding stopped, animals were euthanized by CO₂ asphyxiation. Data were recorded in seconds, and are presented as mean+/−SE. Student's t-test was used for statistical analysis.

[0121] The results are shown in FIG. 9 which shows a reduction in bleed time following administration of nicotine. MLA inhibited nicotine induced reduction of bleed time, suggesting that nicotine reduced bleed time via alpha-7 cholinergic receptor subunit.