Quantum well energizing method and apparatus

[0001] This application claims priority to U.S. provisional patent application No. 60/302,274 entitled Quantum Well Energizer, which was filed on Jun. 29, 2001 and is hereby incorporated by reference. This application also relates to U.S. Pat. No. 6,114,620 entitled Pre-Equilibrium Chemical Reaction Energy Converter, which was filed on May 4, 1999 and is hereby incorporated by reference.

[0002] Quantum wells are solid state electronic devices that are well known in the art. Among other things, quantum wells can be used to form light emitting diodes (LEDs), semiconductor lasers, and other tunneling devices. An representative example of a quantum well structure is depicted in FIG. 7. In FIG. 7, a quantum well structure 700 is depicted as comprising a substrate 705 and a plurality of alternating layers 710, (X and Y). Each of these alternating layers, X and Y, comprises a different composition of semiconductor material, thereby creating alternating band-gap diagrams. Although the quantum well structure 700 in FIG. 7 is depicted as comprising multiple layers, it is well known in the art that a quantum well structure may be comprised of a several hundred layers, or only one alternating layer, forming a single quantum well. Although it is usually preferable to use as many quantum wells in a quantum well layer as possible, the cost of fabrication can limit the number of quantum well that can be economically incorporated into the device. The thickness and composition of the alternating layers in a quantum well structure can be varied to produce a variety of other effects. A representative depiction of the alternating band-gap diagrams created by the alternating semiconductor layers 710 is illustrated in FIG. 8.

[0003] In FIG. 8, the band gap for each of the layers alternates between a large band gap E₁, which corresponds to the band gap of material X, and a smaller band gap E₂, which corresponds to the band gap of material Y. The juxtaposition of these two layers at very small dimensions causes the distance between the conduction band Fermi level and the valence band Fermi level in material Y to be widened from energy level E₂ to energy level E₃. This widening allows the quantum well to perform as if it were operating as a different kind of material with a wider band-gap. Accordingly, when properly pumped and stimulated, quantum well devices can emit light at wavelengths that would not normally be associated with typical semiconductor materials. These devices can therefore provide great utility for a wide variety electronic devices.

[0004] One problem associated with existing quantum well structures relates to how the quantum well is energized (i.e. pumped). Existing methods for energizing a quantum include applying an electric field across the quantum well, optically pumping the well with photons of sufficient energy (i.e. wavelength), and thermally pumping the well with a heat source and a cold sink to induce a population inversion. These methods are undesirable because they require a step of converting primary energy into an intermediate energy source, such as optical energy, electrical energy, or thermal energy. There is therefore a need in the art for a method and apparatus for directly energizing a quantum well with a primary energy source. By directly energizing a quantum well with a primary energy source, the intermediate step of energy conversion can be eliminated, thus reducing the complexity of the system and improving its efficiency.

[0005] The disclosed method and apparatus utilizes a chemical reaction as a primary energy source to energize a quantum well structure. Chemical reactions that occur on or near a surface of a conductor or catalyst will emit hot electrons and hot phonons into the catalyst. It has been determined that a substantial fraction of the energy released during certain chemical reactions can be directly transferred into an adjacent quantum well structure before that energy is converted into heat. This transfer of energy utilizes two modes: hot electrons and hot phonons. Both of these energy transfer modes are effective to pump or energize the quantum wells. The disclosed method and apparatus utilizes a structure that is a combination of a catalyst layer and an interface layer that are disposed adjacent to a quantum well device. The catalyst layer catalyzes a chemical reaction on its upper surface and captures the phonons or hot electrons generated by the chemical reaction. The interface layer is disposed between the catalyst layer and the quantum well and facilitates the transfer of the captured phonons and hot electrons into the quantum well layer. The distance between the chemical energy source and a quantum well is preferably limited to a dimension less than 5 times the energy diffusion length of the phonons or hot electrons. Accordingly, the dimensions of the catalyst layer, interface layers, and the quantum wells are very thin. In order to improve the efficiency of the disclosed method and apparatus, the interface layer(s) between the catalyst layer and the quantum well can facilitate the conversion of hot electron energy into desired phonon modes, especially longitudinal optical modes. The interface layers may also be arranged to convert phonons into hot electrons, as the need arises.

[0006] FIG. 1 is a cross-sectional diagram of one embodiment of a quantum well energizing apparatus suitable for use with the disclosed invention.

[0007] FIG. 2 is a cross-sectional diagram of an alternative embodiment of a quantum well energizing apparatus suitable for use with the disclosed invention.

[0008] FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram depicting the process by which hot electrons may be generated by a chemical reaction on a catalyst surface.

[0009] FIG. 4 is a schematic diagram depicting the process by which hot phonons may be generated by a chemical reaction on a catalyst surface.

[0010] FIG. 5 is a schematic diagram depicting the process by which hot electrons may be injected into and thereby energize a quantum well device.

[0011] FIG. 6 is a schematic diagram depicting the process by which hot phonons may be injected into and thereby energize a quantum well device.

[0012] FIG. 7 is a cross-sectional diagram of a representative quantum well device.

[0013] FIG. 8 is a band-gap diagram of the representative quantum well device depicted in FIG. 7.

[0014] The disclosed method and apparatus relates to a structure for catalyzing a chemical reaction to provide hot electrons and hot phonons to energize a quantum well structure. Chemical reactions that occur on or near a surface, such as a conductor or catalyst, will emit hot electrons and hot phonons into the catalyst. It has been determined that a substantial fraction of the energy released during certain chemical reactions can be directly transferred into a quantum well structure before that energy is converted into heat. Our theoretical models have indicated that a majority of the energy produced by a chemical reaction can be used to energize a quantum well, depending upon the specific device characteristics. The transfer of energy from the chemical reaction to the quantum well utilizes two transfer modes: hot electrons and hot phonons. Both of these energy transfer modes are effective to pump or energize the quantum wells with charge carriers.

[0015] The disclosed apparatus and method uses a catalyst layer and one or more interface layers to produce hot phonons or hot electrons that can be injected directly into a quantum well. To accomplish this task, the distance between the chemical reaction site and the quantum well is preferably less than 5 times the energy diffusion length of the phonons or electrons.

[0016] A variety of factors may be considered when selecting and arranging the materials of the disclosed apparatus, such as the electronic properties, phonon band properties, crystal structure, and the lattice constant of the substrate, interface layers, and the quantum well. Furthermore, the electrochemical properties of the catalyst layer and its relationship to the interface layers can affect the selection of the composition and dimensions of the catalyst layer. Another aspect of the invention relates to the selection of reactants to produce the hot electrons or phonons in the chemical reaction.

[0017] A representative embodiment of a quantum well energizing apparatus 100 suitable for use with the invention is depicted in FIG. 1. In FIG. 1, a quantum well energizing apparatus 100 is depicted as comprising an interface layer 115, and a catalyst 120. Also depicted in FIG. 1 are a substrate portion 105, a quantum well layer 110. The interface portion 115 may comprise any of a variety of semiconductor-related materials, including, for example, Silicon, Aluminum, Antimony, Gallium Arsenide, Indium Phosphide, and any combination thereof. According to a preferred embodiment, the interface layer 115 comprises type IV, III-V, or II-VI compositions such as Silicon, Gallium Arsenide (GaAs), Gallium Nitride (GaN), Gallium Phosphide (GaP) and SiC. For purposes of illustration, however, the interface layer 115 will be referred to as comprising material X. Disposed adjacent to the interface layer 115 is one or more quantum well structures 110. In FIG. 1, six alternating layers are depicted as comprising material X and Y. As described above, the composition and thickness of these alternating layers are selected so that the band-gaps of each respective layer form one or more quantum wells.

[0018] An important feature of the interface layer 115 is its ability to convert hot phonons and hot electrons into energy forms suitable for charging the quantum well. In particular, it is desirable for an interface layer 115 to be able to convert hot phonons into energetic carriers, also known as electron hole pairs (EHPs), that can be stored in the quantum well. This kind of energy conversion is known as phonon coupling. Examples of semiconductor materials that exhibit favorable phonon coupling properties include GaN, SiN, SiC, GaAs, AlAs, and the family In_xGa_yAs_zSb_w. According to a preferred embodiment, material X comprises Gallium Nitride and material Y comprises a mixture of Gallium Nitride and Aluminum (Al_xGa_yN). Other pairs of semiconductor layers that may function as interface layers include, for example:

[0019] GaAs/Al_x and Ga_xAs_1-x;

[0020] Al_1-xGa_xN and AlN;

[0021] Al_1-xGa_xSb and AlSb;

[0022] ZnS_1-xSe_x and ZnS; and

[0023] Si_1-xGe_x and Si.

[0024] According to a preferred embodiment, the following compounds can also be used for the interface layer: GaAs/Al_{0 15} and Ga_0.85As_0.15 or Si_0.97Ge_0.03 and Si. Materials such as Pb and diamond, with vastly different phonon bands and conductivity properties, for example, may also be used in the interface layers. Pb and diamond are representative of the extreme of physical properties and show that any material may be considered a candidate material for these purposes. Bipolar semiconductor materials composed of elements of different masses and crystal structures (e.g. wurtzite and zinc-blende) may be used, such as alloys and III-V and II-VI semiconductor compounds. Accordingly, a wide variety of compositions and thickness may be selected to provide for a desirable balance between bandgap differential, crystal dimensions, lattice constants and phonon-EHP coupling. The compositions described above may also be used to form the substrate layer 105.

[0025] A quantum well interface layer 115 is placed adjacent to the quantum well structures 110. The quantum well interface 115 is used to match the material and electronic properties of the catalyst layer 120, or another interface layer, with the quantum well 110. The quantum well interface layer 115 is also used to convert and tailor phonon or carrier energies to make them useful in the quantum well. In addition, the materials comprising the quantum well interface can be used to convert hot electrons or hot phonons into the desired energy mode. In this manner, the efficiency of the process can be improved. According to one embodiment, the quantum well interface 115 comprises a composition of Gallium Nitride (GaN) or Aluminum Gallium Nitride (Al_xGa_yN). It is known that these compositions have strong hot electronphonon coupling and therefore will convert a large number of the hot electrons passing through it into phonons. Another purpose served by the quantum well interface 115 is to match the electrical and structural properties of the quantum well devices with the catalyst layer 120, or other adjacent interface layer. The thickness of the quantum well interface layer 115 is limited by the mean free path of the energy modes passing therethrough. Specifically, the intermediate layers should be arranged such that the distance from the catalyst surface 120 to the quantum well layer 110 is less than about five times the energy mean free path.

[0026] The catalyst 120 comprises a layer of metal, semiconductor or insulator that catalyzes a chemical reaction on its surface. A wide variety of materials have been found suitable as catalysts 120 including, for example, aluminum, platinum, palladium, rhodium, ruthenium, and transition metals. Insulating materials, such as RuO₂, Alumina (Al₂O₃), Titania (TiO_x), and Vanadia (V_xO_y), have also proven effective as catalyst layers. The insulating materials generally only produce hot phonons or hot holes during the chemical reaction. Accordingly, the mean free paths for these energy modes are much shorter than those for hot electrons. Other materials that form suitable catalysts include one to ten monolayers of Gold (Au) deposited on oxide insulators, such as Titania (TiO), Iron Oxide (Fe₂O₃), or Co₃O₄. The catalyst layer 120 is preferably arranged such that a plurality of clumps are present on the surface of the catalyst 120. These clumps may take a variety of forms including, for example, islands, corrals, chaotic surface constructs, pyramids, layers, monolayers and monolayered islands. Each of these structures are formed with dimensions in the range of 0.3 to 20 nanometers. The lower boundary for this range, 0.3 nanometers, represents one monolayer (i.e. one atom) thickness for the catalyst. The upper boundary for this range, 20 nanometers, represents the upper end of the mean free path for hot electrons and hot phonons. 20 nanometers roughly corresponds to about 100 monolayers. The catalyst 120 catalyzes a chemical reaction so as to produce hot phonons and/or hot electrons. According to well-known chemical theory, these reactions are strongly catalyzed at the edges and corners of the catalyst structures 120. Thus, by increasing or decreasing the number and size of the edges in the catalyst structure 120, the degree to which the reaction is catalyzed can be adjusted.

[0027] Recent research has shown that during a brief time period after the catalyzation of a chemical reaction, charge carriers, such as hot electrons and hot phonons are emitted by the reaction. These emissions, also known as pre-equilibrium emissions, are captured by the catalyst layer 120 where they can be passed into the interface layer(s) 115 and eventually into the quantum well 110. These emissions are unstable and will readily transform into heat or other non-productive forms of energy in brief periods of time (tens of picoseconds or less). Accordingly, it is desirable that the catalyst layer 120 be located close to the quantum well layer 110 so that the emissions can be used to energize the quantum wells 110 before they degrade into heat.

[0028] An alternative embodiment of a quantum well energizing apparatus 200 is depicted in FIG. 2. Much like FIG. 1, the quantum well energizing apparatus 200 includes an interface layer 115, and a catalyst 120. The embodiment depicted in FIG. 2 also includes a substrate 105, a quantum well layer 110, and a catalyst interlayer 205. The catalyst interlayer 205 may be needed when the electrical and mechanical properties of the catalyst layer 120 do not match those of the quantum well interface 115. For example, in some embodiments, the material of the quantum well interface 115 comprises an alloy of Aluminum Gallium Nitride (Al_xGa_yN), which does not catalyze the desired reactions on its surface. On the other hand, the material of the catalyst 120 may be Platinum, which forms a Schottky barrier with the Al_xGa_yN alloy and therefore may not efficiently transfer the emissions energy to the quantum well layer. To overcome these incompatibilities, a catalyst interlayer 205 comprising a metallic substance, such as Aluminum, can be placed between the catalyst 120 and the quantum well interface 115 so as to form an ohmic contact between with the Al_xGa_yN alloy and the Platinum catalyst and thereby facilitate the injections of hot electrons and hot phonons into the quantum well. A catalyst interface layer (not shown in FIG. 2) may also be incorporated between the catalyst layer 120 and the catalyst interlayer 205, depending upon the materials and energy transfer modes utilized by the device. The catalyst interlayer 205, however, may only be needed to match the phonon coupling properties and the crystal structure properties of the catalyst layer 120 and the catalyst interlayer 205. Further alternative embodiments are contemplated for the disclosed invention, including an apparatus in which the catalyst interlayer 205, the catalyst interface 110, and the quantum well interface 115 are incorporated into a single layer. According to another embodiment, these interface layers can be superlattices formed from combinations of conductors, insulators and semiconductors.

[0029] The chemical reaction that occurs on the surface of the catalyst layer 120 includes intermediate reactions that form products that ultimately result in exhaust products. This concept is illustrated in FIG. 1, where reactants 125 are applied to the surface of the catalyst layer 120 and exhaust products 130 are discharged and removed from the surface of the catalyst layer 120. The process of removing exhaust products is important for two reasons. First, as exhaust products are removed from the surface of the catalyst 120, they permit additional reactants to be adsorbed on the catalyst surface 120, thereby ensuring that a continuous reaction occurs. Second, the removal of exhaust products from the surface of the catalyst 120 dissipates heat from the catalyst layer 120. Heat dissipation is important because the disclosed chemical reactions can generate as much as 10-100 watts/cm² on the surface of the catalyst layer 120.

[0030] The chemically excited products produced by the chemical reaction include intermediate reaction products, the exhaust products of chemical reactions, dissociated adsorbates, precursor states of adsorbates on a catalyst or conductor surface, hot atoms, and the adsorption reaction products of chemicals with a surface. Intermediate reactions also release pre-equilibrium hot electron-hole pairs (EHPs) and hot phonons. These emissions are known to energize phonon modes in the interface layer 115, the quantum well 110, and even the substrate 105.

[0031] The reactants that are applied to the catalyst 120 can include, for example, fuel and oxidizer mixtures, fuelair mixtures, single component chemicals (i.e. monopropellants), and multicomponent mixtures such as fuel, oxidizer, air and additives. Additives include accelerants and oxidizers such as hydrogen peroxide. The excited state intermediate products may include compounds such as CO, OH, CHO, and CH₂O and the exhaust products can include H₂O and CO₂. The intermediate state products may also include other, non-reactive specie such as exhausts, and air molecules such as nitrogen or oxygen. These intermediates may acquire energy from the reactants and their byproducts.

[0032] Fuels for the chemical reaction can include reducing materials or electron donors, including, but not limited to, hydrogen, hydrocarbons, complex hydrocarbons, alcohols such as methanol, ethanol and propanol, carbohydrates, partially oxygenated hydrocarbons, diesel fuel, kerosene, volatized products of organic matter, the products of a fuel reformer such as hydrogen and carbon monoxide, and combustible gasses including ammonia. Oxidizers may include any one of electron acceptors, such as oxygen, air, hydrogen peroxide and halogens. According to another aspect, reactants, whether or not they are considered fuels and oxidizers, may also be used. Thus, any reaction that produces excited specie may be used as the source of energy. Other examples of reactants include such combinations as alkali metals and water, where the exhaust would include alkali oxides and hydrogen. Yet another example of reactants may include chemical reactants where the fuel and oxidizer are one and the same unstable molecule. Examples of such chemical reactants include monopropellants such as MMH, mono methyl hydrazine.

[0033] The term chemical reaction includes the adsorption of reactants on the catalyst surface 120. For example, on some catalyst materials such as platinum and palladium, fuel and oxidizer compositions may release a substantial fraction of their chemical energy in the form of heat of adsorption. This heat initially comprises hot electrons and hot phonons. On conductors, the hot electron energy release may occur during tens of femtoseconds and the hot phonon release during tens of picoseconds. The energy released by this reaction, however, is initially in a pre-equilibrium form and does not immediately thermalize or degrade into heat. The excited states of the reaction products also include electronic, vibrational and rotational energy of gas phase and adsorbed specie, frustrated rotation and translation states on surfaces, and vibrations against the surface. The excited states transfer energy to the quantum well through radiation, evanescent radiation, hot electrons, hot carriers and phonons. The energy released includes the hot phonons and hot electrons resulting from capture of hot atoms produced by surface reactions, including dissociation of adsorbates from precursor states, and including intermediate reactions producing hot atoms. The energy release associated with the chemical reactions includes the decay of vibrationally excited states of adsorbates immediately after being formed. This includes the case where the excited state chemicals are in the region immediately above the surface, such as 100 to 500 nm away (5 to 10 gas collision diffusion lengths).

[0034] To form vibrationally excited specie via the Eley-Rideal process on the catalyst surface, chemically reactive free radicals, such as atomic hydrogen and oxygen, may be allowed to impinge on adsorbed oxygen or fuel on the catalyst surface. The atomic hydrogen and oxygen may be generated as intermediates of fuel/air reactions. Reactants may also form on the catalyst surface and react, for example, via Langmuir-Hinshelwood process. In one aspect, the energized molecules may be created by reacting fuels and air with the aid of catalysts and stimulators and by using reaction geometries that form excited gaseous molecules at any locations where they may readily migrate and diffuse to a quantum well energizer device surface before losing a substantial amount of excitation.

[0035] During operation, known stimulation devices such as catalysts, reaction stimulator methods, and additives may be used to produce excited specie after reactants enter a region of reaction. Stimulation of reactions concentrates the energy release, causing bursts of high temperature electrons and phonons to flood the underlying structures. When the stimulation pulses are sufficiently short, for example, less than about tens of picoseconds, the underlying structures are not heated during the pulse. This combination of hot phonon and or electrons with cool underlying structures is highly advantageous to the quantum well energizer operation.

[0036] The disclosed method and apparatus captures these pre-equilibrium energy modes and applies them to the quantum well structure before they are dissipated into heat. According to one embodiment, the energy transfer process also includes electromagnetic and evanescent electromagnetic radiation transferred from gas specie in a region near the catalyst, but not necessarily adjacent to it. For example, a region that is at least several energy diffusion lengths (and coincidentally several gas diffusion lengths) from the surface of the catalyst may be able to transfer energy into a quantum well structure. This distance can be described as the near field, where evanescent coupling may dominate, and is typically less than a half wavelength of the radiation that will couple directly into the well. The shortest wavelength of such radiation corresponds to the maximum bond energy of chemical reactants, which is on the order of 2 electron volts. Such radiation therefore has a wavelength on the order of 500 nm. This implies that the shortest distance that would be required for a transfer of energy from a gas specie to a quantum well would be on the order of 250 nm. Most excited state chemical radiation has wavelengths between 1500 and 15,000 nanometers. Half of this, between 700 and 7000 nanometers, represents a measure of the upper limit of the distance. The radiation transfer mechanism described above may be enhanced by enclosure in an electromagnetic or optical cavity.

[0037] The transfer of energy into the quantum well also includes creation of hot electrons. Hot electron creation between gas and conducting surface is known in the art as an electron jump process, and between adsorbate and surface, as a chemicurrent. The hot electrons may travel from a conducting surface, which may include a catalyst layer, through an optional intermediate layer and into the quantum well. The transfer of energy into the quantum well also includes creation of hot phonons in a catalyst, and includes propagation of the phonons into the quantum well.

[0038] FIG. 3 is an illustration of the formation of hot electrons (a.k.a. warm electrons) at the surface of the catalyst layer 120. In FIG. 3, as energy is released by the chemical reaction, warm electrons are generated. A specie adsorbing on the surface of the catalyst may be represented by the potential well 305 into which it settles, with quantized energy 310 levels depicted. A transition from a higher excited state to a lower state represents loss of energy to the catalyst and to the substrate via EHPs 315 and may also result in a more tightly bound adsorbate.

[0039] FIG. 4 is an illustration of the formation of phonons at the surface of the catalyst layer. In FIG. 4, as energy is released by the chemical reaction, phonons are generated. Much like FIG. 3, a specie adsorbing on the surface of the catalyst may be represented by the potential well 405 into which it settles, with quantized energy levels 410 depicted. A transition from a higher excited state to a lower state represents a loss of energy to the catalyst and to the substrate via phonons 415 and may also result in a more tightly bound adsorbate. FIG. 4 may also represent excited state reaction products on or near a catalyst or conducting surface. Energy decay from a higher quantum level to a lower level represents energy transfer of molecular, ionic, vibrational, electronic, or rotational energy, forming phonons in the catalyst and substrate. These mechanisms for the generation of hot phonons have been observed. Decay of hot electrons and electron hole pairs in semiconductors and some metals is predominantly via LO and TO phonons (Longitudinal Optical, Transverse Optical phonons).

[0040] The process of injecting hot electrons into the quantum well is shown schematically in FIG. 5. In FIG. 5, the hot electrons 505 may be formed with varying energies relative to the Fermi level of the catalyst or substrate. The carriers travel directly into the quantum well 510 in contact with the substrate or catalyst. Carriers penetrate the quantum well barriers at the boundary, travel through appropriately thin interlayers and energize the well. Research has shown that when the catalyst layer on a semiconductor has a thickness dimension less than tens of nanometers, any quantum mechanical barriers (i.e. Schottky barriers) become sufficiently transparent to hot carriers such as hot electrons, thereby allowing the hot electrons to pass directly into the quantum well. This form of energizing a quantum well is referred to as flat band energizing because the Fermi level of the catalyst and the Fermi level of the quantum well may be in equilibrium, or flat. According to another embodiment, however, an electrical bias can be applied across the catalyst layer 120 and the quantum well 110 to enhance some resonance and energy transfer and decrease others. The applied bias may be either DC bias or a bias resulting from a time varying voltage, such as one finds in an electromagnetic radiation cavity. According to yet another embodiment, the partition of energy between the phonon and hot electrons can be tailored by the choice of catalyst material, crystal types and by use of superlattices, as explained, and in some cases without constraints of Fermi levels.

[0041] The injection of hot phonons into a quantum well structure is shown schematically in FIG. 6. In FIG. 6, hot phonons 605 may be formed with varying energies relative to the Fermi level of the catalyst or substrate. The carriers travel directly into the quantum well 610 in contact with the substrate or catalyst. Carriers penetrate the quantum well barriers at the boundary, travel through appropriately thin interlayers, and energize the well.

[0042] Hot electrons dissipate their energy mainly through the interaction with lattices, existing phonons and the creation of additional hot phonons. The catalyst layer 120, the catalyst interlayer 205, and the catalyst interface (not depicted) may be chosen with phonon coupling properties and thicknesses so that many of the hot electrons passing through these layers transfer their energy into hot phonons. Alternatively, the quantum well interface 115 or the quantum well 110 may be adapted so that the hot electrons energize hot phonons in these layers, assuming that the catalyst layers 120, 205 are sufficiently thin.

[0043] Material choices for these layers are based on phonon frequency tailoring and the considerations of the high frequency phonon bands of the materials. Superlattices, such as multiple monolayer metal superlattices, permit construction of phonon band gaps, modified electron density of states that show multiple resonance peaks, or structures that favor generation of hot electrons. The method of favoring the production of either phonon or hot electrons includes constructing a superlattice over the quantum well and of choosing materials, compounds and complexes of materials, and forming structures such as islands, chaotic islands, quantum structures such as stadia and layered constructs.

[0044] The methods for capturing energy from hot electrons and phonons includes capturing hot electrons generated by the adsorption process of reactants and by vibrational energy decay of products formed on the catalyst. Capture methods also include capturing hot phonons generated by the adsorption process of reactants and by the vibrational energy decay of products formed on the catalyst. Another method for capturing energy includes capturing hot electrons and phonons generated by the trapping of hot atoms formed on the catalyst. Capturing hot electrons also includes capturing energy from carriers that had been directly injected into the quantum well. Methods of capturing carriers include constructing the entire device so that the distance from the adsorbing reactant or energized reactant to the quantum well is less than several times (5 times) the energy diffusion length of the energy emission modes.

[0045] Capturing energy from hot phonons also includes direct injection of these phonons into the quantum well. Capturing energy from these phonons further includes conversion of phonon energies into phonons of other energies and other types. This capture process also includes conversion of phonon types into other types, especially conversion of phonons into Longitudinal Optical Phonons. According to one embodiment, the entire device is constructed so that the distance from the adsorbing reactant or energized reaction products on or near the reaction or catalyst surface to the quantum well is less than several times (5 times) the energy diffusion length of the generated phonons. Phonon capture methods also include capturing energy generated by the recombination of EHPs and generating EHPs in one location and converting them into phonons of a more useful type in another location, such as by recombination of EHPs.

[0046] Inside the quantum well devices, the phonons interact with the phonon bands of the quantum well materials and with discontinuities of physical properties such as sound speed, sound index of refraction, and specie mass. At the interface of the quantum well, hot acoustic phonons and hot optical phonons, both transverse and longitudinal, may mix and convert from one to the other. An embodiment of the invention chooses various crystal materials and structure combinations to enhance this conversion. For example, wurtzite crystals such as GaN have vibration modes that cannot be described simply as purely longitudinal modes or purely transverse modes. There is a TO component in a LO-like mode and an LO component in a TO-like mode. Mixing metals and semiconductors, such as those with the zinc-blende structure (GaAs) and the wurtzite structure (GaN) is one method for tailoring these phonon conversions.

[0047] Although certain embodiments and aspects of the present inventions have been illustrated in the accompanying drawings and described in the foregoing detailed description, it will be understood that the inventions are not limited to the embodiments disclosed, but are capable of numerous rearrangements, modifications and substitutions without departing from the spirit of the invention as set forth and defined by the following claims and equivalents thereof. Applicant intends that the claims shall not invoke the application of 35 U.S.C 112, 6 unless the claim is explicitly written in means-plus-step or means-plus-function format.