Context-aware quantization for high-performance video encoding

[0001] At least one embodiment pertains to computational technologies used to perform and facilitate efficient compression of video files. For example, at least one embodiment pertains to operations that optimize between reduction in the amount of information encoded by codecs and preventing significant distortions of the encoded video frames.

[0002] A video file in a raw (source) pixel format can occupy a very large memory space and require a large network bandwidth for transmission, which can be impractical for storage and/or livestreaming. For example, a typical high-definition video displays about 30 frames per second with frames that are typically rather similar to each other. A lot of information in such frames is necessarily redundant, allowing efficient compression. On one hand, relatively minor changes occur between many subsequent frames (temporal redundancy). On the other hand, various regions in a given frame are often similar to each other (spatial redundancy), e.g., an image of the sky can extend over a large portion of a frame. As a result, in lieu of transmitting the actual pixel information (luminance and chromaticity) of each pixel, a codec can identify a reference block that is similar to the block being encoded (“predicted”) and provide to a decoder a suitable and compact mathematical representation of the difference (“delta”) between the actual source block and the predicted block. The reference block can be a block of a different (e.g., previous, or even subsequent) frame, a block of the same frame, or even a synthetic block generated according to some predetermined scheme (mode) based on a small number of reference pixels. Subsequently, instead of storing or livestreaming the actual frame of pixels, the codec can output a bit stream of encoded data, which largely contains instructions to the decoder about how to generate an approximation of the frame whose visual appearance is indistinguishable from or very similar to the source frame.

[0010] High performance codecs, such as H.264 (Advanced Video Coding or AVC), H.265 (High Efficiency Video Coding or HEVC), and VP9 allow efficient encoding that is based on finding similar blocks in the same frame (referred to as intra-frame prediction) and/or different frames (referred to as inter-frame prediction). Finding intra-frame prediction blocks can be performed along multiple spatial directions (e.g., 8 directions in AVC and 33 directions in HEVC). Likewise, finding inter-frame prediction blocks can be performed with sub-pixel accuracy, in which a vector of translation (rotation, affine transformation, etc.), referred to herein as a motion vector, specifies relative displacement of similar blocks in different frames. Blocks of multiple sizes can be processed to identify best predictions, such as (in HEVC) 64×64 pixel blocks, 32×32 pixel blocks, and 16×16 pixel blocks. Multiple block sizes allow for more efficient encoding (of larger portions of the image(s) that are similar to each other) and finer resolution of the portions of the image(s) that contain unique details. VP9 standard allows for even greater variety of block sizes, including square blocks 8×8, rectangular blocks of 64×32, 32×64, 32×16, 16×32, 16×8, and 8×16 pixels. Newer codec standards, such as AOMedia Video 1 (AV1), allow even more prediction options. For example, AV1, while inheriting block sizes from VP9, allows for 58 spatial directions for intra-frame predictions. Additionally, AV1 expands on the types of mathematical transforms that can be used to encode residual blocks and numbers and types of filters that can be used to alleviate block boundary artifacts, noise artifacts, motion vector artifacts, and so on.

[0011] A conventional AV1 (or other codecs) encoding software can process various superblocks (e.g., 64×64 or 128×128 pixel blocks) sequentially. For example, starting from the top-left superblock 64×64 of a current frame, the software can partition the superblock into all possible (recognized by the codec standard) partitions. A given partition of the superblock can include blocks of multiple sizes. For example, the top-left quadrant of the superblock can be represented by a single 32×32 block, the top-right quadrant can be partitioned into 16 blocks of 8×8 pixels each, the bottom-left quadrant can be partitioned into 2 blocks of 32×16 pixels, and the bottom-right quadrant can be partitioned into 8 blocks of 16×8 pixels. Numerous other partition schemes are also possible. Each block (regardless of the size) in the selected partition scheme can then be approximated (predicted) using inter-frame predictions as well as intra-frame predictions.

[0012] During the inter-frame predictions, a block that is the most similar to the current block can be identified in one or more reference frames (previous frames and/or subsequent frames). Closely spaced (in time) frames are likely to be similar to each other (unless a complete change of scenery occurs), with various objects experiencing rather small displacements. As a result, it is often sufficient to explore, in the reference frame(s), a relatively close neighborhood of the current block. The best inter-frame prediction candidate can be selected by minimizing an error value of a cost function that characterizes a difference of the pixels of the inter-frame prediction candidate block and source pixels of the current block.

[0013] During the intra-frame predictions, the same block may be approximated based on reference pixels for the block. Typically, reference pixels are boundary pixels of the adjacent blocks (e.g., pixels that are near the top and left boundaries of the current block). Pixels of the current block are inferred from the reference pixels by extrapolation (e.g., from the top row or the left column of reference pixels) or interpolation (from both the top row and the left column) along various directions recognized by the codec standard. Extrapolation or interpolation of pixels of the current block is performed according to specific formulas that depend on the direction (mode) and are defined as part of the codec standard. Similarly to the inter-frame predictions, the best intra-frame prediction candidate(s) can be selected by minimizing the error value of the cost function and based on how well various intra-frame prediction candidates approximate the source pixels of the current block.

[0014] The best inter-frame prediction candidate block and the best intra-frame prediction candidate block (generated using the respective winning intra-frame prediction mode) may be then compared to each other, and a final winner candidate block may be selected. The obtained final winner block, generally, has pixels that are different from the source pixels of the current block. The pixel values of the predicted block subtracted from the source block constitute a residual block. Even though the residual block likely has variations of pixel values that are distributed over the entire area of the block, such variations are usually smooth. This means that a discrete Fourier transform (or some other discrete transform) has coefficients C_jk that are concentrated near a long-wavelength end of the transform (e.g., smaller indices j and k). The short-wavelength end of the transform (higher indices j and k) is much less likely to be perceived by a human eye and can be truncated (using what is known as a quantization transform) resulting in a much lower number of (Fourier) coefficients needed to encode the residual block. Such coefficients constitute a basis (subject to additional filtering and entropy encoding) of the encoded codec bitstream.

[0015] Quantization transformation may include various operations intended to reduce the amount of information (“rate”) that encodes a video frame or a block of a video frame. For example, coefficients C_jk may be modified, e.g., starting from higher indices j and k (which are of less importance) and proceeding to coefficients C_jk with lower indices j and k, e.g., in a serpentine fashion in the generally decreased order of j+k. In particular, a processing device performing quantization may evaluate a specific coefficient C_jk with respect to one of possible adjustments, such as decrementing the coefficient by a fixed value, e.g., C_jk→C_jk−1 or C_jk→C_jk−2, and so on (or incrementing the coefficient, e.g., C_jk→C_jk+1, etc., if coefficient C_jk is negative), setting coefficient C_jk to zero (C_jk→0), and/or the like. In the following, for conciseness, “decrementing” should be understood as both decreasing a coefficient (by one, two, etc.), if the coefficient is positive and increasing (by one, two, etc.) a coefficient, if the coefficient is negative, such that decrementing amounts to reducing the absolute value of the coefficient in both scenarios. Such adjustments decrease the total rate but may come at a cost of a decreased image quality (increased distortion). Correspondingly, a specific adjustment being considered may be implemented if the cost-benefit evaluation is positive (the rate decrease benefit exceeds a distortion cost) or avoided if the cost-benefit evaluation is negative. In the latter case, the respective coefficient C_jk may be kept unmodified. Evaluation and (where called for) adjustment of coefficients C_jk is typically performed sequentially, e.g., beginning from larger values j+k and proceeding towards smaller values j+k. As a result, the lower coefficients C_jk become dependent on the higher coefficients.

[0016] Sequential evaluation of coefficients C_jk is slow and not well suited for real-time encoding and streaming of video frame data. Parallel evaluation of the coefficients, however, loses interdependency of lower coefficients on higher coefficients and is detrimental to the quality of frame encoding. Aspects and embodiments of the present disclosure address these and other technological challenges of real-time video encoding in modern advanced codecs by providing for systems and techniques that allow parallel evaluation of the coefficients that accounts for the context provided by various other coefficients. More specifically, each coefficient C_jk may be assigned a certain context neighborhood of other coefficients, NC[C_jk], e.g., nearest neighbors, second nearest neighbors, and/or the like. During evaluation of a specific coefficient C_jk, each coefficient in the corresponding neighborhood may be virtually adjusted based on available statistics. More specifically, during evaluation of a coefficient C₃₄, a context neighborhood CN[34] may include coefficients C₂₃, C₂₄, C₂₅, C₃₃, C₃₅, C₄₃, C₄₄, and C₄₅. A probability distribution may be accessed for each coefficient in the context neighborhood CN[34] indicating the probability that the respective coefficient, e.g., C₂₃, has been historically left unmodified, adjusted by 1, adjusted by 2, and so on. The most frequent historical modification (or absence thereof) may then be virtually applied to this coefficient C₂₃. For example, if the most frequent historical modification corresponds to reduction by 1, the corresponding change may be virtually applied to coefficient C₂₃: C₂₃→C₂₃−1. Similar virtual modifications may be applied to the rest of the coefficients in the context neighborhood CN[34]. This sets the context for evaluation of the coefficient C₃₄. In particular, with the context neighborhood CN[34] set based on the historical probabilities, multiple adjustments of the coefficient C₃₄ may be evaluated in parallel, e.g., and absence of any adjustment (C₃₄ maintained as is), adjustment by ±1 (C₃₄→C₃₄±1), adjustment by ±2 (C₃₄→C₃₄±2), nullification (C₃₄→0), and/or any other modifications that may be defined by the corresponding quantization algorithm. An adjustment (or absence thereof) may them be selected for coefficient C₃₄ that maximizes rate reduction in view of acceptable distortion. Multiple coefficients C_jk may be evaluated in parallel, each coefficient evaluated using a respective statistically-informed virtually-modified context neighborhood CN[jk].

[0017] Advantages of the disclosed embodiments over the existing technology include significant acceleration of the encoding process. The disclosed techniques allow for parallel implementation of the quantization algorithms that improve a degree of compression while accounting for context of multiple quantization coefficients. This makes the disclosed techniques better suitable for streaming and latency-sensitive applications.

System Architecture

[0018] FIG. 1A is a schematic block diagram of an example codec accelerator system 100 used for efficient encoding operations, in accordance with at least some embodiments. Codec accelerator system 100 may be a part of or in communication with a host computer device 102, which may be a desktop computer, a laptop computer, a smartphone, a tablet computer, a local server, a cloud server, a dedicated video processing server, a collection of multiple computing devices, a distributed computing system, a smart TV, an augmented reality device, or any other suitable computing device (or collection of computing devices) capable of performing the techniques described herein. Host computer device 102 may include one or more applications, including a video application 104, which may be any application capable of creating or managing video files. For example, video application 104 may be a video camera application, a video gaming application, a movie-making application, a video-streaming application, a social-networking application, or any other application that may create, render, download, receive, and/or process video files, including but not limited to high-definition video files.

[0019] As depicted in FIG. 1A, codec accelerator system 100 may include a controller 110 communicatively coupled to a number of components or functional groups, such as a motion estimation group (ME) 120, a rate distortion optimization group (RDO) 130, a reconstruction group (RECON) 140, a filtering group (FILTER) 150, and an entropy processing group (EP) 160. Each functional group may be implemented via one or more electronic circuits. In some embodiments, any functional group may be combined with any other functional group on the same silicon die. In some embodiments, all functional groups may be implemented (together with or separately from controller 110) on the same die. Any or all of the functional groups may be (or include) a number of configurable logic circuits. The logic circuits of any or all functional groups can be configured by controller 110, which may be an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), a finite state machine (FSM), a field-programmable gate array (FPGA), a central processing unit (CPU), a graphics processing unit (GPU), a parallel processing unit (PPU), or some other processing device, or a combination of the aforementioned processing devices. Various functional groups of codec accelerator system 100 may also be communicatively coupled to a memory 170, which may include one or more memory components, such as cache memory, dynamic randomly addressable memory (“DRAM”), static randomly addressable memory (“SRAM”), non-volatile memory (e.g., flash memory), or some other suitable data storage.

[0020] Controller 110 may receive instructions from a host computer device 102 identifying a video file to be encoded, e.g., by the file's storage location in memory 170. Responsive to receiving the instructions, controller 110 may initialize the functional groups of codec accelerator system 100. Codec accelerator system 100 may process various frames in the video file sequentially. Each frame may be processed using one or more reference frames. Memory 170 may maintain a status register (not explicitly depicted) indicating frames of the video file that are designated as reference frames. Controller 110 or ME 120 may manage (e.g., access and control) the status register and from time to time change designation of reference frames, removing reference designations from some frames and designating other frames as reference frames. In some embodiments, during processing of a current frame, ME 120 may access (receive from memory 170) reference pixels 172 of one or more reference frames, which may include previous frame(s) and/or subsequent frame(s). ME 120 may further access source pixels 174 of the current frame and perform segmentation of the current frame into blocks of various sizes according to the codec standard.

[0021] FIG. 1B is a schematic block diagram of a motion estimation functional group (ME 120) of example codec accelerator system 100 of FIG. 1A, in accordance with at least some embodiments. As depicted in FIG. 1B, ME 120 may include a number of functional circuit blocks that may be implemented via separate circuits. Alternatively, any (or all) of the functional circuit blocks may be implemented on an integrated circuit. For each block of the current frame, ME 120 may identify a motion vector that specifies the motion transformation of the best candidate block (inter-frame predicted candidate) in one of the reference frames into a specific block in the current frame. In some embodiments, the motion transformation may be a translation specified by a two-dimensional vector (X, Y) in units of the number of pixels X and Y along the horizontal and vertical directions. The units may be integer or fractional. In some embodiments, the motion transformation may be an affine transformation that preserves lines and parallelism but does not necessarily preserve angles or distances. An affine transformation may be specified by a combination of a translation and a matrix transformation of the coordinates.

[0022] More specifically, a full pixel search (FPS) functional circuit block 122 may identify a motion vector in terms of integer pixel values X and Y. A sub-pixel search (SPS) functional circuit block 124 may then correct the values X and Y with a fractional pixel accuracy (e.g., ¼ pixel accuracy, ⅙ pixel accuracy, ⅛ pixel accuracy, and so on). In some embodiments, FPS 122 and SPS 124 may determine the motion vector based on pixel brightness (luminance or, simply, luma) data of luma reference pixels 176-1 (e.g., stored in memory 170). The pixel color (chromaticity or, simply, chroma) data may be handled separately, as described below. The determined fractional-pixel motion vector (or, in some embodiments, an integer-pixel motion vector, if a lower resolution is sufficient) may be provided to a luma motion compensation (Luma MC) functional circuit block 126. Luma MC functional circuit block 126 may specify one or more motion compensation filters that are to be applied to the inter-frame prediction candidate block. Luma MC functional circuit block 126 may provide the determined motion vector and filter type information to RDO 130. Determining the motion vector based on luma (rather than both luma and chroma) may save an amount of computation in case the inter-frame prediction block is not selected by RDO 130.

[0023] Referring back to FIG. 1A, the information output by ME 120 (e.g., by Luma MC functional circuit block 126) may be received by RDO 130, which performs a dual function of i) performing initial intra-frame block prediction, and ii) comparing the initial intra-frame predictions with an inter-frame prediction generated by ME 120. RDO 130 may then select the best (intra- or inter-) block candidates.

[0024] In some instances, after comparison of the intra-frame with inter-frame predictions, RDO 130 may determine that an inter-frame prediction block is a winner. For example, the inter-frame prediction may have a smaller cost value characterizing a difference between the predicted block and a respective source block. In such instances, the selected inter-frame prediction winner may be returned to ME 120 for additional motion compensation filtering of the winner block's chroma pixel values. Referring again to FIG. 1B, motion vector may be provided to Chroma MC functional circuit block 128. Chroma MC functional circuit block 128 may access chroma reference pixels 176-2, identify a chroma motion compensation filter and communicate the identified filter back to RDO 130. In some embodiments, chroma data may have a reduced (compared to luma) resolution. For example, chroma values (e.g., red and blue chromaticity values, or red and green chromaticity values, or any other suitable chromaticity values) may be defined for each pair of pixels, for each 2×2 block of pixels, for each quad (4×4 block) of pixels, or according to any other suitable scheme. Motion compensation filters may be applied independently from luma filters (previously applied by ME 120) even when the winner inter-frame prediction block was determined on the basis of luma data alone. Referring back to FIG. 1A, in those instances when an inter-frame prediction block is not chosen, the motion vector may not be returned to ME 120 for chroma motion compensation as a winner intra-frame prediction block is provided to RECON 140.

[0025] Although, as described above, the motion vector determination may be based on just luma pixels, in other embodiments, motion vector may be determined based on both luma and chroma source pixel data, with luma error, red chroma error, and blue chroma error evaluated using the same or different cost functions. The relative weights assigned to luma and chroma errors may be determined empirically, by testing. Various cost functions may be used, including a sum of absolute transformed differences (SATD), a sum of squared differences (SSD), or other suitable cost functions. For example, selection of a luma motion compensation filter and/or a chroma motion compensation filter (or both) may be performed based on the SSD cost function that characterizes a difference between luma (and/or chroma) source pixel values of the current frame and pixel values of the chosen inter-frame prediction block.

[0026] RECON 140 receives predicted blocks from RDO 130 and ME 120. Some of the received predicted blocks may be inter-frame prediction blocks identified (and motion-compensated) by ME 120. Some of the received predicted blocks may be intra-frame predicted blocks. More than one intra-frame predicted block may be received for the same region of the frame. More specifically, an initial predicted block of the first size may be received together with one or more additional candidate blocks of other sizes. If intra-frame predicted blocks are received, RECON 140 may first identify a final predicted block (from the received initial predicted block and the additional predicted blocks). Subsequently, RECON 140 performs final block reconstruction, e.g., sequentially, starting from the top-left identified block (or according to some other order, if consistent with the codec standard). Specifically, RECON 140 computes a residual block by subtracting the final predicted block from the source block of the respective size and location. Then, RECON 140 identifies and applies a discrete transform to the residual block to obtain a transformed block, and finally applies a quantization transform to the transformed block. RECON 140 may include a statistics-based quantization component (SBQ) 142, which performs context-aware quantization, according to the techniques of the instant disclosure. If the winner block is an inter-frame prediction block, RECON 140 may perform the same operations except no final prediction block needs to be identified (as the inter-frame prediction block becomes the final prediction block). The coding data, which includes transformed (and quantized) residual blocks, together with the identification of the final predicted blocks, is communicated to EP 160 for generation of an encoded output 178. The identification of the final predicted block may include the size of the block and the final interpolation mode (in case of the intra-frame final predicted block) or the motion vector (in case of the inter-frame final predicted block).

[0027] Similarly, RECON 140 may identify other final predicted blocks and reconstruct these blocks. Boundary pixels of reconstructed blocks become reference pixels for reconstruction of the subsequent blocks and are stored in memory 170. To match the frame that a decoder is going to obtain from the encoded output 178, reference pixels used by RECON 140 may be the pixels of the reconstructed blocks (that would also be used by the decoder). More specifically, reconstructed blocks may be obtained from the transformed and quantized residual blocks by applying a reverse quantization transform and an inverse discrete transform to obtain reconstructed residual blocks, which are then added to the final predicted blocks. The process is continued until all final predicted blocks are similarly reconstructed.

[0028] The set of the reconstructed blocks of the frame may not yet be what is intended to be displayed (on the decoder side) to a viewer. Reconstructed blocks may additionally be processed by FILTER 150 group. FILTER 150 may select from a number of filters recognized by the codec standard being used and further determine various filter parameters to enhance visual quality of the reconstructed blocks, including removal of boundary and other artifacts created during block prediction and reconstruction. In some embodiments, available filters may include a deblocking filter that removes visible block boundaries between neighboring blocks. For example, the deblocking filter may identify the value of discontinuity of luma and/or chroma values across the boundary and spread this value over a number of pixels. The extent of the spread may be among the parameters determined by FILTER 150. Additionally, FILTER 150 may apply a constrained directional enhancement filter (CDEF) to remove ringing artifacts near depictions of sharp edges of various objects. More specifically, because the quantization transform irreversibly reduces or eliminates some short-wavelength harmonics (which are important for imaging of sharp edges), CDEF may compensate for the loss of such harmonics. CDEF may identify most likely direction of edges, e.g., by identifying lines of a constant intensity and lines of the largest intensity gradients. In some embodiments, identification of such lines may be performed by identifying and minimizing SSD for directions that best match directional patterns of the block. After identifying the direction of the block, CDEF may sharpen the depictions of the edges in the block by choosing the filter strength along the determined direction and across this direction. FILTER 150 may also apply a loop restoration (LR) filter to the block. LR filter further improves edge quality and noise reduction using a number of filters, such as a self-guided filter, a Wiener filter, or a combination of the self-guided filter and the Wiener filter. The identified filter parameters (for deblocking, CDEF, LR filters, or other suitable filters, or any combination thereof) are then communicated to EP 160 for inclusion in the encoded output 178.

[0029] In some embodiments, to expedite generation of the encoded output 178, FILTER 150 may perform filtering of some superblocks before all blocks inside a given superblock have been reconstructed by RECON 140. For example, if a superblock has a size of 64×64 pixels, FILTER 150 may determine filter parameters based on reconstructed regions of a reduced size, e.g., 48×48 pixels, 48×56 pixels, 48×54 pixels, 52×56 pixels, or some other regions of a reduced size. The regions of the reduced size may be located fully inside a corresponding superblock or may be touching at least one boundary of the superblock. The size of the reduced region may be dynamic, e.g., determined by the sizes of the reconstructed blocks inside the superblocks.

[0030] The output of FILTER 150 includes information that is sufficient for a decoder to reproduce the image frame (as well as multiple previous and subsequent frames), including identification of various inter-prediction and intra-prediction blocks, sizes and interpolation modes for these blocks, identification of discrete transforms used to encode the blocks, identification of filters used to improve visual quality of the blocks, and the like. The output of FILTER 150 may be provided to EP 160 for entropy encoding. Specifically, EP 160 may replace each fixed-length input symbol with a variable-length prefix-free output codeword. The length of each codeword may be approximately proportional to the negative logarithm of the probability of occurrence of the codeword so that the most common symbols use represented by the shortest codes. Various coding techniques may be used by EP 160, including Huffman coding and arithmetic coding. The encoded output 178 may be stored in memory 170 and/or livestreamed over Internet or any other suitable network, including a local area network, a wide area network, a personal area network, a public network, a private network, and the like.

[0031] In some embodiments, functionality described above is performed by circuit blocks. In another embodiment, some of the functionality (of one or more circuit groups 120-160) may be implemented in one or more software or firmware modules executed by a processing device, e.g., a central processing unit (CPU), a graphics processing unit (GPU), a field-programmable gate array (FPGA), an application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC), or some other suitable logic device. For example, a first software/firmware module may implement functionality of FILTER 150 and/or a second software/firmware module may implement functionality of EP 160, whereas ME 120, RDO 130, and RECON 140 are implemented via dedicated functional circuit groups. In some embodiments, all of ME 120, RDO 130, RECON 140, FILTER 150, and EP 160 may be implemented as software/firmware modules.

[0032] FIG. 2 is a schematic block diagram of a rate-distortion optimization (RDO) functional group, in accordance with at least some embodiments. RDO depicted in FIG. 2 may be RDO 130 of example codec accelerator system 100 of FIG. 1A. As depicted in FIG. 2, RDO 130 may include a number of functional circuit blocks that may be implemented via the same or separate circuits. The functional circuit blocks may include an intra-frame RDO functional circuit block 132, a shared RDO functional circuit block 134, and an inter-frame RDO functional circuit block 138. Intra-frame RDO functional circuit block 132 may apply, using reference pixels, various interpolation modes to a given block of the current image and provide an indication of the predicted block (e.g., interpolated pixel values) to shared RDO functional circuit block 134 for cost evaluation 136. Shared RDO functional circuit block 134 may use peripheral direct memory access controller (PDMA) 135 to access source pixels of the current frame. Cost evaluation 136 may use one or more cost functions (e.g., SATD, SSD, or any other suitable cost function) to evaluate a difference between pixels of the predicted block with pixels of the corresponding source block. Shared RDO 134 may then provide the determined cost value back to intra-frame RDO functional circuit block 132, which may select one or more lowest-cost interpolation modes for further processing by RECON 140.

[0033] Inter-frame RDO functional circuit block 138 may use historical data module (HIST) 137 that collects data from previously processed inter-frame prediction blocks for reuse during processing of subsequent blocks (e.g., neighbor blocks). Inter-frame RDO functional circuit block 138 may obtain a motion vector from Luma MC 126 and generate a representation (e.g., pixel values) for the inter-frame predicted block based on the received motion vector. The generated representation may be sent to shared RDO functional circuit block 134 for cost evaluation 136. Shared RDO functional circuit block 134 may use PDMA 135 to access source pixels of the current frame and one or more reference frames. Cost evaluation 136 may evaluate a difference between pixels of the inter-frame predicted block with pixels of the corresponding source block. Shared RDO functional circuit block 134 may then provide the determined cost value back to inter-frame RDO functional circuit block 138. Shared RDO functional circuit block 134 may further perform selection, based on the determined costs, between inter-frame and intra-frame predicted blocks. The winners (the lowest-cost predicted blocks) are then provided for further processing by RECON 140.

[0034] Inter-frame RDO functional circuit block 138 may further select a type of a discrete transform to be applied to a difference of pixel values in the selected inter-frame predicted block and the corresponding source pixels of the current frame. The selection may be performed by cost evaluation 136 and may be based on any suitable cost function (e.g., SSD, SATD, etc.). The discrete transform may be invertible and may include Discrete Fourier Transform, Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT), Horizontal DCT, Vertical DCT, Asymmetric Discrete Sine (ADS) Transform, Flipped ADS Transform, Identity Transform (e.g., for imaging of sharp transitions/edges), or any other suitable discrete transform.

[0035] FIG. 3 is a schematic diagram depicting operations 300 of predicting, transforming, and quantizing of pixel data in advanced codecs, in accordance with at least some embodiments. In some embodiments, operations 300 depicted in FIG. 3 may be performed by RECON 140 of example codec accelerator system 100 of FIG. 1. In some embodiments, operations 300 depicted in FIG. 3 may be performed by a general CPU(s) or GPU(s) based on instructions generated by a software or a firmware codec application. For example, after codec accelerator system 100 has identified top M candidate modes (each associated with a particular predicted block also referred herein to as a candidate block) for each block of the current image, those modes that have not been eliminated in favor of inter-frame prediction candidates may undergo operations 300. As depicted schematically in FIG. 3, final prediction of a block N 304 may be performed using reconstructed (reference) pixels 306-1, which may include some of the reconstructed pixels determined in the course of reconstruction of preceding final blocks 1 . . . N−1.

[0036] Reconstructed pixels 306-1 may include pixels that are on the left/top side of the block N (or other suitable reference pixels, as may be specified by the codec standard). Various candidate modes may be selected using a cost function 308. In some embodiments, cost function 308 may be SATD-based cost function, SSD-based cost function, or some other suitable cost function. Cost function 308 may be used to compare (e.g., pixel-by-pixel) a final block candidate computed using a given candidate mode with a respective source block 310 of the current frame. Although source block 310 is depicted as a square, a rectangular source block of the corresponding size may be used for reconstruction if block N is rectangular.

[0037] Based on the results of the comparison, a final mode may be selected for the final predicted block N 312. Subsequently, RECON 140 (or any other suitable device performing operations 300) performs a final block reconstruction, e.g., starting from the top-left block (of in some other order recognized by the codec standard). Specifically, final predicted block N 312 may be subtracted (operation 318) from the corresponding source block 310 of the respective size and location. Subtraction is performed pixel-by-pixel and a residual block 320 is obtained, Δ(x, y)=Source(x, y)−Pred. Block(x, y). Subsequently, RECON 140 (or another suitable component) selects and performs a discrete transform of the residual block 320. Discrete transforms may be invertible and may include Discrete Fourier Transform, Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT), Horizontal DCT, Vertical DCT, Asymmetric Discrete Sine (ADS) Transform, Flipped ADS Transform, Identity Transform (e.g., for imaging of sharp transitions/edges), or any other suitable discrete transform. Transforms may be selected using a transform cost function 322. The selected transform is used to produce a transformed (residual) block 324, Δ(x, y)→Δ(k_x, k_y). Subsequently, a (forward) quantization transform may be applied to transformed block 324 to obtain quantized block 326, Δ(k_x, k_y)→Δ_Q(k_x, k_y). Quantized block 326 may be processed using SBQ 142, as described in more detail below. The quantization transform can be irreversible and, in some embodiments, may include dividing the transformed block 324 (element-by-element) by a table of quantization coefficients with a subsequent rounding operation applied to the result of the division operation. As a consequence, small components of the transformed block 324 may turn to zero, such that the quantized block 326 includes fewer (in some instances much fewer) nonzero elements than the transformed block 324.

[0038] The quantized block, together with other coding data may be provided for filtering and encoding (328), e.g., by FILTER 150 and EP 160 of example code accelerator system 100 of FIG. 1A. The other coding data may include the identification of the final predicted block including the size and the location of the block, the identification of the type of the prediction used (inter-frame or intra-frame), the motion vector and the motion compensation filters (for inter-frame predictions), the final interpolation mode (for intra-frame predictions), the type of the discrete transform being used, the identification of the table of quantization coefficients, and various other data.

[0039] The quantized block 326 Δ_Q(k_x, k_y) may then be used to obtain a reconstructed block N 313. RECON 140 (or some other device performing operations 300) may perform a reverse quantization transform to obtain a reverse-quantized transformed block 330. The reverse quantization transform may include multiplying quantized block 326 (e.g., element-by-element) by the table of quantization coefficients. Because of the rounding performed during the forward quantization transform, the reverse-quantized transformed block 330, Δ′(k_x, k_y), does not in general coincide with the transformed block 324, Δ(k_x, k_y). Application of the inverse discrete transform to the reverse-quantized transformed block 330, Δ′(k_x, k_y)→Δ′(x, y), therefore, generates a reconstructed residual block 332, Δ′(x, y), that is different from the residual block 320, Δ(x, y). Reconstructed residual block 332 may then be added (operation 334) to the final predicted block N 312 to obtain reconstructed block N 313, e.g., as follows, Recon. Block(x, y)=Pred. Block(x, y)+Δ′(x, y).

[0040] Some of the boundary pixels of reconstructed block N 313 become reference pixels for reconstruction of the subsequent blocks. For example, a subset of pixels of the reconstructed block N 313 (e.g., the bottom row and the rightmost column of the reconstructed block) may be used as reconstructed (reference) pixels 306-2 for a final block N+1 prediction 314. The final predicted block N+1 316 may be processed similarly to processing of block N. The described process may be continued until the entire frame is reconstructed.

[0041] FIGS. 4A-4D illustrate schematically operations of statistics-based quantization 142, in accordance with at least some embodiments. SBQ 142 may be performed on quantized block 326, e.g., after one or more quantization transformations has already been applied to transformed block 324. FIGS. 4A-4D illustrate an example 8×8 block 400 of coefficients C_jk obtained as a result of a suitable discrete transform of a corresponding block of pixels (and one or more quantization transformations, as applicable). It should be understood that 8×8 block is intended as an illustration only and that blocks of various other sizes (e.g., 4×4 blocks, 32×32 blocks, 64×64 blocks, etc.) may be processing in a similar way. FIG. 4A illustrates a conventional sequential processing of coefficients C_jk, performed in a serpentine fashion. For example, coefficients C_jk may be modified, e.g., starting from higher indices j and k (which are of less importance), e.g., starting from C₇₇, and proceeding to coefficients C_jk with lower indices j and k, e.g., in the decreased order of j+k until the last coefficient C₀₀ is processed (e.g., with coefficient C₅₇ dependent on previously evaluated coefficients C₆₇, C₇₆, and C₇₇). More specifically, each coefficient C_jk may be sequentially evaluated in conjunction with one of possible adjustments that reduce the total amount of information encoded as part of block 400, such as modifying the coefficient by a fixed value m, e.g., C_jk→C_jk−m (where m=±1, ±2, etc.), setting coefficient C_jk to zero (C_jk→0), and/or the like. Since such adjustments decrease the total rate R but may come at a cost of an increased distortion D (decreased image quality), a rate-distortion evaluation may be performed by computing a total cost of a specific coefficient adjustment,

[0042] $\mathrm{Cost}=\lambda ·R+D,$
where λ is an empirically defined Lagrangian multiplier that determines those rate decreases R→R−ΔR as beneficial that are not outweighed by distortion increases D→D+ΔD:

[0043] $\Delta R\ge \frac{\Delta D}{\lambda }.$
Correspondingly, if the latter relation is satisfied, a specific adjustment being considered may be implemented. Otherwise, the adjustment may be avoided and the respective coefficient C_jk may be kept unchanged.

[0044] Sequential evaluation of coefficients C_jk illustrated in FIG. 4A may be slow and suboptimal for real-time encoding and streaming of large volumes of video data. Parallel evaluation of the coefficients C_jk may be efficiently performed by assigning a context neighborhood CN[jk] to respective coefficients C_jk. FIGS. 4B-4D illustrate one example embodiment in which neighborhoods CN[jk] include coefficients that are accessible from the respective coefficient C_jk via at most two steps performed along the horizontal and/or vertical directions. In particular, FIG. 4B depicts context neighborhood CN[00] 402 of coefficient C₀₀, FIG. 4C depicts context neighborhood CN[35] 404 of coefficient C₃₅, and FIG. 4D depicts context neighborhood CN[40] of coefficient C₄₀. During evaluation of a specific coefficient C_jk, each coefficient in the corresponding context neighborhood may be virtually adjusted based on available statistics. For example, during evaluation of coefficient C₃₅, various coefficients of the context neighborhood CN[35] 404 may first be statistically evaluated. It should be understood that context neighborhoods illustrated in FIGS. 4B-4D are illustrations and that various other neighborhoods (e.g., square-shaped, rectangular-shaped) may be used.

[0045] A probability distribution may be accessed for each coefficient in the context neighborhood CN[35] indicating the probability that the respective coefficient, e.g., C₂₅, has been historically left unmodified, adjusted by ±1, adjusted by ±2, and so on. The most frequent historical modification (or absence thereof) may then be virtually applied to this coefficient C₂₅. For example, if the most frequent historical modification corresponds to reduction by 1, the corresponding change may be virtually applied to coefficient C₂₅: C₂₅→C₂₅−1. Various virtual modifications may also be applied to the rest of the coefficients in the context neighborhood CN[35]. This sets the context for evaluation of the coefficient C₃₅. In particular, with the context neighborhood CN[35] set based on the historical probabilities, multiple potential adjustments of the coefficient C₃₅ may be evaluated in parallel, e.g., adjustment of C₃₅ by ±1 (C₃₅→C₃₅±1), adjustment of C₃₅ by ±2 (C₃₅→C₃₅±2), etc., nullification of C₃₅ (C₃₅→0), and so on, as may be prescribed by the corresponding quantization algorithm. Each potential adjustment may be evaluated using the rate-distortion equation (Cost=λ·R+D), as described above. A selected adjustment (or absence thereof) may have the lowest cost and may maximize rate reduction in view of the offsetting distortion. Multiple coefficients C_jk may be evaluated in parallel, each coefficient evaluated using the respective statistically-informed virtually-modified context neighborhood CN[jk]. It should be understood that probabilistic virtual adjustment of a particular coefficient C_jk is separate from actual adjustment of the same coefficient C_jk. In particular, while virtual adjustment of a particular coefficient C_jk is performed based on the historical statistical data for that coefficient and is used in evaluation of other coefficients, actual adjustment of coefficient C_jk is performed separately based on the rate-distortion cost analysis for that coefficient. In particular, it is possible that a given coefficient C_jk is virtually adjusted (based on historical statistical data for that coefficient) during evaluation of other coefficients, but does not undergo any actual adjustment (if the rate-distortion cost analysis disfavors such adjustment for an actual given frame or a part of the frame). Likewise, it is possible that a given coefficient C_jk is virtually unchanged during evaluation of other coefficients (if, historically, such changes have been uncommon), but does undergo an actual adjustment for the given frame or a part of the frame).

[0046] In some embodiments, statistical data may be applied to evaluation of a coefficient C_jk=A. a in a fractional format, e.g., prior to the quantization transformation discarding the fractional part (.a) of C_jk. For example, the historical probability distributions may be specified for C_jk in terms of 10 equal bins (intervals) of 0.a (e.g., 0.1, 0.2, etc.) and the virtual modification of the integer part A of C_jk may be based on the probabilities from the corresponding bins selected based on the value of 0.a.

[0047] In some embodiments, quantization transformation may include an end-of-block (EOB) adjustments. In particular, EOB refers to the last nonzero coefficient C_jk of a block. In order to reduce the size of the block, quantization transformation may also evaluate other neighboring coefficients, e.g., C_j−1,k, C_j,k−1, and/or C_j±1,k∓1 (depending on the direction of the serpentine ordering of the processing). The EOB quantization may be performed until it is determined that the cost of nullifying (C_jk→0) of a particular coefficient C_jk exceeds the gain in the rate reduction. The corresponding coefficient C_jk may then be determined as the EOB coefficient and further EOB search may be stopped. In some embodiments, the EOB search may be performed prior to the statistics-based evaluation and adjustment described above. In some embodiments, the EOB search may be performed after the statistics-based evaluation and adjustment is completed. In some embodiments, the EOB search may be performed in parallel to the statistics-based evaluation.

[0048] In some embodiments, the statistical data may be static and stored in memory, e.g., in read-only memory of codec accelerator system 100, and is not changed during a given codec encoding and/or streaming session. In such embodiments, the statistical data may be updated during system downtime. In some embodiments, the statistical data may be dynamic and may be updated during a given codec encoding session. More specifically, data from a particular frame may be used to update stored statistical data, e.g., by accumulating modifications (or absence thereof) of coefficients C_jk into the statistical data.

[0049] FIG. 5 and FIG. 6 are flow diagrams of example methods 500 and 600 that accelerate video codec operations by implementing parallel statistics-based quantization, in accordance with at least some embodiments. In some embodiments, methods 500 and 600 may be performed by example codec accelerator system 100 of FIG. 1A. In some embodiments, methods 500 and 600 may be performed by one or more circuits that may communicate with one or more memory devices. In some embodiments, at least some operations of methods 500 and 600 may be performed by multiple (e.g., parallel) hardware threads, each thread executing one or more individual functions, routines, subroutines, or operations of the methods. In some embodiments, processing threads implementing methods 500 and 600 may be synchronized (e.g., using semaphores, critical sections, and/or other thread synchronization mechanisms). Alternatively, hardware threads implementing methods 500 and 600 may be executed asynchronously with respect to each other. Various operations of methods 500 and 600 may be performed in a different order compared with the order shown in FIG. 5 and FIG. 6. Some operations of methods 500 and 600 may be performed concurrently with other operations. In some embodiments, one or more operations shown in FIG. 5 and FIG. 6 may not be performed.

[0050] FIG. 5 is a flow diagram of an example method 500 of statistics-based quantization that uses parallel processing, in accordance with at least some embodiments. Method 500 may be performed to encode a video file in AV1 codec format, VP9 codec format, H.264 codec format, H.265 codec format, or any other suitable video codec format. A video file may include multiple image frames. At block 510, method 500 may include generating a block of predicted pixels Pred. Block(x, y) for an image frame. The block of predicted pixels may approximate a block of source pixels Source(x, y) of the image frame. The block of source pixels (and, correspondingly, the block of predicted pixels) may have a size of 16×16 pixels, 32×32 pixels, 8×8 pixels, 4×4 pixels, and/or any other suitable size. In some embodiments, the block of source pixels (and, correspondingly, the block of predicted pixels) may be non-square (e.g., rectangular), e.g., 16×8 pixels, 64×16 pixels, and/or the like. In some instances, the block of predicted pixels may include pixels that are predicted (e.g., approximated) using reference pixels of one or more reference image frames that are different from the image frame (a preceding frame, a subsequent frame, and/or both), e.g., using one or more inter-frame prediction modes that are based on finding an appropriate motion vector (or multiple of motion vectors) for the block. In some instances, the block of predicted pixels may include pixels that are predicted using reconstructed pixels of the image frame, e.g., using one or more intra-frame prediction modes that are based on interpolating or extrapolating predicted pixels using a grid of reconstructed pixels.

[0051] At block 520, method 500 may continue with representing a difference between the block of source pixels and the block of predicted pixels, Δ(x,y)=Source(x, y)−Pred. Block(x, y), via a plurality of transformation coefficients (TCs), e.g., {C_jk}. In some embodiments, as illustrated with the top callout block 522 of FIG. 5, representing the difference between the block of source pixels and the block of predicted pixels may include applying a discrete linear transformation to the difference, e.g., applying Discrete Fourier Transform, Discrete Cosine Transform, DCT, Vertical Discrete Cosine Transform, Horizontal Discrete Cosine Transform, Asymmetric Discrete Sine Transform, and/or the like.

[0052] At block 530, method 500 may continue with evaluating, using statistical data, each TC C_jk of at least a subset of the plurality of TCs. In some embodiments, all TCs of the plurality of TCs may be similarly evaluated. Each of the TCs being evaluated may be evaluated in view of a neighborhood of TCs, e.g., context neighborhood CN[j, k] associated with the respective TC C_jk. The evaluation may include selecting an action that is performed on the respective TC C_jk. As illustrated with the bottom callout portion of FIG. 5, the action may include, at block 532, adjusting the respective TC C_jk. For example, adjusting the respective TC C_jk may include decrementing the respective TC (e.g., modifying C_jk→C_jk±1, C_jk→C_jk±2, and/or the like). In some embodiments, adjusting the respective TC C_jk may include replacing the respective TC with a zero value (e.g., C_jk→0). As indicated with block 534, the action may include maintaining the respective TC. In some embodiments, adjusting the respective TC C_jk may be responsive to a first cost value associated with an adjustment of the respective TC being less than a second cost value associated with maintaining the respective TC. Similarly, maintaining the respective TC C_jk may be responsive to the first cost value being more than the second cost value. In some embodiments, two or more of the subset of the plurality of TCs may be evaluated in parallel. At block 540, method 500 may include generating a compressed representation of the image using the evaluated subset of the plurality of TCs (of which some TCs may be adjusted and other TCs may be unmodified).

[0053] FIG. 6 is a flow diagram of an example method 600 of evaluation of transformation coefficients using statistical data, in accordance with at least some embodiments. In some embodiments, method 600 may be performed as part of block 530 of method 500. Method 600 may be performed separately (e.g., in parallel) for various individual TCs C_jk. More specifically, at block 610, method 600 may include accessing the statistical data for each TC of the neighborhood of TCs CN[j, k] (associated with a given C_jk). At block 620, method 600 may include virtually replacing one or more TCs of the neighborhood CN[j, k], e.g., virtually replacing C_j−1,k, C_j+1,k, C_j,k−1, C_j,k+1, and/or other elements, as may be based on the statistical data. Virtual replacement may be further based on other information, such as the integer and fractional parts of TC, TC value after quantization, and/or the like. Virtual replacement should be understood as a replacement, e.g., of C_j−1,k performed for the purpose of evaluating C_jk rather than actual replacement of C_j−1,k itself. In some embodiments, virtually replacing the one or more TCs of the neighborhood of TCs may be performed with a most likely historical modification of the TC value indicated by the statistical data. Some of TCs of the neighborhood may be unmodified, if so indicated by the statistical data. At block 630, method 600 may continue with evaluating the respective TC using a cost function computed with the virtually replaced one or more TCs of the neighborhood of TCs. For example, a separate cost value may be computed for unmodified C_jk, for an incremented C_jk, for a nullified C_jk, and so on, and the adjustment (or absence thereof) may be selected based on the optimal (e.g., lowest) computed cost value.

[0054] Images and videos generated applying one or more of the techniques disclosed herein may be displayed on a monitor or other display device. In some embodiments, the display device may be coupled directly to the system or processor generating or rendering the images or videos. In other embodiments, the display device may be coupled indirectly to the system or processor such as via a network. Examples of such networks include the Internet, mobile telecommunications networks, a WIFI network, as well as any other wired and/or wireless networking system. When the display device is indirectly coupled, the images or videos generated by the system or processor may be streamed over the network to the display device. Such streaming allows, for example, video games or other applications, which render images or videos, to be executed on a server or in a data center and the rendered images and videos to be transmitted and displayed on one or more user devices (such as a computer, video game console, smartphone, other mobile device, etc.) that are physically separate from the server or data center. Hence, the techniques disclosed herein can be applied to enhance the images or videos that are streamed and to enhance services that stream images and videos such as NVIDIA GeForce Now (GFN), Google Stadia, and the like.

[0055] Furthermore, images and videos generated applying one or more of the techniques disclosed herein may be used to train, test, or certify deep neural networks (DNNs) used to recognize objects and environments in the real world. Such images and videos may include scenes of roadways, factories, buildings, urban settings, rural settings, humans, animals, and any other physical object or real-world setting. Such images and videos may be used to train, test, or certify DNNs that are employed in machines or robots to manipulate, handle, or modify physical objects in the real world. Furthermore, such images and videos may be used to train, test, or certify DNNs that are employed in autonomous vehicles to navigate and move the vehicles through the real world. Additionally, images and videos generated applying one or more of the techniques disclosed herein may be used to convey information to users of such machines, robots, and vehicles.

[0056] Other variations are within spirit of present disclosure. Thus, while disclosed techniques are susceptible to various modifications and alternative constructions, certain illustrated embodiments thereof are shown in drawings and have been described above in detail. It should be understood, however, that there is no intention to limit disclosure to specific form or forms disclosed, but on contrary, intention is to cover all modifications, alternative constructions, and equivalents falling within spirit and scope of disclosure, as defined in appended claims.

[0057] Use of terms “a” and “an” and “the” and similar referents in context of describing disclosed embodiments (especially in context of following claims) are to be construed to cover both singular and plural, unless otherwise indicated herein or clearly contradicted by context, and not as a definition of a term. Terms “comprising,” “having,” “including,” and “containing” are to be construed as open-ended terms (meaning “including, but not limited to,”) unless otherwise noted. “Connected,” when unmodified and referring to physical connections, is to be construed as partly or wholly contained within, attached to, or joined together, even if there is something intervening. Recitation of ranges of values herein are merely intended to serve as a shorthand method of referring individually to each separate value falling within range, unless otherwise indicated herein and each separate value is incorporated into specification as if it were individually recited herein. In at least one embodiment, use of term “set” (e.g., “a set of items”) or “subset” unless otherwise noted or contradicted by context, is to be construed as a nonempty collection comprising one or more members. Further, unless otherwise noted or contradicted by context, term “subset” of a corresponding set does not necessarily denote a proper subset of corresponding set, but subset and corresponding set may be equal.

[0058] Conjunctive language, such as phrases of form “at least one of A, B, and C,” or “at least one of A, B and C,” unless specifically stated otherwise or otherwise clearly contradicted by context, is otherwise understood with context as used in general to present that an item, term, etc., may be either A or B or C, or any nonempty subset of set of A and B and C. For instance, in illustrative example of a set having three members, conjunctive phrases “at least one of A, B, and C” and “at least one of A, B and C” refer to any of following sets: {A}, {B}, {C}, {A, B}, {A, C}, {B, C}, {A, B, C}. Thus, such conjunctive language is not generally intended to imply that certain embodiments require at least one of A, at least one of B and at least one of C each to be present. In addition, unless otherwise noted or contradicted by context, term “plurality” indicates a state of being plural (e.g., “a plurality of items” indicates multiple items). In at least one embodiment, number of items in a plurality is at least two, but can be more when so indicated either explicitly or by context. Further, unless stated otherwise or otherwise clear from context, phrase “based on” means “based at least in part on” and not “based solely on.”

[0059] Operations of processes described herein can be performed in any suitable order unless otherwise indicated herein or otherwise clearly contradicted by context. In at least one embodiment, a process such as those processes described herein (or variations and/or combinations thereof) is performed under control of one or more computer systems configured with executable instructions and is implemented as code (e.g., executable instructions, one or more computer programs or one or more applications) executing collectively on one or more processors, by hardware or combinations thereof. In at least one embodiment, code is stored on a computer-readable storage medium, for example, in form of a computer program comprising a plurality of instructions executable by one or more processors. In at least one embodiment, a computer-readable storage medium is a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium that excludes transitory signals (e.g., a propagating transient electric or electromagnetic transmission) but includes non-transitory data storage circuitry (e.g., buffers, cache, and queues) within transceivers of transitory signals. In at least one embodiment, code (e.g., executable code or source code) is stored on a set of one or more non-transitory computer-readable storage media having stored thereon executable instructions (or other memory to store executable instructions) that, when executed (i.e., as a result of being executed) by one or more processors of a computer system, cause computer system to perform operations described herein. In at least one embodiment, set of non-transitory computer-readable storage media comprises multiple non-transitory computer-readable storage media and one or more of individual non-transitory storage media of multiple non-transitory computer-readable storage media lack all of code while multiple non-transitory computer-readable storage media collectively store all of code. In at least one embodiment, executable instructions are executed such that different instructions are executed by different processors—for example, a non-transitory computer-readable storage medium store instructions and a main central processing unit (“CPU”) executes some of instructions while a graphics processing unit (“GPU”) executes other instructions. In at least one embodiment, different components of a computer system have separate processors and different processors execute different subsets of instructions.

[0060] Accordingly, in at least one embodiment, computer systems are configured to implement one or more services that singly or collectively perform operations of processes described herein and such computer systems are configured with applicable hardware and/or software that enable performance of operations. Further, a computer system that implements at least one embodiment of present disclosure is a single device and, in another embodiment, is a distributed computer system comprising multiple devices that operate differently such that distributed computer system performs operations described herein and such that a single device does not perform all operations.

[0061] Use of any and all examples, or exemplary language (e.g., “such as”) provided herein, is intended merely to better illuminate embodiments of disclosure and does not pose a limitation on scope of disclosure unless otherwise claimed. No language in specification should be construed as indicating any non-claimed element as essential to practice of disclosure.

[0062] All references, including publications, patent applications, and patents, cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference to same extent as if each reference were individually and specifically indicated to be incorporated by reference and were set forth in its entirety herein.

[0063] In description and claims, terms “coupled” and “connected,” along with their derivatives, may be used. It should be understood that these terms may be not intended as synonyms for each other. Rather, in particular examples, “connected” or “coupled” may be used to indicate that two or more elements are in direct or indirect physical or electrical contact with each other. “Coupled” may also mean that two or more elements are not in direct contact with each other, but yet still co-operate or interact with each other.

[0064] Unless specifically stated otherwise, it may be appreciated that throughout specification terms such as “processing,” “computing,” “calculating,” “determining,” or like, refer to action and/or processes of a computer or computing system, or similar electronic computing device, that manipulate and/or transform data represented as physical, such as electronic, quantities within computing system's registers and/or memories into other data similarly represented as physical quantities within computing system's memories, registers or other such information storage, transmission or display devices.

[0065] In a similar manner, term “processor” may refer to any device or portion of a device that processes electronic data from registers and/or memory and transform that electronic data into other electronic data that may be stored in registers and/or memory. As non-limiting examples, “processor” may be a CPU or a GPU. A “computing platform” may comprise one or more processors. As used herein, “software” processes may include, for example, software and/or hardware entities that perform work over time, such as tasks, threads, and intelligent agents. Also, each process may refer to multiple processes, for carrying out instructions in sequence or in parallel, continuously or intermittently. In at least one embodiment, terms “system” and “method” are used herein interchangeably insofar as system may embody one or more methods and methods may be considered a system.

[0066] In present document, references may be made to obtaining, acquiring, receiving, or inputting analog or digital data into a subsystem, computer system, or computer-implemented machine. In at least one embodiment, process of obtaining, acquiring, receiving, or inputting analog and digital data can be accomplished in a variety of ways such as by receiving data as a parameter of a function call or a call to an application programming interface. In at least one embodiment, processes of obtaining, acquiring, receiving, or inputting analog or digital data can be accomplished by transferring data via a serial or parallel interface. In at least one embodiment, processes of obtaining, acquiring, receiving, or inputting analog or digital data can be accomplished by transferring data via a computer network from providing entity to acquiring entity. In at least one embodiment, references may also be made to providing, outputting, transmitting, sending, or presenting analog or digital data. In various examples, processes of providing, outputting, transmitting, sending, or presenting analog or digital data can be accomplished by transferring data as an input or output parameter of a function call, a parameter of an application programming interface or interprocess communication mechanism.

[0067] Although descriptions herein set forth example embodiments of described techniques, other architectures may be used to implement described functionality, and are intended to be within scope of this disclosure. Furthermore, although specific distributions of responsibilities may be defined above for purposes of description, various functions and responsibilities might be distributed and divided in different ways, depending on circumstances.

[0068] Furthermore, although subject matter has been described in language specific to structural features and/or methodological acts, it is to be understood that subject matter claimed in appended claims is not necessarily limited to specific features or acts described. Rather, specific features and acts are disclosed as exemplary forms of implementing the claims.