Indicator compounds, devices comprising indicator compounds, and methods of making and using the same

[0001] The present application claims priority benefit to U.S. Provisional Application No. 63/019,126, entitled “INDICATOR COMPOUNDS, DEVICES COMPRISING INDICATOR COMPOUNDS, AND METHODS OF MAKING AND USING THE SAME,” filed May 1, 2020, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/926,323, entitled “INDICATOR COMPOUNDS AND METHODS OF MAKING AND USING THE SAME,” filed Oct. 25, 2019, each of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0002] A Sequence Listing submitted as an ASCII text file via EFS-Web is hereby incorporated by reference in accordance with 35 U.S.C. § 1.52(e). The name of the ASCII text file for the Sequence Listing is CERCA161A ST25.TXT, the date of creation of the ASCII text file is Nov. 20, 2020, and the size of the ASCII text file is 4.42 MB.

[0003] The present disclosure generally relates to compounds, compositions, devices comprising such compounds and compositions, methods of making any of the foregoing, and methods of using the same for the detection of analytes. In some embodiments, the analyte is glucose. Some embodiments pertain to methods of using those compounds, compositions, and/or devices to diagnose and/or monitor the blood sugar of diabetic patients.

[0004] Identifying and understanding the risk factors associated with diabetes is important for the development and evaluation of effective intervention strategies. Lacking normal regulatory mechanisms, diabetics are encouraged to strive for glucose control through a modulated lifestyle approach that focuses on dietary control, exercise, and glucose self-testing with the timely administration of insulin or oral hypoglycemic medications. Invasive forms of self-testing may be painful and are often resisted by most diabetics.

[0005] In some embodiments, indicator compounds and devices comprising the same are disclosed. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is a fusion protein. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is or comprises an analyte binding compound (e.g., a analyte binding protein) and/or comprises an analyte binding domain (e.g., a binding domain of an analyte binding protein). In some embodiments, the analyte is a sugar. In some embodiments, the analyte is glucose.

[0006] Some embodiments pertain to a device for detecting the presence of an analyte in a subject. In some embodiments, the device comprises a light transmissive material. In some embodiments, the light transmissive material is configured to receive an excitation wavelength of light from a light source. In some embodiments, the device comprises a waveguide. In some embodiments, the waveguide comprises a cladding layer that surrounds a core material. In some embodiments, the waveguide is configured to receive the excitation wavelength of light via a proximal end of the waveguide. In some embodiments, the waveguide is configured to transmit the excitation wavelength of light along the waveguide to a distal end of the waveguide. In some embodiments, the device comprises an indicator compound. In some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises a fusion protein. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is disposed within the waveguide. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is configured to receive the excitation wavelength. In some embodiments, the fusion protein comprises a luminescent protein domain and/or an analyte binding protein domain. In some embodiments, when the analyte binds to the analyte binding protein domain, the indicator compound undergoes a conformational change from a first conformation to a second conformation. In some embodiments, when in the second conformation, the indicator compound is configured to receive the excitation wavelength and to emit a luminescent signal. In some embodiments, the luminescent signal is received by the waveguide and transmitted to the light transmissive material. In some embodiments, the light transmissive material is configured to deliver the luminescent signal to a luminescence detector.

[0007] In some embodiments, the device further comprises an adhesive layer that adheres the device to skin of the subject. In some embodiments, the distal end of the waveguide is configured to penetrate the skin of the subject. In some embodiments, the distal end of the waveguide resides in the dermis of the subject.

[0008] In some embodiments, the waveguide further comprises a protective polymer layer over the cladding layer.

[0009] In some embodiments, the indicator compound is distributed in the core of the waveguide, at the interface of the core and the cladding layer of the waveguide, in the cladding layer of the waveguide, at the surface of the cladding layer of the waveguide, or combinations of any of the foregoing.

[0010] In some embodiments, the luminescent protein is a split luminescent protein. In some embodiments, the indicator compound shares 80% to 100% identity, homology, or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 3-13 or 16-20. In some embodiments, the analyte binding protein domain is a domain of a periplasmic protein. In some embodiments, the analyte binding domain shares 80% to 100% identity, homology, or similarity to one of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 15, 122-221, or 824-1746. In some embodiments, a contiguous 100 amino acid portion of the analyte binding domain shares 80% to 100% identity, homology, or similarity to a contiguous 100 amino acid portion of one of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 15, 122-221, or 824-1746.

[0011] In some embodiments, the luminescent protein domain is a domain of a fluorescent protein. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein domain shares 80% to 100% identity, homology, or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 14, 34-121, or 222-823. In some embodiments, a contiguous 100 amino acid portion of the luminescent protein domain shares 80% to 100% identity, homology, or similarity to a contiguous 100 amino acid portion of one of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 14, 34-121, or 222-823.

[0012] Some embodiments pertain to a device for detecting the presence of glucose in a subject. In some embodiments, the device comprises a light transmissive material matrix material configured to receive an excitation wavelength of light from a light source. In some embodiments, the device comprises an indicator compound comprising a split fusion protein. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is disposed within the matrix material. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is configured to receive the excitation wavelength. In some embodiments, the fusion protein comprises a luminescent protein domain and/or a glucose binding protein domain. In some embodiments, when glucose binds to the glucose binding protein domain, the indicator compound undergoes a conformational change from a first conformation to a second conformation. In some embodiments, when in the second conformation, the indicator compound is configured to receive the excitation wavelength and to emit a luminescent signal. In some embodiments, the luminescent signal is transmitted through the light transmissive material to a luminescence detector.

[0013] In some embodiments, the device comprises the luminescence detector. In some embodiments, the device is configured to be implanted beneath the surface of the skin.

[0014] In some embodiments, the matrix material is part of a waveguide. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is distributed in a core of the waveguide, at an interface of the core and a cladding layer of the waveguide, in the cladding layer of the waveguide, at the surface of the cladding layer of the waveguide, or combinations of any of the foregoing.

[0015] In some embodiments, the luminescent protein is a split luminescent protein. In some embodiments, the glucose binding protein domain is a domain of a periplasmic protein. In some embodiments, the glucose binding domain shares 80% to 100% identity, homology, or similarity to one of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 15, 122-221, or 1703-1746. In some embodiments, a contiguous 100 amino acid portion of the glucose binding domain shares 80% to 100% identity, homology, or similarity to a contiguous 100 amino acid portion of one of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 15, 122-221, or 1703-1746.

[0016] In some embodiments, the luminescent protein domain is a domain of a fluorescent protein. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein domain shares 80% to 100% identity, homology, or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 14, 34-121, or 222-823. In some embodiments, a contiguous 100 amino acid portion of the luminescent protein domain shares 80% to 100% identity, homology, or similarity to a contiguous 100 amino acid portion of one of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 14, 34-121, or 222-823.

[0017] In some embodiments, the indicator compound shares 80% to 100% identity, homology, or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 3-13 or 16-20.

[0018] Some embodiments pertain to a system for detecting an analyte in a patient. In some embodiments, the system comprises a light emitting device that provides the light source. In some embodiments, the system comprises the luminescence detector. In some embodiments, the luminescence detector is part of the light emitting device. In some embodiments, the system data received by the luminescence detector is transmitted to a handheld device. In some embodiments, the system comprises the handheld device.

[0019] Some embodiments pertain to an indicator compound. In some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises a luminescent protein domain. In some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises an analyte binding protein domain. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is configured to bind an analyte via the binding protein domain. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is configured to undergo a conformational change from a first conformation to a second conformation when the analyte is bound by the analyte binding protein domain. In some embodiments, when in the second conformation, the indicator compound is configured to receive the excitation wavelength and to emit a luminescent signal.

[0020] In some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises a contiguous 100 amino acid portion of the analyte binding domain shares 80% to 100% identity, homology, or similarity to a contiguous 100 amino acid portion of one of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 15, 122-221, or 824-1746.

[0021] In some embodiments, a contiguous 100 amino acid portion of the luminescent protein domain shares 80% to 100% identity, homology, or similarity to a contiguous 100 amino acid portion of one of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 14, 34-121, or 222-823.

[0022] In some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises a luminescent protein that is a split luminescent protein. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein domain is a fluorescent protein domain.

[0023] In some embodiments, the analyte binding domain shares 80% to 100% identity, homology, or similarity to one of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 15, 122-221, or 824-1746. In some embodiments, the analyte binding protein domain is a periplasmic protein sugar binding domain.

[0024] In some embodiments, the luminescent protein domain shares 80% to 100% identity, homology, or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 14, 34-121, or 222-823. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein domain shares 80% to 100% identity, homology, or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20.

[0025] In some embodiments, the indicator compound is encoded by DNA that shares 80% to 100% identity, homology, or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33.

[0026] Some embodiments pertain to a composition suitable for administration to a human comprising an indicator compound as disclosed anywhere herein.

[0027] Some embodiments pertain to a method of manufacturing an indicator compound as disclosed anywhere herein. In some embodiments, the method comprises expressing the indicator compound encoded by a vector in a recombinant host cell, and isolating the compound from the recombinant host cell. In some embodiments, the vector comprises a nucleic acid sequence encoding the luminescent protein and/or one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein. In some embodiments, the vector comprises a nucleic acid sequence encoding the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of a sugar binding protein.

[0028] In some embodiments, the vector further comprises a signal sequence. In some embodiments, the recombinant host cell is selected from an insect cell, a fungal cell, a bacterial cell, an animal cell, and a transgenic animal cell. In some embodiments, the recombinant host cell is an E. coli cell, a CHO cell, a HEK293 cell, etc.

[0029] Some embodiments pertain to a method for detecting glucose in a patient. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering an indicator compound as disclosed anywhere herein to the patient and/or administering a composition comprising the compound to the patient. In some embodiments, the method comprises quantifying a glucose level in the patient based on a change in luminescence of the indicator compound.

[0030] In some embodiments, the indicator compound is administered to the patient using a cell. In some embodiments, the cell is autologous to the patient. In some embodiments, the cell comprises DNA having a region that encodes the indicator compound. In some embodiments, the cell is part of a skin graft received by the patient. In some embodiments, the cell is a keratinocyte, melanocyte, Langerhans cell, Merkel cell, immune cell, macrophage, epithelial cell, or red blood cell.

[0031] In some embodiments, the patient is human.

[0032] In some embodiments, the method comprises illuminating the indicator compound with light having a first maximum wavelength and detecting an emission of light at a second maximum wavelength.

[0033] Some embodiments pertain to a method for detecting an analyte in a patient. In some embodiments, the method comprises selecting a patient in need of analyte monitoring. In some embodiments, the method comprises inserting into or attaching a device as disclosed anywhere herein to the patient. In some embodiments, the method comprises applying the excitation wavelength of light to the indicator compound. In some embodiments, the method comprises collecting the luminescent signal from the device. In some embodiments, the method comprises comparing the luminescent signal to a reference signal indicative of a indicator compound without an analyte bound. In some embodiments, the method comprises quantifying an amount of luminescent signal as a concentration of analyte.

[0034] In some embodiments, the analyte binding domain of the analyte binding compound comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a sugar binding protein, a sugar binding portion or fragment of a sugar binding protein and/or mimetic of a sugar binding protein or portion or fragment thereof. In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein, sugar binding portion or fragment of the sugar binding protein and/or mimetic of the sugar binding protein or portion or fragment thereof binds to glucose. In some embodiments, the analyte binding domain of the analyte binding compound comprises, consists essentially of, or consists of a glucose binding protein, a glucose binding portion or fragment of a glucose binding protein and/or a mimetic of a glucose binding protein (e.g., a peptidomimetic designed to mimic a glucose binding protein or peptide), or portion or fragment thereof. In some embodiments, the indicator compound further comprises a detectable domain (e.g., a luminescent domain), which comprises a luminescent protein and/or one or more luminescing fragments or portions of a luminescent protein, and/or one or more mimetics of luminescing proteins. In some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises a fluorescent domain, which comprises a fluorescent protein and/or one or more fluorescent fragments or portions of a fluorescent protein. In some embodiments, the indicator compounds emit a detectable radiation, such as light of a particular wavelength (e.g., luminescence and/or fluorescence), when an analyte molecule binds to the analyte binding region of the compound and/or when the complex (e.g., the indicator compound and the analyte molecule) are exposed to light. In some embodiments, the indicator compound, or luminescent protein and/or one or more luminescing fragments or portions of the luminescent protein thereof, undergoes a three-dimensional conformational change from a first conformation to a second conformation upon the binding of the analyte. In some embodiments, the conformational change induces a change in the indicator compound's absorption and/or emission of light. In some embodiments, the change in the indicator compound's absorption and/or emission of light is detectable. In some embodiments, for example, the luminescence of the indicator compound is different when in the second conformation than when in the first conformation. For example, in some embodiments, a glucose molecule is detected by a fluorescent signal at a specific wavelength when glucose enters and/or binds to a binding domain of the indicator compound.

[0035] In some embodiments, as disclosed elsewhere herein, the indicator compound is a fusion protein. In some embodiments, the fusion protein comprises a glucose binding protein or fragment thereof that is operably linked to a luminescent protein or luminescing fragment or portion thereof (e.g., a fluorescent protein or a fluorescing fragment or portion thereof). Also envisioned are nucleic acids that encode these proteins, vectors/plasmids/other expression systems that contain these nucleic acids, and cells that contain them. In some embodiments, these fusion proteins are genetically encoded and/or expressed or expressable within a host organism or cell.

[0036] Some embodiments pertain to a method for detecting sugar (e.g., glucose) in a patient. Some embodiments pertain to a method for detecting glucose in a diabetic patient. In some embodiments, the method comprises administering an indicator compound, as disclosed herein, to the patient. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is a fusion protein, as disclosed elsewhere herein. In some embodiments, the fusion protein comprises a luminescent protein and/or a one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein. In some embodiments, the fusion protein comprises a sugar binding protein and/or a sugar binding portion of a sugar binding protein. In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is configured to bind glucose. In some embodiments, when glucose is bound by the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein, the indicator compound undergoes a conformational change from a first conformation to a second conformation. In some embodiments, the luminescence, fluorescence, absorption, and/or emission of the indicator compound is different when in the second conformation than when in the first conformation.

[0037] In some embodiments, the method comprises quantifying a glucose level in the patient based on a change in luminescence and/or fluorescence of the indicator compound.

[0038] In some embodiments, the indicator compound is a split luminescent protein. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein is a fluorescent protein. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein and/or a one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein is at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, or 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:14, or SEQ ID NO: 34-121 and/or shares at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, or 100% homology or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:14, or SEQ ID NO: 34-121. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein and/or a one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein is at least 80% to 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:14, or SEQ ID NO: 34-121 and/or shares at least 80% to 100% homology or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:14 or SEQ ID NO: 34-121. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein and/or one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein (and/or a contiguous portion of the luminescent protein and/or one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein) is at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, or 100% identical to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:14, or SEQ ID NO: 34-121 and/or shares at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, or 100% homology or similarity to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:14, or SEQ ID NO: 34-121. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein and/or one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein is at least 80% to 100% identical to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:14 or SEQ ID NO: 34-121 and/or shares at least 80% to 100% homology or similarity to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:14, or SEQ ID NO: 34-121. In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:14, or SEQ ID NO: 34-121 is equal to or at least about: 200, 150, 100, 80, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, or 10 amino acids in length (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NO: 1, SEQ ID NO: 14, or SEQ ID NO: 34-121 optionally has 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 amino acid differences. In some embodiments, the amino acid differences include insertions, deletions, and/or substitutions. In some embodiments, the substitutions can include a substitution of any one or more of amino acids A, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, or Y to any one or more of amino acids A, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, or Y. In some embodiments, where the luminescent protein and/or one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein is split (as disclosed elsewhere herein), two or more contiguous portions of the luminescing protein and/or fragment thereof may align with one or more contiguous portions of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:14, or SEQ ID NO: 34-121.

[0039] In some embodiments are the nucleic acid sequences that translate to one or more luminescent proteins having the sequence of SEQ ID NO: 1, SEQ ID NO: 14, or SEQ ID NO: 34-121. It is envisioned that multiple nucleic acids sequences can be translated to the luminescent proteins disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid sequences differ by codons that encode for the same amino acid. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid sequences are codon optimized for a certain organism, such as a human, mouse, rat, rabbit, dog, cat, horse, goat, pig, chicken, fungus, yeast, bacteria, or protozoan.

[0040] In some embodiments, the luminescent protein or luminescing fragment of a luminescent protein is, obtained, or derived from a luminescent organism. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein or luminescing fragment of a luminescent protein is, obtained, or derived from a fluorescent organism. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein or luminescent fragment of a luminescent protein is, obtained, or derived from Aequorea, Aequorea victoria, Aequorea macrodactyla, Aequorea coerulescens, Entacmaea, Entacmaea quadricolor, Anemonia, Anemonia manajo, Anemonia sulcate, Acropora, Clavularia, Galaxea, Galaxea fascicularis, Zoanthus, Pontellina, Pontellina plumata, Phialidium, Verrillofungia, Verrillofungia concinna, Discosoma, Anthoatecata, Heteractis, Heteractis crispa, Actinia, Actinia equina, Trachyphyllia, Trachyphyllia geoffroyi, Favia, Favia favus, Lobophyllia, Lobophyllia hemprichii, or Echinophyllia. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein or luminescent fragment of a luminescent protein is, obtained, or derived from a mammalian protein. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein or luminescent fragment of a luminescent protein is, obtained, or derived from a human protein.

[0041] In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is, obtained, or derived from a bacterial protein. In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is, obtained, or derived from a Proteobacteria protein. In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is, obtained, or derived from an E. coli protein. In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is a periplasmic protein or sugar binding portion thereof. In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is, obtained, or derived from a mammalian protein. In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is, obtained, or derived from a human protein.

[0042] In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, or 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:15 and/or shares at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, or 100% homology or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:15. In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is at least 80% to 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:15 and/or shares at least 80% to 100% homology or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:15. In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein (and/or a contiguous portion of the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein) is at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, or 100% identical to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:15 and/or shares at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, or 100% homology or similarity to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:15. In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is at least 80% to 100% identical to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:15 and/or shares at least 80% to 100% homology or similarity to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:15. In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:15 is equal to or at least about: 300, 250, 200, 150, 100, 80, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, or 10 amino acids in length (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NO: 2 or SEQ ID NO: 15 optionally has 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 amino acid differences. In some embodiments, the amino acid differences include insertions, deletions, and/or substitutions. In some embodiments, the substitutions can include a substitution of any one or more of amino acids A, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, or Y to any one or more of amino acids A, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, or Y. In some embodiments, where the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is split, two or more contiguous portions of the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein may align with one or more contiguous portions of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:15.

[0043] In some embodiments, the indicator compound is at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, or 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20 and/or shares at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, or 100% homology or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is at least 80% to 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20 and/or shares at least 80% to 100% homology or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20. In some embodiments, a contiguous portion of the indicator compound is at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% identical to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20 and/or shares at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% homology or similarity to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20. In some embodiments, a contiguous portion of the indicator compound is at least 80% to 100% identical to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20 and/or shares at least 80% to 100% homology or similarity to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20. In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of the indicator compound is a portion of the compound that is equal to or at least about: 500, 450, 400, 350, 300, 250, 200, 150, 100, 80, 60, 50, or 40 amino acids in length (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20 is a portion of those proteins that is equal to or at least about: 500, 450, 400, 350, 300, 250, 200, 150, 100, 80, 60, 50, or 40 amino acids in length (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 3-13 or SEQ ID NOs: 16-20 optionally has 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 amino acid differences. In some embodiments, the amino acid differences include insertions, deletions, and/or substitutions. In some embodiments, the substitutions can include a substitution of any one or more of amino acids A, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, or Y to any one or more of amino acids A, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, or Y. In some embodiments, two or more contiguous portions of the indicator compound may align with one or more contiguous portions of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20.

[0044] In some embodiments, the indicator compound is encoded by DNA having a region that is at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33 and/or at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, or 100% homology or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is encoded by DNA having a region that is at least 80% to 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33 and/or at least 80% to 100% homology or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33. In some embodiments, a contiguous portion of the DNA encoding the indicator compound is at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.5%, or 100% identical to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33 and/or shares at least 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% homology or similarity to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33. In some embodiments, a contiguous portion of the DNA encoding the indicator compound is at least 80% to 100% identical to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33 and/or shares at least 80% to 100% homology or similarity to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33. In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of the DNA encoding the indicator compound is equal to or at least about: 1500, 1000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 150, 100, 80, 60, 50, or 40 nucleotides in length (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33 is a portion of the those DNAs that is equal to or at least about: 1500, 1000, 900, 800, 700, 600, 500, 400, 300, 200, 150, 100, 80, 60, 50, or 40 nucleotides in length (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values).

[0045] In some embodiments, the indicator compound is administered to the patient using a cell. In some embodiments, the cell is allogeneic to the patient. In some embodiments, the cell is autologous to the patient. In some embodiments, the cell comprises DNA having a region that is equal to or at least about: 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33 (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, the cell comprises DNA having a region that is at least 80% to 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33. In some embodiments, the cell is part of a skin graft received by the patient. In some embodiments, the cell is part of a synthetic skin graft received by the patient. In some embodiments, the cell is a keratinocyte, melanocyte, Langerhans cell, Merkel cell, immune cell, macrophage, epithelial cell, or red blood cell.

[0046] In some embodiments, the analyte is NADPH, H⁺ (pH), heavy metal, calcium, sodium, potassium, chloride, iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, phosphorus, urea, creatinine, phosphate, O₂, CO₂, bicarbonate, cholesterol, high-density lipoproteins (HDL), low-density lipoproteins (LDL), triglyceride, C-reactive protein, thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), parathyroid hormone (PTH), thyroxine, triiodothyronine, albumin, globulin, immunoglobulin, bilirubin, alpha fetoprotein (AFP), human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG), carcinoembryonic antigen, prostate specific antigen (PSA), prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP), calcitonin, testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, progesterone, follicle stimulating hormone (FSH), luteinizing hormone (LH), estradiol, cortisol, growth hormone, aldosterone, vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, lead, ethanol, lactose dehydrogenase (LDH), or amylase, or any combination thereof, and the analyte binding protein and/or the analyte binding portion of an analyte binding protein is specific for this analyte.

[0047] In some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises a plurality of analyte binding proteins (and/or mimetics thereof) and/or analyte binding portion of an analyte binding protein, where each analyte binding protein and/or analyte binding portion of an analyte binding protein is specific for a unique analyte. In some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises a plurality of analyte binding proteins (and/or mimetics thereof) and/or analyte binding portion of an analyte binding protein, where each analyte binding protein and/or analyte binding portion of an analyte binding protein is specific for a common analyte. In some embodiments, the indicator compound also comprises a plurality of luminescent proteins and/or luminescing fragments of a luminescing protein, wherein each luminescent protein and/or luminescing fragment of a luminescing protein is operably linked to a first analyte binding protein or analyte binding portion of an analyte binding protein such that each luminescent protein and/or luminescing fragment of a luminescing protein is configured to undergo a conformational change only when an analyte is bound to the first analyte binding protein or analyte binding portion of an analyte binding protein and not when a second analyte is bound to a second analyte binding protein or analyte binding portion of an analyte binding protein. In other embodiments, each luminescent protein and/or luminescing fragment of a luminescent protein in the plurality is configured to undergo a conformational change when at least one of a plurality of analytes are bound to the respective analyte binding protein and/or analyte binding portion of the analyte binding protein.

[0048] In some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises a luminescent dye and an analyte binding protein and/or analyte binding portion of an analyte binding protein, wherein the indicator compound is configured to undergo a conformational change from a first conformation to a second conformation when the analyte is bound by the analyte binding protein and/or analyte binding portion of the analyte binding protein and the luminescence of the indicator compound is different when in the second conformation than when in the first conformation as a result of the luminescence of the luminescent dye. In some embodiments, the luminescent dye is a solvatochromic dye. In some embodiments, the luminescent dye is used in a Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) configuration.

[0049] In some embodiments, the patient is an animal. In some embodiments, the patient is a mammal. In some embodiments, the patient is human.

[0050] In some embodiments, the method comprises illuminating the indicator compound with light having a first wavelength maximum and detecting an emission of light at the second wavelength maximum.

[0051] Some embodiments pertain to the indicator compound as disclosed elsewhere herein. For example, in some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises a luminescent protein and/or a one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein. In some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises a sugar binding protein and/or a sugar binding portion of a sugar binding protein. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is configured to bind glucose at the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is configured to undergo a conformational change from a first conformation to a second conformation when glucose is bound at the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein. In some embodiments, the light absorption or emission of the indicator compound is different when in the second conformation than when in the first conformation. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is configured for in vivo use.

[0052] Some embodiments pertain to a composition suitable for administration to a human comprising the indicator compound as disclosed elsewhere herein.

[0053] Some embodiments pertain to a method of manufacturing the indicator compound as disclosed elsewhere herein comprising expressing the indicator compound encoded by a vector in a recombinant host cell and isolating the compound from the recombinant host cell. In some embodiments, the vector comprises one or more of: a nucleic acid sequence encoding a luminescent protein and/or a one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein; and a nucleic acid sequence encoding a sugar binding protein and/or a sugar binding portion of a sugar binding protein. In some embodiments, the vector further comprises a signal sequence. In some embodiments, the recombinant host cell is selected from an insect cell, a fungal cell, a bacterial cell, an animal cell line, and a transgenic animal cell. In some embodiments, the recombinant host cell is an E. coli cell, a CHO cell, or a HEK293 cell, etc.

[0054] In some embodiments, an implantable glucose sensor for determining the presence or concentration of glucose in an animal is provided. In some embodiments, the sensor can comprise a sensor body having an outer surface surrounding the sensor body. In some embodiments, the sensor can comprise a radiation source in said sensor body which emits radiation within said sensor body. In some embodiments, the sensor comprises an indicator compound as disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is affected by the presence or concentration of glucose in the animal. In some embodiments, the sensor can comprise a photosensitive element located in the sensor body, positioned to receive radiation within the sensor body, where the photosensitive element is configured to emit a signal responsive to radiation received from the indicator compound and which is indicative of the presence or concentration of glucose in an animal. In some embodiments, the sensor can comprise a protective barrier comprising silver, palladium, platinum, manganese, or alloys, or gold-inclusive alloys, or combinations thereof, at least partially surrounding said indicator element.

[0055] Some embodiments pertain to a method for detecting glucose in a patient (e.g., a diabetic patient) comprising administering an indicator compound to the patient. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is a fusion protein comprising: a luminescent protein and/or one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein; and a sugar binding protein and/or a sugar binding portion of a sugar binding protein; wherein the sugar binding protein and/or the sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is configured to bind glucose; wherein, when glucose is bound by the sugar binding protein and/or the sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein, the indicator compound undergoes a conformational change from a first conformation to a second conformation; wherein the luminescence of the indicator compound is different when in the second conformation than when in the first conformation.

[0056] In some embodiments, the method further comprises quantifying a glucose level in the patient based on a change in luminescence of the indicator compound when in the second conformation.

[0057] In some embodiments, the luminescent protein is a split luminescent protein. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein is a fluorescent protein. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein and/or one or more luminescing fragments of the luminescent protein is at least 80% to 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:14 or SEQ ID NO: 34-121 and/or shares at least 80% to 100% homology or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:14, or SEQ ID NO: 34-121. In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is a periplasmic protein or sugar binding portion thereof. In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is at least 80% to 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:15 and/or shares at least 80% to 100% homology or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:15.

[0058] In some embodiments, the indicator compound is at least 80% to 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20 and/or shares at least 80% to 100% homology or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is encoded by DNA having a region that is at least 80% to 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33 and/or at least 80% to 100% homology or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33.

[0059] In some embodiments, the indicator compound is administered to the patient using a cell. In some embodiments, the cell is autologous to the patient. In some embodiments, the cell comprises DNA having a region that is at least 80% to 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33. In some embodiments, the cell is part of a skin graft received by the patient. In some embodiments, the cell is a keratinocyte, melanocyte, Langerhans cell, Merkel cell, immune cell, macrophage, epithelial cell, or red blood cell. In some embodiments, the patient is human.

[0060] In some embodiments, the indicator compound is illuminated with light having a first maximum wavelength and detecting an emission of light at a second maximum wavelength.

[0061] Some embodiments pertain to an indicator compound comprising: a luminescent protein and/or a one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein; and a sugar binding protein and/or a sugar binding portion of a sugar binding protein; wherein the indicator compound is configured to bind glucose at the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein; wherein the indicator compound is configured to undergo a conformational change from a first conformation to a second conformation when glucose is bound by the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein; wherein the luminescence of the indicator compound is different when in the second conformation than when in the first conformation.

[0062] In some embodiments, the indicator compound is configured for in vivo use. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein is a split luminescent protein. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein is a fluorescent protein.

[0063] In some embodiments, the luminescent protein and/or a one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein is at least 80% to 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NO:1, SEQ ID NO:14, or SEQ ID NO: 34-121 and/or shares at least 80% to 100% homology or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:15.

[0064] In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is a periplasmic protein or sugar binding portion thereof.

[0065] In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is at least 80% to 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:15 and/or shares at least 80% to 100% homology or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:15.

[0066] In some embodiments, the indicator compound is at least 80% to 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20 and/or shares at least 80% to 100% homology or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20.

[0067] In some embodiments, the indicator compound is encoded by DNA having a region that is at least 80% to 100% identical to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33 and/or at least 80% to 100% homology or similarity to one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33.

[0068] Some embodiments pertain to a composition suitable for administration to a human comprising the compound disclosed herein.

[0069] Some embodiments pertain to a method of manufacturing the indicator compound comprising expressing the indicator compound encoded by a vector in a recombinant host cell, and isolating the compound from the recombinant host cell.

[0070] In some embodiments, the vector comprises: a nucleic acid sequence encoding the luminescent protein and/or one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein; and a nucleic acid sequence encoding the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of a sugar binding protein. In some embodiments, the vector further comprises a signal sequence.

[0071] In some embodiments, the recombinant host cell is selected from an insect cell, a fungal cell, a bacterial cell, an animal cell, and a transgenic animal cell. In some embodiments, the recombinant host cell is an E. coli cell, a CHO cell, a HEK293 cell, etc.

[0072] Some embodiments pertain to a method for detecting an analyte in a patient comprising: administering an indicator compound to the patient, wherein the indicator compound is a fusion protein comprising: a luminescent protein and/or one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein; and an analyte binding protein and/or an analyte binding portion of an analyte binding protein; wherein, when the analyte is bound by the analyte binding protein and/or the analyte binding portion of the analyte binding protein, the indicator compound undergoes a conformational change from a first conformation to a second conformation; wherein the luminescence of the indicator compound is different when in the second conformation than when in the first conformation.

[0073] In some embodiments, an analyte level is quantified in the patient based on a change in luminescence of the indicator compound when in the second conformation.

[0074] In some embodiments, the luminescent protein is a split luminescent protein. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein is a fluorescent protein. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is administered to the patient using a cell. In some embodiments, the cell is autologous to the patient. In some embodiments, the cell is part of a skin graft received by the patient. In some embodiments, the cell is a keratinocyte, melanocyte, Langerhans cell, Merkel cell, immune cell, macrophage, epithelial cell, or red blood cell.

[0075] In some embodiments, the patient is human.

[0076] In some embodiments, the method further comprises illuminating the indicator compound with light having a first maximum wavelength and detecting an emission of light at a second maximum wavelength.

[0077] Some embodiments pertain to an indicator compound. In some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises a luminescent protein and/or a one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein. In some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises an analyte binding protein and/or an analyte binding portion of an analyte binding protein. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is configured to undergo a conformational change from a first conformation to a second conformation when the analyte is bound by the analyte binding protein and/or analyte binding portion of the analyte binding protein. In some embodiments, the luminescence of the indicator compound is different when in the second conformation than when in the first conformation. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is configured for in vivo use. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein is a split luminescent protein. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein is a fluorescent protein.

[0078] Some embodiments pertain to a composition suitable for administration to a human comprising an indicator compound as disclosed anywhere herein.

[0079] Some embodiments pertain to a method of manufacturing the compound as disclosed anywhere herein comprising expressing the indicator compound encoded by a vector in a recombinant host cell, and isolating the compound from the recombinant host cell.

[0080] In some embodiments, the vector comprises: a nucleic acid sequence encoding the luminescent protein and/or one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein; and a nucleic acid sequence encoding the analyte binding protein and/or analyte binding portion of an analyte binding protein. In some embodiments, the vector further comprises a signal sequence. In some embodiments, the recombinant host cell is selected from an insect cell, a fungal cell, a bacterial cell, an animal cell, and a transgenic animal cell.

[0081] In some embodiments, for any of the devices, indicator compounds, compositions, or methods herein, the analyte is a sugar, glucose, NADPH, H⁺ (pH), heavy metal, calcium, sodium, potassium, chloride, iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, phosphorus, urea, creatinine, phosphate, O₂, CO₂, bicarbonate, cholesterol, HDL, LDL, triglyceride, C-reactive protein, TSH, PTH, thyroxine, triiodothyronine, albumin, globulin, immunoglobulin, bilirubin, AFP, HCG, carcinoembryonic antigen, PSA, PAP, calcitonin, testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, progesterone, FSH, LH, estradiol, cortisol, growth hormone, aldosterone, vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, lead, ethanol, LDH, or amylase, or any combination thereof.

[0105] Some embodiments disclosed herein provide compounds (e.g., proteins, fusion proteins, and/or the polynucleotides that encode them), compositions comprising those compounds, the manufacture of those compounds and compositions, devices comprising those compounds, and their use in detecting an analyte. In some embodiments, the compounds disclosed herein are indicator compounds. In some embodiments, in response to the presence of an analyte (e.g., the binding of the analyte to a binding region within the indicator compound), the indicator compound causes a measurable signal (e.g., emits a measurable signal) allowing the quantification of the analyte. In some embodiments, the analyte is a sugar. In some embodiments, the analyte is glucose. In some embodiments, where the analyte is glucose, the indicator compound can be used to measure glucose levels in real time and/or in vivo to allow a subject to monitor and help regulate their glucose levels. In some embodiments, the subject is a diabetic patient. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is provided in a cell. In some embodiments, the cell is a cell of the patient. In some embodiments, the cell of the patient is a skin cell. In some embodiments, the signals emitted from the indicator compound are measured at the surface of the skin. The following description provides context and examples, but should not be interpreted to limit the scope of the inventions covered by the claims that follow in this specification or in any other application that claims priority to this specification. No single component or collection of components is essential or indispensable. Any feature, structure, component, material, step, or method that is described and/or illustrated in any embodiment in this specification can be used with or instead of any feature, structure, component, material, step, or method that is described and/or illustrated in any other embodiment in this specification.

[0106] Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this subject matter belongs. The terminology used in the description of the subject matter herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only and is not intended to be limiting of the subject matter.

[0107] The articles “a” and “an” are used herein to refer to one or to more than one (for example, at least one) of the grammatical object of the article. By way of example, “an element” means one element or more than one element.

[0108] The terms “about” or “around” as used herein refer to a quantity, level, value, number, frequency, percentage, dimension, size, amount, weight or length that varies by as much as 30, 25, 20, 15, 10, 9, 8, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2 or 1% to a reference quantity, level, value, number, frequency, percentage, dimension, size, amount, weight or length.

[0109] It is contemplated that various combinations or sub-combinations of the specific features and aspects of the embodiments disclosed herein may be made and still fall within one or more of the inventions. Further, the disclosure herein of any particular feature, aspect, method, property, characteristic, quality, attribute, element, or the like in connection with an embodiment can be used in all other embodiments set forth herein. Accordingly, it should be understood that various features and aspects of the disclosed embodiments can be combined with or substituted for one another in order to form varying modes of the disclosed inventions. Thus, it is intended that the scope of the present inventions herein disclosed should not be limited by the particular disclosed embodiments described herein. Moreover, while the invention is susceptible to various modifications, and alternative forms, specific examples thereof have been shown in the drawings and are herein described in detail. It should be understood, however, that the invention is not to be limited to the particular forms or methods disclosed, but to the contrary, the invention is to cover all modifications, equivalents, and alternatives falling within the spirit and scope of the various embodiments described and in the appended claims. Any methods disclosed herein need not be performed in the order recited. The methods disclosed herein include certain actions taken by a practitioner; however, they can also include any third-party instruction of those actions, either expressly or by implication. For example, actions such as “implanting a glucose monitoring device” include “instructing the implantation of a glucose monitoring device.” In addition, where features or aspects of the disclosure are described in terms of Markush groups, those skilled in the art will recognize that the disclosure is also thereby described in terms of any individual member or subgroup of members of the Markush group (e.g., “a, b, c, and/or d” also includes “a, b, and/or c”).

[0110] The ranges disclosed herein also encompass any and all overlap, sub-ranges, and combinations thereof. Language such as “up to,” “at least,” “greater than,” “less than,” “between,” and the like includes the number recited. Numbers preceded by a term such as “about” or “approximately” include the recited numbers. For example, “about 90%” includes “90%.” In some embodiments, at least 95% identical in sequence includes 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, and 100% identical in sequence to the reference sequence. In addition, when a sequence is disclosed as “comprising” a nucleotide or amino acid sequence, such a reference shall also include, unless otherwise indicated, that the sequence “comprises”, “consists of” or “consists essentially of” the recited sequence.

[0111] Terms and phrases used in this application, and variations thereof, especially in the appended claims, unless otherwise expressly stated, should be construed as open ended as opposed to limiting. As examples of the foregoing, the term “including” should be read to mean “including, without limitation,” “including but not limited to,” or the like; the term “comprising” as used herein is synonymous with “including,” “containing,” or “characterized by,” and is inclusive or open-ended and does not exclude additional, un-recited elements or method steps; the term “having” should be interpreted as “having at least;” the term “includes” should be interpreted as “includes but is not limited to;” the term “example” is used to provide exemplary instances of the item in discussion, not an exhaustive or limiting list thereof; and use of terms like “preferably,” “preferred,” “desired,” or “desirable,” and words of similar meaning should not be understood as implying that certain features are critical, essential, or even important to the structure or function of the invention, but instead as merely intended to highlight alternative or additional features that may or may not be utilized in a particular embodiment of the invention. In addition, the term “comprising” is to be interpreted synonymously with the phrases “having at least” or “including at least”. When used in the context of a process, the term “comprising” means that the process includes at least the recited steps, but may include additional steps. When used in the context of a compound, composition or device, the term “comprising” means that the compound, composition or device includes at least the recited features or components, but may also include additional features or components. A group of items linked with the conjunction “or” should not be read as requiring mutual exclusivity among that group, but rather should be read as “and/or” unless expressly stated otherwise.

[0112] By “consisting of” is meant including, and limited to, whatever follows the phrase “consisting of.” Thus, the phrase “consisting of” indicates that the listed elements are required or mandatory, and that no other elements may be present. By “consisting essentially of” is meant including any elements listed after the phrase, and limited to other elements that do not interfere with or contribute to the activity or action specified in the disclosure for the listed elements. Thus, the phrase “consisting essentially of” indicates that the listed elements are required or mandatory, but that other elements are optional and may or may not be present depending upon whether or not they materially affect the activity or action of the listed elements.

[0113] The “individual”, “patient” or “subject” treated as disclosed herein is, in some embodiments, a human patient, although it is to be understood that the principles of the presently disclosed subject matter indicate that the presently disclosed subject matter is effective with respect to all vertebrate species, including mammals, which are intended to be included in the terms “individual”, “subject” and “patient.” Suitable subjects are generally mammalian subjects. The subject matter described herein finds use in research as well as veterinary and medical applications. The term “mammal” as used herein includes, but is not limited to, humans, non-human animals, including primates, cattle, sheep, goats, pigs, horses, cats, dogs, rabbits, rodents (e.g., rats or mice), monkeys, etc. Human subjects and patients include neonates, infants, juveniles, adults and geriatric subjects. The subject can be a subject “in need of” the methods disclosed herein can be a subject that is experiencing a disease state and/or is anticipated to experience a disease state, and the methods and compositions of the invention are used for therapeutic and/or prophylactic treatment. A subject can be a patient, which refers to a human presenting to a medical provider for diagnosis or treatment of a disease. A subject can be afflicted with or is susceptible to a disease or disorder but may or may not display symptoms of the disease or disorder.

[0114] The term “effective amount,” as used herein, refers to that amount of a recited compound that results in an observable effect, which, for example, can allow monitoring of an analyte related to a disease state of a patient. Actual dosage levels of active ingredients in an active composition of the presently disclosed subject matter can be varied so as to administer an amount of the active compound(s) that is effective to achieve the desired response for a particular subject and/or application. The selected dosage level will depend upon a variety of factors including, but not limited to, the activity of the composition, formulation, route of administration, combination with other drugs or treatments, severity of the condition being treated, and the physical condition and prior medical history of the subject being treated. In some embodiments, a minimal dose is administered, and dose is escalated in the absence of dose-limiting toxicity to a minimally effective amount. Determination and adjustment of an effective dose, as well as evaluation of when and how to make such adjustments, are contemplated herein.

[0115] The terms “function” and “functional” as used herein refer to a biological, enzymatic, or therapeutic function.

[0116] As used herein, “pharmaceutically acceptable” refers to carriers, excipients, and/or stabilizers that are nontoxic to the cell or mammal being exposed thereto at the dosages and concentrations employed or that have an acceptable level of toxicity. A “pharmaceutically acceptable” “diluent,” “excipient,” and/or “carrier” as used herein is intended to include any and all solvents, dispersion media, coatings, antibacterial and antifungal agents, isotonic and absorption delaying agents, and the like, compatible with administration to humans or other vertebrate hosts. Typically, a pharmaceutically acceptable diluent, excipient, and/or carrier is a diluent, excipient, and/or carrier approved by a regulatory agency of a Federal, a state government, or other regulatory agency, or listed in the U.S. Pharmacopeia or other generally recognized pharmacopeia for use in animals, including humans as well as non-human mammals. The term diluent, excipient, and/or “carrier” can refer to a diluent, adjuvant, excipient, or vehicle with which the pharmaceutical composition is administered. Such pharmaceutical diluent, excipient, and/or carriers can be sterile liquids, such as water and oils, including those of petroleum, animal, vegetable or synthetic origin. Water, saline solutions and aqueous dextrose and glycerol solutions can be employed as liquid diluents, excipients, and/or carriers, particularly for injectable solutions. Suitable pharmaceutical diluents and/or excipients include starch, glucose, lactose, sucrose, gelatin, malt, rice, flour, chalk, silica gel, sodium stearate, glycerol monostearate, talc, sodium chloride, dried skim milk, glycerol, propylene, glycol, water, ethanol and the like. A non-limiting example of a physiologically acceptable carrier is an aqueous pH buffered solution. The physiologically acceptable carrier may also comprise one or more of the following: antioxidants, such as ascorbic acid, low molecular weight (less than about 10 residues) polypeptides, proteins, such as serum albumin, gelatin, immunoglobulins, hydrophilic polymers such as polyvinylpyrrolidone, amino acids, carbohydrates such as glucose, mannose, or dextrins, chelating agents such as EDTA, sugar alcohols such as mannitol or sorbitol, salt-forming counterions such as sodium, and nonionic surfactants such as TWEEN®, polyethylene glycol (PEG), and PLURONICS®. The composition, if desired, can also contain minor amounts of wetting, bulking, emulsifying agents, or pH buffering agents. These compositions can take the form of solutions, suspensions, emulsion, sustained release formulations and the like. The formulation should suit the mode of administration.

[0117] Additional excipients with desirable properties include but are not limited to preservatives, adjuvants, stabilizers, solvents, buffers, diluents, solubilizing agents, detergents, surfactants, chelating agents, antioxidants, alcohols, ketones, aldehydes, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), citric acid, salts, sodium chloride, sodium bicarbonate, sodium phosphate, sodium borate, sodium citrate, potassium chloride, potassium phosphate, magnesium sulfate sugars, dextrose, fructose, mannose, lactose, galactose, sucrose, sorbitol, cellulose, serum, amino acids, polysorbate 20, polysorbate 80, sodium deoxycholate, sodium taurodeoxycholate, magnesium stearate, octylphenol ethoxylate, benzethonium chloride, thimerosal, gelatin, esters, ethers, 2-phenoxyethanol, urea, or vitamins, or any combination thereof. Some excipients may be in residual amounts or contaminants from the process of manufacturing the immunogenic composition or vaccine, including but not limited to serum, albumin, ovalbumin, antibiotics, inactivating agents, formaldehyde, glutaraldehyde, β-propiolactone, gelatin, cell debris, nucleic acids, peptides, amino acids, or growth medium components or any combination thereof. The amount of the excipient may be found in an immunogenic composition or vaccine at a percentage of 0%, 0.1%, 0.2%, 0.3%, 0.4%, 0.5%, 0.6%, 0.7%, 0.8%, 0.9%, 1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, 5%, 6%, 7%, 8%, 9%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 100% w/w or any percentage by weight in a range defined by any two of the aforementioned numbers.

[0118] When values are described as being equal to or at least about: 70%, 80%, 90%, or 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values), or where similar language is used, this recitation is meant to include values that may be equal to or at least about 70%, equal to or at least about 80%, equal to or at least about 90%, and/or equal to or at least about 100%. This recitation is also meant to include ranges, such as, those including and/or spanning about 70% to about 100%, about 80% to about 100%, about 70% to about 80%, about 80% to about 90%, etc. Additionally, the term “about” may be withdrawn. Thus, the recitation also includes the specific values of 80%, 90%, 100%, etc. This same terminology can be used with numbers that are equal to or less about a value.

[0119] As used herein, the term “isolated” refers to a substance and/or entity that has been (1) separated from at least some of the components with which it was associated when initially produced (whether in nature and/or in an experimental setting), and/or (2) produced, prepared, and/or manufactured by the hand of man. Isolated substances and/or entities may be separated from equal to or at least about: 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 95%, 98%, 99%, substantially 100%, or 100% of the other components with which they were initially associated (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, isolated agents are equal to or greater than about: 80%, 85%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, substantially 100%, or 100% pure (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). As used herein, a substance that is “isolated” may be “pure” (e.g., substantially free of other components). As used herein, the term “isolated cell” may refer to a cell not contained in a multi-cellular organism. In some embodiments, for example, a FP or glucose binding protein may be isolated from a natural source prior to combination.

[0120] The term “deoxynucleotide”, as used herein, refers to a nucleotide or polynucleotide lacking an OH group at the 2′ or 3′ position of a sugar moiety with appropriate bonding and/or 2′, 3′ terminal dideoxy, instead having a hydrogen bonded to the 2′ and/or 3′ carbon.

[0121] The terms “deoxyribonucleotide” and “DNA”, as used herein, refer to a nucleotide or polynucleotide comprising at least one ribosyl moiety that has an H at its 2′ position of a ribosyl moiety instead of an OH. DNA may be in the form of, e.g., antisense molecules, plasmid DNA, pre-condensed DNA, a PCR product, vectors (PAC, BAC, YAC, artificial chromosomes), expression cassettes, chimeric sequences, chromosomal DNA, or derivatives and combinations of these groups.

[0122] “Polynucleotide,” or “nucleic acid,” as used interchangeably herein, refers to polymers of nucleotides of any length, and includes DNA and RNA. The nucleotides can be deoxyribonucleotides, ribonucleotides, unmodified nucleotides or bases, modified nucleotides or bases, and/or their analogs, or any substrate that can be incorporated into a polymer by DNA or RNA polymerase. A polynucleotide may comprise modified nucleotides, such as methylated nucleotides and their analogs. The term “nucleic acid” as used herein refers to a polymer containing at least two deoxyribonucleotides or ribonucleotides in either single- or double-stranded form and includes DNA and RNA. Nucleic acids include nucleic acids containing known nucleotide analogs or modified backbone residues or linkages, including for example locked nucleic acid (LNA), unlocked nucleic acid (UNA), and zip nucleic acid (ZNA), which can be synthetic, naturally occurring, and non-naturally occurring, and which have similar binding properties as the reference nucleic acid. Examples of such analogs include, without limitation, phosphorothioates, phosphoramidates, methyl phosphonates, chiral-methyl phosphonates, 2′-O-methyl ribonucleotides, and peptide-nucleic acids (PNAs). Unless specifically limited, the term encompasses nucleic acids containing known analogues of natural nucleotides that have similar binding properties as the reference nucleic acid. Unless otherwise indicated, a particular nucleic acid sequence also implicitly encompasses conservatively modified variants thereof (e.g., degenerate codon substitutions), alleles, orthologs, SNPs, and complementary sequences as well as the sequence explicitly indicated. Specifically, degenerate codon substitutions may be achieved by generating sequences in which the third position of one or more selected (or all) codons is substituted with mixed-base and/or deoxyinosine residues. “Nucleotides” contain a sugar deoxyribose (DNA) or ribose (RNA), a base, and a phosphate group. Nucleotides are linked together through the phosphate groups. “Bases” include purines and pyrimidines, which further include natural compounds adenine, thymine, guanine, cytosine, uracil, inosine, and natural analogs, and synthetic derivatives of purines and pyrimidines, which include, but are not limited to, modifications which place new reactive groups such as, but not limited to, amines, alcohols, thiols, carboxylases, and alkylhalides. “Oligonucleotide,” as used herein, generally refers to short, generally synthetic polynucleotides that are generally, but not necessarily, less than about 200 nucleotides in length. The terms “oligonucleotide” and “polynucleotide” are not mutually exclusive. The description above for polynucleotides is equally and fully applicable to oligonucleotides. In some embodiments, the polynucleotides disclosed herein (e.g., RNAi(s)) can include one or more nucleotides that is not naturally occurring to, for example, improve the stability of the polynucleotide. Some non-natural nucleotide modifications can include: phosphorothioate linkages, boranophosphate linkages, locked nucleic acids, 2′-modified RNA, 4′-thio modified RNA, ribo-difluorotoluyl nucleotides, uncharged nucleic acid mimics, siRNA conjugates including but not limited to peptide additions or polyethylene glycol. In some embodiments, the polynucleotide does not include non-natural nucleotides.

[0123] As used herein, the term “complementary” refers to the ability of polynucleotides to form base pairs with one another. Base pairs are typically formed by hydrogen bonds between nucleotide units in antiparallel polynucleotide strands or regions. Complementary polynucleotide strands or regions can base pair in the Watson-Crick manner (e.g., A to T, A to U, C to G), or in any other manner that allows for the formation of stable duplexes.

[0124] As used herein, “perfect complementarity” or “100% complementarity” refers to the situation in which each nucleotide unit of one polynucleotide strand or region can hydrogen bond with each nucleotide unit of a second polynucleotide strand or region. Less than perfect complementarity refers to the situation in which some, but not all, nucleotide units of two strands or two regions can hydrogen bond with each other. For example, for two 19-mers, if 17 base pairs on each strand or each region can hydrogen bond with each other, the polynucleotide strands exhibit 89.5% complementarity.

[0125] A “stringent hybridization” and “stringent hybridization wash conditions” in the context of nucleic acid hybridization are sequence dependent, and are different under different experimental parameters. Stringent hybridization conditions can include, e.g., hybridization in a buffer comprising 50% formamide, 5×SSC, and 1% SDS at 42° C., or hybridization in a buffer comprising 5×SSC and 1% SDS at 65° C. both with a wash of 0.2×SSC and 0.1% SDS at 65° C. Other stringent hybridization conditions can also include a hybridization in a buffer of 40% formamide, 1 M NaCl, and 1% SDS at 37° C., and a wash in 1×SSC at 45° C. Alternatively, hybridization to filter-bound DNA in 0.5 M NaHPC-4, 7% sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), 1 mM EDTA at 65° C., and washing in 0.1×SSC/0.1% SDS at 68° C. can be employed. Additional stringent hybridization conditions include hybridization at 60° C. or higher and 3×SSC (450 mM sodium chloride/45 mM sodium citrate) or incubation at 42° C. in a solution containing 30% formamide, 1 M NaCl, 0.5% sodium sarcosine, 50 mM MES, pH 6.5. Those of ordinary skill will readily recognize that alternative but comparable hybridization and wash conditions can be utilized to provide conditions of similar stringency. Wash conditions may include, e.g. a salt concentration of about 0.02 molar at pH 7 and a temperature of at least about 50° C. or about 55° C. to about 60° C.; or, a salt concentration of about 0.15 M NaCl at 72° C. for about 15 minutes; or, a salt concentration of about 0.2×SSC at a temperature of at least about 50° C. or about 55° C. to about 60° C. for about 15 to about 20 minutes; or, the hybridization complex is washed twice with a solution with a salt concentration of about 2×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at room temperature for 15 minutes and then washed twice by O.1×SSC containing 0.1% SDS at 68° C. for 15 minutes; or, equivalent conditions. Stringent conditions for washing can also be, e.g., 0.2×SSC/0.1% SDS at 42° C. In instances wherein the nucleic acid molecules are deoxyoligonucleotides (“oligos”), stringent conditions can include washing in 6×SSC/0.05% sodium pyrophosphate at 37° C. (for 14-base oligos), 48° C. (for 17-base oligos), 55° C. (for 20-base oligos), and 60° C. (for 23-base oligos).

[0126] As used herein, “expression vector” refers to a nucleic acid construct, generated recombinantly or synthetically, bearing a series of specified nucleic acid elements that enable transcription of a particular gene in a host cell. In some embodiments, gene expression is placed under the control of certain regulatory elements, such as constitutive or inducible promoters.

[0127] A nucleic acid or nucleic acid molecule can comprise one or more sequences encoding different peptides, polypeptides, or proteins. These one or more sequences can be joined in the same nucleic acid or nucleic acid molecule adjacently, or with extra nucleic acids in between, e.g. linkers, repeats or restriction enzyme sites, or any other sequence that is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 150, 200, or 300 bases long, or any length in a range defined by any two of the aforementioned lengths. The term “downstream” on a nucleic acid as used herein refers to a sequence being after the 3′-end of a previous sequence, on the strand containing the encoding sequence (sense strand) if the nucleic acid is double stranded. The term “upstream” on a nucleic acid as used herein refers to a sequence being before the 5′-end of a subsequent sequence, on the strand containing the encoding sequence (sense strand) if the nucleic acid is double stranded. The term “grouped” on a nucleic acid as used herein refers to two or more sequences that occur in proximity either directly or with extra nucleic acids in between, e.g. linkers, repeats, or restriction enzyme sites, or any other sequence that is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 150, 200, or 300 bases long, or any length in a range defined by any two of the aforementioned lengths, but generally not with a sequence in between that encodes for a functioning or catalytic polypeptide, protein, or protein domain.

[0128] The term “codon optimized” regarding a nucleic acid as used herein refers to the substitution of codons of the nucleic acid to enhance or maximize translation in a host of a particular species without changing the polypeptide sequence based on species-specific codon usage biases and relative availability of each aminoacyl-tRNA in the target cell cytoplasm. Codon optimization and techniques to perform such optimization is known in the art. Programs containing algorithms for codon optimization are known to those skilled in the art. Those skilled in the art will appreciate that gene expression levels are dependent on many factors, such as promoter sequences and regulatory elements. Small subsets of codons are recognized by tRNA species leading to translational selection, which can be an important limit on protein expression. In this aspect, many synthetic genes can be designed to increase their protein expression level.

[0129] As used herein, the term “split indicator” refers to a compound which may include a protein or a mimetic thereof, which is divided into two or more portions, whereby upon secondary spatial joining or separation of these portions, the split indicator assumes a three-dimensional structure which results in a measurable signal. The measurable signal may be luminescence, fluorescence, phosphoresce, and/or a drop in any one of these emissions due to quenching caused by the spatial reorientation of the compound. The measurable signal may be due to Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) which may be used to determine if two chromophores (e.g., fluorophores) are within a certain distance of each other. As disclosed elsewhere herein, the secondary spatial joining and/or separation of these portions may be caused by the binding of an analyte molecule. A split indicator may comprise a fusion protein that is split at the indicator region or that is split at the binding region.

[0130] As used herein, the term “split luminescent protein” refers to a type of split indicator. A split luminescent protein includes a luminescent protein, the amino acid sequence of which is divided into two or more portions, whereby upon secondary spatial joining of these portions, the split luminescent protein assumes a three-dimensional structure which allows it to emit luminescence (e.g., fluorescence, phosphoresce) when excited by light of a suitable wavelength.

[0131] As used herein, the terms “protein”, “polypeptide”, “peptide”, refer to a polymer of amino acid residues linked together by peptide bonds. A protein may have contiguous amino acid residues. The number of contiguous residues may be greater than or equal to at least: 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 100, 200, 300, or ranges spanning and/or including the aforementioned values). A protein may be naturally occurring, recombinant, synthetic, non-natural, or any combination of these. A protein may also be just a fragment of a naturally occurring protein. The term protein may also apply to amino acid polymers in which one or more amino acid residues is an artificial chemical analogue of a corresponding naturally occurring amino acid. An amino acid polymer in which one or more amino acid residues is an “unnatural” amino acid, not corresponding to any naturally occurring amino acid, is also encompassed by the use of the term “protein” herein.

[0132] As used herein, the terms “fusion protein”, “fusion polypeptide”, “fusion peptide” refer to a polypeptide which comprises protein domains from at least two different proteins.

[0133] Peptides, polypeptides, and proteins are often, but not always, produced biologically by a ribosomal complex using a nucleic acid template, although chemical syntheses are also available. By manipulating the nucleic acid template, peptide, polypeptide, and protein mutations such as substitutions, deletions, truncations, additions, duplications, or fusions of more than one peptide, polypeptide, or protein can be performed. These fusions of more than one peptide, polypeptide, or protein can be joined in the same molecule adjacently, or with extra amino acids in between, e.g. linkers, repeats, epitopes, or tags, or any other sequence that is 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 19, 20, 25, 30, 35, 40, 45, 50, 55, 60, 65, 70, 75, 80, 85, 90, 95, 100, 150, 200, or 300 bases long, or any length in a range defined by any two of the aforementioned lengths.

[0134] In some embodiments, the nucleic acid or peptide sequences presented herein and used in the examples are functional in various biological systems including but not limited to humans, mice, rabbits, bacterial, E. coli, fungal, yeast, insect, animal, and mammalian cells. In other embodiments, nucleic acid or peptide sequences sharing 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, or 100% similarity, or any percentage within a range defined by any two of the aforementioned percentages similarity to the nucleic acid or peptide sequences presented herein and used in the examples can also be used with no effect on the function of the sequences in biological systems. As used herein, the term “similarity” refers to a nucleic acid or peptide sequence having the same overall order of nucleotide or amino acids, respectively, as a template nucleic acid or peptide sequence with specific changes such as substitutions, deletions, repetitions, or insertions within the sequence. In some embodiments, two nucleic acid sequences sharing as low as 0%, 10%, 20%, 30%, 40%, 50%, 60%, 70%, 80%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, or 99% similarity can encode for the same polypeptide by comprising different codons that encode for the same amino acid during translation.

[0135] As used herein, the term “vector” refers to a molecule (e.g., a nucleic acid molecule) capable of transporting a nucleic acid to which it has been linked. One type of vector is a “plasmid”, which refers to a circular double stranded DNA loop into which additional DNA segments may be ligated. Another type of vector is a viral vector, wherein additional DNA segments may be ligated into the viral genome. Another type of vector is a non-viral vector, which may include a synthetic polymer configured to deliver a nucleic acid to a cell. Certain vectors are capable of autonomous replication in a host cell into which they are introduced (e.g., bacterial vectors having a bacterial origin of replication and episomal mammalian vectors). Other vectors (e.g., non-episomal mammalian vectors) are integrated into the genome of a host cell upon introduction into the host cell, and thereby are replicated along with the host genome. Moreover, certain vectors are capable of directing the expression of genes to which they are operatively linked. Such vectors are referred to herein as “recombinant expression vectors” or simply “expression vectors”. In general, expression vectors of utility in recombinant DNA techniques are often in the form of plasmids. In some instances, where the term “plasmid” is used, a different “vector” may be used interchangeably as the plasmid is the most commonly used form of vector. It should be noted, other forms of expression vectors, such as viral vectors (e.g., replication defective retroviruses, adenoviruses and adeno-associated viruses) or non-viral vectors, may serve equivalent functions. Alternatively, the vectors may be liposomes into which the nucleic acid molecules or expression cassettes disclosed herein can be reconstituted for delivery to target cells. Likewise, the term “vector” refers to complexes containing such nucleic acid molecules or expression cassettes which furthermore comprise compounds that are known to facilitate gene transfer into cells such as polycations, cationic peptides and the like.

[0136] The term “recombinantly expressed” as used herein refers to the production of proteins in optimized or adapted biological systems. These systems provide advantages over protein expression in a natural host, including but not limited to high expression (overexpression), ease of purification, ease of transformation, inducibility, low cost, or stability of the protein. In some embodiments, proteins are expressed in mammalian, bacteria, yeast, insect, or cell-free recombinant expression systems. Each system has its own advantages or disadvantages. For example, bacterial expression systems are highly optimized for overexpression, but may cause misfolding or aggregation of the produced protein, yeast systems are useful when post-translational modifications are necessary, and insect and mammalian systems are useful for proper RNA splicing that occurs in higher-order organisms. In some embodiments, recombinant polypeptides are produced and purified from animal, mammalian, human, primary, immortalized, cancer, stem, fibroblasts, human embryonic kidney (HEK) 293, Chinese Hamster Ovary (CHO), bacterial, Escherichia coli, fungal, yeast, Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Pichia pastoris, insect, Spodoptera frugiperda Sf9, or S. frugiperda Sf21 cells, or in a cell-free system. In some embodiments, expression genes, vectors, or constructs are delivered to the recombinant expression systems in the form of plasmids, bacteriophages, viruses, adeno-associated viruses (AAVs), baculovirus, cosmids, fosmids, phagemids, BACs, YACs, or HACs.

[0137] As used herein, the term “luminescent compound” (e.g., a luminescent protein) refers to a compound (e.g., a protein) that absorbs energy at one wavelength and emits it at another wavelength to luminesce. A green fluorescent protein refers to, for example, a polypeptide that may have a peak at about 510 nm in its emission spectrum.

[0138] As used herein, the term “binding portion,” “binding region,” “binding domain,” or “binding site,” refers to the one or more regions of a polypeptide or mimetic thereof that mediates specific binding with a target molecule (e.g. a sugar or other molecule, or other agent, NADPH, heavy metals, Ca²⁺). Exemplary binding domains include a receptor binding domain of a ligand, a ligand binding domain of a receptor or an enzymatic domain. The binding region may refer to any native receptor (e.g., cell surface receptor) or any region or variant thereof retaining at least a qualitative ligand binding ability, and in some embodiments the biological activity of a corresponding native receptor. The binding region may refer to any native ligand or protein (e.g., the receptor of a periplasmic membrane protein) or any region or variant thereof retaining at least a qualitative receptor binding ability, and in some embodiments the biological activity of a corresponding native ligand. In some embodiments, the polypeptides or mimetics (e.g., mimics) thereof have at least one binding domain specific for a molecule targeted for quantification, reduction, or elimination.

[0139] As used herein, the term “signaling portion,” “signaling region,” or “signaling domain,” refers to the one or more regions of a polypeptide or mimetic thereof that provide a measurable signal in response to the binding of an analyte to a binding portion. The signaling region may refer to any native protein or any region or variant thereof retaining at least a qualitative signaling ability, and in some embodiments the biological activity of a corresponding native signaling molecule.

[0140] As used herein, the terms “linker” refers to a unit present within the fusion proteins which comprises a spacer between, for example, the binding portion of an analyte binding protein and an signaling protein. The linker may, in some embodiments, comprise a length of repeat residues of G and/or S amino acids (with a number of repeating residues that is equal to or greater than about: 3, 5, 10, 15, 20, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). A linker may bind an signaling unit of a fusion protein to a binding region of the fusion protein.

[0141] As used herein, the term “small molecule” refers to a non-nucleotidyl and non-protein, distinct organic compound with a molecular weight lower compared to the molecular weight of biomolecules. A small molecule may have a molecular weight of less than or equal to about: 900 Daltons, 1500 Daltons, 2000 Daltons, 5000 Daltons, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values. The average size of a small molecule may be on the order of less than or equal to about: 1 nm, 2 nm, 3 nm, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values.

[0142] As used herein, the term “variant” may be used interchangeably with the term “mutant.” “Variants” can refer to either polypeptides or nucleic acids. Variants include one or more sequence “modifications,” which as used herein include substitutions, insertions, deletions, truncations, transversions, and/or inversions, at one or more locations relative to a reference sequence. Each modifications can include changes that result in a change of one or more amino acid residues or nucleotides in a sequence, relative to the reference sequence. Variant nucleic acids include sequences that are complementary to sequences that are capable of hybridizing to the nucleotide sequences presented herein. For example, a variant nucleic acid sequence herein can be at least partially complementary to a sequence capable of hybridizing under stringent conditions to a nucleotide sequences presented herein. A variant can have a sequence that is equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% identical to that of the disclosed protein or nucleotide and/or to the active region of the disclosed protein (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). A variant can have a sequence that shares equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% homology or similarity to that of the disclosed protein or nucleotide and/or to the active region of the disclosed protein (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values).

[0143] As used herein, “in vivo” is given its ordinary meaning and refers to the performance of a method inside living organisms, usually animals, mammals, including humans, and plants, as opposed to a tissue extract or dead organism.

[0144] As used herein, “ex vivo” is given its ordinary meaning and refers to the performance of a method outside a living organism with little alteration of natural conditions.

[0145] As used herein, “in vitro” is given its ordinary meaning and refers to the performance of a method outside of biological conditions, e.g., in a petri dish or test tube.

[0146] Any titles or subheadings used herein are for organization purposes and should not be used to limit the scope of embodiments disclosed herein.

[0147] The term “truncated” means a deletion of one or a few amino acid residues at the N- and/or C-terminus or internal amino acid residues of one or both signaling portion(s) and/or the binding portion compared to the corresponding wild-type protein. In particular, the truncated region(s) comprise equal to or at least about: 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 (or ranges spanning and/or including any of the aforementioned values) amino acid residues. The extent of truncation may be limited to a maximum where the protein portions still show their functions necessary for the fusion protein to measure analyte concentration.

[0148] The term “wild-type” refers to the protein that has been used as the starting point for constructing the fusion protein of the invention.

[0149] The term “increased insensitivity to the pH value” means that the difference between maximum energy emission of the fusion proteins (for example at around pH 6.0 to 6.5) and the lowest energy emission observed within the physiological pH range (e.g., between pH 5.5 and pH 8.5), under otherwise substantially identical conditions is reduced by equal to or at least about: 20%, 50%, 80%, 90%, or ranges spanning and/or including any of the aforementioned values.

[0150] The term “increased insensitivity to the temperature value” means that the difference between maximum energy emission of the fusion proteins and the lowest energy emission observed within the between 15° C. and 30° C., under otherwise substantially identical conditions is reduced by equal to or at least about: 20%, 50%, 80%, 90%, or ranges spanning and/or including any of the aforementioned values.

[0151] The term “increased stability” means that the protein has enhanced stability relative to a comparator protein (including comparator proteins that are native proteins of from which a variant with increased stability is derived). In several embodiments, stability (e.g., activity under an environmental given condition) is increase by equal to or at least about: 20%, 50%, 80%, 90%, 100%, or ranges spanning and/or including any of the aforementioned values. Environmental conditions where increased stability may be shown include conditions such as buffered solutions (such as phosphate buffered saline, HEPES buffer, tris buffer, etc.), blood and/or blood plasma (including fetal bovine serum), and in vivo conditions (such as the subcutaneous environment of, for example, the dermis). Enhanced stability may be demonstrated at elevated temperatures 30° C. (e.g., in an aforementioned solution) and at elevated or reduced pH (in aqueous solution, isotonic solution, etc.). Reduced pH conditions may include pH values equal to or less than 4, 5, 6, or ranges spanning and/or including the aforementioned values. Elevated pH conditions may include pH values equal to or at least about 8, 9, 10, or ranges spanning and/or including the aforementioned values.

Introduction

[0152] Glucose is essential for cell growth, proliferation, and homeostasis and is one of the most common energy fuels for the body. Glucose circulates throughout the body via the blood, and the blood glucose level is controlled by hormones, such as insulin and glucagon. See Mita, M. et al. Green Fluorescent Protein-Based Glucose Indicators Report Glucose Dynamics in Living Cells, Anal. Chem. 2019, 91, 4821-4830. Cells take in glucose from the blood in response to insulin and metabolize it to provide energy. Glucose is metabolized to adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by glycolysis and electron transfer or is converted into glycogen for energy storage. Pancreatic β-cells (beta cells) sense increases in glucose levels in the blood following food intake and uptake glucose via the glucose transporters (such as GLUTs in mammals). The primary function of a beta cell is to produce and release insulin and amylin. Both are hormones which reduce blood glucose levels by different mechanisms. Beta cells can respond quickly to spikes in blood glucose concentrations by secreting some of their stored insulin and amylin while simultaneously producing more.

[0153] Failures in the glucose metabolic pathway can cause chronic diseases, such as diabetes mellitus or obesity that affect a large proportion of the population. Type 1 diabetes mellitus, also known as insulin dependent diabetes, is believed to be caused by an auto-immune mediated destruction of the insulin producing beta cells in the body. The destruction of these cells reduces the body's ability to respond to glucose levels in the body, therefore making it nearly impossible to properly regulate glucose and glucagon levels in the bloodstream. Type 2 diabetes mellitus, also known as non-insulin dependent diabetes and as chronic hyperglycemia, is caused primarily by genetics and the development of metabolic syndrome. The beta cells can still secrete insulin but the body has developed a resistance and its response to insulin has declined. In an effort to secrete enough insulin to overcome the increasing insulin resistance, the beta cells increase their function, size and number. Increased insulin secretion leads to hyperinsulinemia, but blood glucose levels remain within their normal range due to the decreased efficacy of insulin signaling. However, the beta cells can become overworked and exhausted from being overstimulated, leading to a 50% reduction in function along with a 40% decrease in beta-cell volume. At this point, not enough insulin can be produced and secreted to keep blood glucose levels within their normal range, causing overt type 2 diabetes. This can cause the patient to experience hyperglycemia, which leads to other adverse short-term and long-term conditions. This makes it important to understand the mechanisms of glucose metabolism and/or to monitor glucose levels in living cells and/or patients at a high spatiotemporal resolution.

[0154] There remains a need for glucose monitoring that is real-time, highly accurate, that allow single or dual compound emissions to visualize one molecule, and that have improved lifetimes (e.g., stability and accuracy over time). Moreover, invasive forms of self-testing are painful and fraught with a multitude of psychosocial hurdles, and are resisted by most diabetics. Additionally, where continuous monitoring is performed with a unit that is worn on the body, needles and components have a limited lifetime requiring replacement or yielding inaccurate results. Also of use would be monitoring systems for other biological analytes, as disclosed elsewhere herein. Some embodiments disclosed herein provide solutions to these problems or others. Some embodiments provide indicator compounds and/or devices comprising indicator compounds for the monitoring of analytes (including but not limited to glucose) in a subject (e.g., a patient).

Indicator Compounds

[0155] Some embodiments disclosed herein pertain to indicator compounds for use in detecting an analyte and/or one or more analytes. In some embodiments, as shown in FIGS. 1A and 1B, an individual indicator compound 100 may comprise a binding region 101 and a signaling region 102. As shown in FIG. 1A, the signaling region 102 may be split and/or may comprise a plurality of signaling units 102′, 102″ (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, or more). As shown, in some embodiments, when an analyte 103 binds to a binding region 101 of the indicator compound, a conformational shift in the signaling region 102 of the compound 100 occurs, resulting in a detectable signal 200. In several embodiments, the signaling units 102′, 102″ are brought into proximity to provide an active signaling region that produces the detectable signal 200. In some embodiments, the detectable signal 200 is generated when the indicator compound is interrogated (e.g., excited) with an excitation wavelength 201. In some embodiments, the signaling region, and/or signaling units comprising the signaling region (e.g., portions of the signaling region that provide the signaling region), comprises, consists of, or consists essentially of a luminescent protein and/or portions of a luminescent protein. In other embodiments, the signaling units comprise small molecule chromophores (or pieces thereof).

[0156] As shown in FIG. 1B, the binding region 101 may be split and/or may comprise a plurality of binding units 101′, 101″ (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, or more). As shown, in some embodiments, when an analyte 103 binds to the binding region 101 of the indicator compound, a conformational shift in the signaling region 102 of the compound 100 occurs, resulting in a detectable signal 200. In some embodiments, the detectable signal 200 is generated when the indicator compound is interrogated (e.g., excited) with an excitation wavelength 201. In some embodiments, the binding region, and/or binding units comprising the binding region (e.g., portions of the binding region that provide the binding region), comprises, consists of, or consists essentially of an analyte binding protein and/or portions of an analyte binding protein. In other embodiments, the binding region or binding units comprise non-protein based receptors for the analyte.

[0157] In some embodiments, as disclosed elsewhere herein, the indicator compound may be introduced into a sensor device. In some embodiments, multiple analytes (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, or more) may be measured by using a single sensor by introducing more than one type of indicator compound into the sensor. Alternatively or additionally, in some embodiments, multiple analytes (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, or more) may be measured by using a single indicator compound that has multiple analyte binding regions for multiple analytes, respectively. In some embodiments, where multiple analytes are to be monitored by a single sensor device, the indicator compounds may be selected to have measurable emission spectra that are distinguishable depending on the indicator type. For instance, one indicator compound may be used to monitor glucose. A separate indicator compounds may used to monitor cholesterol. Those indicator compounds can be designed to be used together in a device when the indicator compounds give distinguishable emission signals (and/or signals that do not interfere with each other).

[0158] As disclosed elsewhere herein, FIG. 1A provides an example of one type of indicator compound. In several embodiments, the indicator compound, such as the one pictured in FIG. 1A (or FIG. 1B), may be a fusion protein that includes a domain of a binding protein (e.g., an analyte binding protein) and a domain of a signaling protein (e.g., a luminescent protein). As shown in FIG. 1A or FIG. 1B, in some embodiments, when an analyte 103 (e.g., glucose) is bound to the indicator compound 100, a measurable and/or quantifiable signal 200 is produced (e.g., upon excitation). In some embodiments, for example, when an analyte (e.g., glucose) is bound, the indicator compound absorbs light having a maximum at a first wavelength and emits light having a maximum at a second, different wavelength. Alternatively, in some embodiments, the binding of glucose (or some other analyte) to the indicator compound results in the lowering of an emitted signal (e.g., quenching) or some other change in a signal from the indicator compound (e.g., a change in emission signal, a change in absorption signal, etc.) that allows quantification of the amount of binding to the indicator compound 100. In some embodiments, the binding of glucose (or some other analyte) to the indicator compound results in the increase in an emitted signal or some other change in a signal from the indicator compound (e.g., an increase or decrease in emission signal, an increase or decrease in absorption signal, etc.). As disclosed elsewhere herein, the measurable signal (e.g., provided upon binding of an analyte) may be luminescence, fluorescence, phosphoresce, and/or a drop in any one of these emissions due to quenching caused by the spatial reorientation of the compound.

[0159] In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 1A and FIG. 1B, the indicator compound may be a split indicator. In some embodiments, using FIG. 1A as an example, the two arms 102′, 102″ of the split indicator may be terminated with portions of a signaling protein and/or differing chromophores, luminophores, fluorophores, or combinations thereof that result in different signals (e.g., through quenching, a change in emission signal, a change in absorption signal, etc.) when an analyte is bound or not bound. In some embodiments, the split indicator may be a fusion protein. In some embodiments, where the indicator compound is a fusion protein, the two arms 102′, 102″ may comprise portions of a luminescent protein (e.g., a fluorescent protein) that undergo a conformational change when an analyte 103 binds to a receptor portion 101 (e.g., binding portion) of the indicator compound 100. In some embodiments, as shown, the binding of the analyte to the receptor portion 101 (e.g., binding portion) of the indicator compound results in a measurable signal 200. In several embodiments, as disclosed elsewhere herein, the measurable signal may be one or more of luminescence (e.g., fluorescence). In other embodiments, the two arms may comprise small molecule synthetic or naturally occurring chromophores, as disclosed elsewhere herein.

[0160] As shown in FIG. 1A, indicator compound may include a domain of a binding protein (a binding portion of the indicator compound) that is inserted into the domain of a signaling protein (a signaling portion of the indicator compound), thereby splitting the signaling protein. In some embodiments, alternatively and as shown in FIG. 1B, a split indicator may have a configuration where the signaling domain of the fusion protein (the signaling portion of the indicator compound) splits the domain of the binding protein (the binding portion of the indicator compound). As will be appreciated by a person of skill in the art and as disclosed elsewhere herein, while fusion proteins are used as examples here, other configurations may be used, including those lacking protein domains and/or those comprising a mixture of non-protein (e.g., small molecule chromophores) and protein domains. For example, the split indicator may comprise fluorescent small molecules or portions thereof (FRET or other signaling molecules, fluorophores, etc.) that are separated by a binding domain of a binding protein. Alternatively, the binding domain may simply be a receptor for an analyte and may not include a protein domain. In such an embodiment, the signaling portion may or may not include a signaling protein domain. Thus, the indicator compound could be lack protein domains altogether in certain embodiments.

[0161] As shown in FIG. 1A and as disclosed elsewhere herein, the indicator compound may include a binding portion that undergoes a conformational change (e.g., a change in three dimensional structure) in response to the binding of an analyte that activates (e.g., by bringing into proximity) the indicator portion(s) 102′, 102″ of the indicator compound, thereby producing a measurable signal. Conversely, as shown in FIG. 1B, in some embodiments, the individual indicator compound 100 may comprise a binding portion that is split into a plurality of binding units 101′, 101″ (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, or more). In some embodiments, the indicator comprises a signaling region 102. As shown, in some embodiments, when an analyte 103 binds to a binding region of the indicator compound, a conformational shift may occur (e.g., either in the binding region or the signaling region) resulting in a detectable signal 200.

[0162] In some embodiments, the indicator compound is not a split indicator, as shown in, for example, FIG. 1C. As shown in FIG. 1C, the indicator compound 300 may comprise a binding region 301 and a signaling region 302. The binding region 302 may comprise a plurality of signaling units 302′, 302″ (e.g., 2, 3, 4, 5, or more). As shown, in some embodiments, when an analyte 303 binds to the binding region 301 of the indicator compound 300, a conformational shift in the signaling region 302 (and/or the binding region) of the compound may occur, resulting in a detectable signal 200.

[0163] As disclosed elsewhere herein, in some embodiments, the indicator compound is a fusion protein. In some embodiments, the fusion proteins may comprise a full-length or a binding portion of an analyte binding protein operably linked to a full-length or active portion (e.g., a luminescent portion) of a luminescent protein. For example, in some embodiments, the indicator compounds comprise a glucose binding region operably linked (e.g., by a linker) to a fluorescent protein or fluorescing portion of a protein. In some embodiments, the binding region comprises D-galactose/methyl-galactoside ABC transporter periplasmic binding protein (MglB) or a glucose binding portion thereof. In some embodiments, an indicator compound may comprise a full-length fluorescent protein (FP) or a fluorescing fragment or portion thereof. In some embodiments, upon binding of glucose within or near the glucose binding region, when exposed to light, the luminescent protein (e.g., FP or fluorescing portion thereof) is activated and luminesces (e.g., fluoresces) at a different wavelength of light. In some embodiments, the fluorescence of the luminescent protein (e.g., FP or fluorescing portion) thereof allows detection and/or quantification of the amount of analyte (e.g., glucose) present in a sample. In some embodiments, as disclosed elsewhere herein, the fusion proteins may comprise active fragments of an analyte binding protein operably linked to active fragments (e.g., a luminescent portion) of a luminescent protein. In some embodiments, as disclosed elsewhere herein, the fusion proteins may comprise variants of an analyte binding protein (or fragment thereof) operably linked to active (e.g., a luminescent portion) variants of a luminescent protein (or fragments thereof).

[0164] As disclosed elsewhere herein, in some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises a split luminescent protein. In some embodiments, the glucose binding region of the indicator compound is placed in between the two portions of the split luminescent protein. For example, a fluorescent protein may be a split fluorescent protein, whereby upon binding of an analyte, secondary spatial joining of these fluorescent protein portions occurs, which allows the indicator compound to emit fluorescence when excited by light of a suitable wavelength. As disclosed elsewhere herein, in some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises a split binding protein. In some embodiments, the binding region of the indicator compound is split by a luminescent protein. For example, a binding protein may be a split binding protein, whereby upon binding of an analyte, secondary spatial joining of these binding portions occurs, which allows the indicator compound to emit fluorescence when excited by light of a suitable wavelength. In some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises a luminescent protein that is not split. In some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises a binding protein that is not split.

[0165] In some embodiments, the compound is a single-(FP)-type indicator. In some embodiments, these indicators advantageously may image one, two, or more molecules (e.g., in vitro, in vivo, in the dermis, in single cells, etc.). In some embodiments, single-FP-type glucose indicators can be used to measure glucose concentrations in vitro or in vivo with one signal. For example, where a cell or cells comprise the indicator compound, an intensity of a signal from the indicator compound (or drop in intensity of a signal) can be indicative of the quantity of analyte present. In some embodiments, the single-FP-type glucose indicators as disclosed herein are suitable for live-cell imaging of mammalian cells or multi-color imaging of glucose dynamics in conjunction with other molecules.

[0166] In some embodiments, an indicator compound as disclosed herein may be a Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET) based indicator. In other embodiments, the indicator compound is not a FRET-based indicator. Förster resonance energy transfer (FRET)-type glucose indicators may reveal the affinity of each glucose transporter to glucose regulates distinct basal intracellular glucose levels in living cells, and that each organelle maintains its own required glucose level. FRET indicators (or other indicator compounds as disclosed herein) can be applied not only to mammalian cells and/or organisms but also to plants and the Drosophila brain in vivo to better understand glucose dynamics in different contexts (as can the other indicator compounds disclosed herein). Indicator compounds (including FRET indicators) may employ or may be used in conjunction to provide two emissions to visualize one molecule. For instance a single indicator compound with multiple fluorophores and/or multiple binding regions may provide two signals indicative of an analyte. Alternatively, two different types of indicator compounds that bind the same analyte can be employed to provide two measures of the presence of that single analyte.

[0167] As disclosed elsewhere herein, the indicator compound may comprise a luminescent protein (e.g., a split luminescent protein or a luminescent protein that is not split). For example, the indicator compound comprise a bioluminescent protein. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein is a phosphorescent protein or a fluorescent protein. Alternatively, or additionally, the indicator compound may comprise a luminescent domain, fragment, or portion of a luminescent protein (e.g., an operative portion of a luminescent protein). For brevity, the term protein is often used herein to describe luminescent regions or binding regions. Any example used with reference to a protein should also be understood to be applicable to a domain, fragment, or portion of that protein (e.g., an operative portion of a luminescent protein), or a non-protein mimic or small molecule having the function of that protein (e.g., a small molecule fluorophore).

[0168] In some embodiments, the signal emitting portion of the indicator compound (e.g., the luminescent protein domain) comprises one or more of a yellow fluorescent protein (YFP), enhanced YFP (EYFP), Topaz, Venus, Citrine, YPet, SYFP, mAmetrine, TagYFP, TurboYFP, ZsYellow, PhiYFP, a green fluorescent protein (GFP), enhanced GFP (EGFP), Emerald, T-Sapphire, superfolder GFP (sfGFP), Azami Green, mWasabi, ZsGreen, TagGFP, TagGFP2, TurboGFP, CopGFP, AceGFP, a blue fluorescent protein (BFP), enhanced BFP (EBFP), Azurite, strongly enhanced BFP (SBFP2), EBFP2, Sirius, mTagBFP, a cyan fluorescent protein (CFP), enhanced CFP (ECFP), Cerulean, CyPet, SCFP, TagCFP, AmCyan, Midoriishi Cyan, mTFP1, an orange fluorescent protein, Kusabira Orange, Kusabira Orange2, mOrange, mOrange2, dTomato, dTomato-Tandem, DsRed, DsRed2, DsRed-Express, DsRed-Express2, DsRed-Max, DsRed-Monomer, TurboRFP, TagRFP, TagRFP-T, a red fluorescent protein (RFP), mRuby, mApple, mStrawberry, AsRed2, mRFP1, JRed, mCherry, eqFP611, tdRFP611, HcRed1, mRaspberry, a far-red fluorescent protein, tdRFP639, mKate, mKate2, Katushka, HcRed-Tandem, mPlum, or AQ143, a photoactivatable fluorescent protein, PA-GFP, PS-CFP2, PA-mRFP1, PA-mCherry1, Phamret, a photoconvertible fluorescent protein, Kaede, wtKikGR, mKikGR, wtEosFP, dEos, mEos2, Dendra2, a photoswitchable fluorescent protein, Dronpa, Dronpa-3, rsFastLine, Padron, bsDronpa, KFP1, mTFP0.7, E2GFP, rsCherry, rsCherryRev, a photoconvertible/photoswitchable fluorescent protein, IrisFP, or another fluorescent protein, luminescing or fluorescing fragments of any of the foregoing, portions of any of the foregoing, or variants of any of the foregoing.

[0169] Several signal emitting proteins are provided in FIGS. 6A(1)-6A(54). In some embodiments, the signal emitting portion of the indicator compound (e.g., the luminescent protein domain) may be selected from a variety of luminescent proteins, such as those shown in FIGS. 6A(1)-6A(54). In some embodiments, the signal emitting portion of the indicator compound (e.g., the luminescent protein domain) comprises mPapaya, mPapaya0.7, mPapaya0.6, mPapaya0.3, dPapaya0.1, tPapaya0.01, ZsYellow1, zFP538, TDsmURFP, smURFP, R3-2+PCB, TeAPCα, miRFP702, miRFP670-2, iRFP670. iRFP702, RpBphP6, miRFP713, miRFP680, iRFP713/V256C, miRFP720, iRFP720, miRFP682, iRFP682, iRFP713, RpBphP2, emiRFP670, miRFP709, emiRFP703, miRFP703, miRFP670, miRFP670v1, miRFPm RpBphP1, miRFP670nano, NpR3784g, mScarlet-I, mScarlet-H, mScarlet, mRed7Q1S1BM, mRed7Q1S1, mRed7Q1, mRed7, mKeima, dKeima570, dKeima, tKeima. Montipora sp. #20-9115, Montipo, ra sp. #20, moxNeonGreen, mNeonGreen. dLanYFP, LanYFP, mKOx, mKO2, mK-GO, mKO, KO, mKikGR, KikGR1, KikG, HcRed1-Blue, mGinger2, mGinger1, HcRed7, HcRed, td-RFP611, RFP611, mGarnet2, mGarnet, mRuby3, mRuby2, mRuby, d-RFP618, td-RFP639, RFP639, RFP637, RFP618, RFP630, eqFP611, rsTagRFP, mKate S158A, mKate M41G S158C, mKate S158C, rsFusionRed3, rsFusionRed2, rsFusionRed1, FR-1, FusionRed-M, FusionRed, mKate2.5, cgfmKate2, mStable, mKate2, mBeRFP, LSS-mKate2, LSS-mKate1, PAmKate, TagRFP657, mCarmine, mNeptune684, mNeptune681, mMaroon1, Maroon0.1, mCyRFP1, CyRFP1, CyOFP1, mNeptune2.5, mKelly2, mKelly1, mCardinal, mNeptune2, mNeptune, Neptune, mKate, cgfTagRFP, PATagRFP, mTagBFP2, TagBFP, TagRFP-T, TagRFP, Katushka2S, eqFP670, eqFP650, Katushka-9-5, Katushka, TurboRFP, eqFP578, risFP-M159A, risFP, mEosFP-F173S, mEosFP-M159A, mlrisFP, mEos2-A69T, Skylan-NS, Skylan-S, mEos3.1, mEos4b, moxEos3.2, mEos3.2, mEos2-NA, mGeos-C, mGeos-F, mGeos-L, mGeos-E, mGeos-S, mGeos-M, mEos4a, mEos2, mEosFP, d2EosFP, d1EosFP, EosFP, DsRed-Timer, DsRed2, DsRed.M1, DsRed.T4, DsRed.T3, sfCherry3C, sfCherry2, sfCherry, PAmCherry3, PAmCherry2, RDSmCherry1, RDSmCherry0.5, RDSmCherry0.2, RDSmCherry0.1, mCherry1.5, rsCherryRev1.4, rsCherryRev, rsCherry, PAmCherry1, mCherry2, mCherry, mRFP1.5, mOFP.T.12, mStrawberry, mOrange2, pHuji, mApple, LSSmOrange, PSmOrange2, PSmOrange, mOrange, mOFP.T.8, mRFP1.4. mRFP1.3, mBanana, mTangerine, mRaspberry, mPlum-E16P, mPlum, mRFP1.2, mHoneydew, mGrape3, mGrape2, mGrape1, mRFP1.1, mRFP1, dTG, RRvT, tdTomato, dTomato, dimer2, dimer1, E2-Red/Green, E2-Orange, E2-Crimson, DsRed-Max, DsRed-Express2, DsRed-Express, DsRed, iFP2.0, iFP1.4, DrCBD, Gamillus. Gamillus0.5, Gamillus0.4, Gamillus0.3, Gamillus0.2, Gamillus0.1, dfGFP, Dendra2-T69A, Dendra2-M159A, NijiFP, moxDendra2, Dendra2, Dendra, dendFP. moxMaple3, mMaple3, mMaple2, mMaple, mClavGR2, mClavGR1.8, dClavGR1.6, mClavGR1.1, mClavGR1, mWasabi, G3, G2, G1, mTFP1, mTFP0.9, mTFP0.8, mTFP0.7, mTFP0.6, mTFP0.5, mTFP0.4, mTFP0.3, dTFP0.2, dTFP0.1, cFP484, mAvicFP1, AvicFP1, pHluorin ecliptic, pHluorin2, pHluorin ratiometric, 10B, mPA-GFP, PA-GFP, Topaz, mClover1.5, dClover2 A206K, mClover3, dClover2, Clover1.5, Clover, mT-Sapphire, T-Sapphire, Sapphire, mEYFP, YFP3, EYFP-F46L, SHardonnay, Achilles, moxVenus, oxVenus, mVenus-Q69M, SYFP2, SGFP2(T65G), SGFP2(E222Q), SGFP2(206A), cfSGFP2, SGFP2, SGFP1, mTurquoise-146S, mTurquoise-146G, Superfolder mTurquoise2 ox, Superfolder mTurquoise2, mTurquoise2-G, mTurquoise2, mTurquoise-RA, mTurquoise-GV, mTurquoise-GL, mTurquoise-DR, mTurquoise, SCFP3B, SCFP3A, SCFP2, SCFP1, SBFP2, SBFP1, mVenus, YPet, Venus, SEYFP, EYFP-Q69K, Citrine2, mCitrine, SPOON, Dreiklang, Citrine, EYFP, 11, GFPmut3, GFPmut2, RSGFP7, RSGFP6, RSGFP4, RSGFP3, RSGFP2, RSGFP1, W1C, ECFP H148D, mECFP, D10, CyPet, NowGFP, WasCFP, mCerulean.B24, mCerulean.B2, mCerulean.B, mCerulean2.D3, moxCerulean3, mCerulean3, mCerulean2.N(T65S), mCerulean2.N, mCerulean2, mCerulean, Cerulean, CFP4, Aquamarine, ECFP, W7, W2, CFP, rsFolder2, rsFolder, vsfGFP-0, muGFP, usGFP, vsGFP, moxGFP, oxGFP, vsfGFP-9, Superfolder GFP, Folding Reporter GFP, aGFP, BrUSLEE, SiriusGFP, mEmerald, Emerald, mKalama1, rsEGFP2, rsEGFP, mEGFP, mAmetrine, EGFP, P9, P11, H9, sg50, sg42, sg25, sgl2, sg11, Q80R, moxBFP, oxBFP, EBFP2, EBFP1.5, EBFP1.2, EBFP, BFP.A5, Azurite, BFP, BFP5, P4, avGFP, mKillerOrange, KillerOrange, A44-KR, SuperNova Green, SuperNova Red, KillerRed, anm2CP, amFP515, amFP506, amFP495, amFP486, PS-CFP2, PS-CFP, aceGFP, rsKame, Padron(star), Kohinoor, Padron0.9, Padron, bsDronpa, rsFastLime, pcDronpa2, pcDronpa, ffDronpa, PDM1-4, Dronpa-C62S, Dronpa-3, Dronpa-2, Dronpa, 22G, luminescing or fluorescing fragments of any of the foregoing, portions of any of the foregoing, or variants of any of the foregoing.

[0170] In some embodiments, any luminescent protein, phosphorescent protein, or fluorescent protein disclosed herein may be circularly permuted. For example, cpYFP (SEQ ID NO: 14) is a circularly permuted form of EYFP by splitting the peptide sequence at a permissible region (e.g. between N144 and Y145 of EYFP) and swapping the N-terminal and C-terminal domains, optionally with a linker, such as a linker of 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 amino acids. In some embodiments, the luminescent protein or luminescent domains, fragments, or portions thereof are truncated or extended (e.g., with a linker) at the N-terminus and/or C-terminus by a number of amino acids, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 amino acids.

[0171] As disclosed elsewhere herein, in some embodiments, fusion proteins comprising a binding protein portion (e.g., a binding domain) between the two detection portions (e.g., a signaling domain). In other embodiments, the binding protein portion (e.g., the binding domain) may be split by a detection portion (e.g. a signaling domain). In some embodiments, upon binding of an analyte (e.g., glucose), the indicator compound undergoes a conformational change. In some embodiments, this conformational change is responsible for the signal produced by the indicator compound (e.g., the fusion protein).

[0172] In some embodiments, where identity, homology, or similarity are described elsewhere herein, such identity, homology, or similarity levels may be applied to an individual protein of a split fusion protein (e.g., a split indicator or a split luminescent compound). To illustrate, a split fusion protein may comprise two proteins and one of those proteins may be embedded within the other protein. As used herein, where a citrine protein of SEQ ID NO:1 is split by the Mg1B protein of SEQ ID NO:2, the split citrine indicator portion (e.g., the split signaling domain of the indicator compound) can nonetheless be expressed as having a percent identity to the unsplit citrine protein. For example, the split citrine indicator can be expressed as having 100% identity to SEQ ID NO:1 where each amino acid of the split signaling domain coincides to each amino acid of SEQ ID NO:1, but for the split by SEQ ID NO:2. As another example, where the citrine protein of SEQ ID NO:1 splits the Mg1B protein of SEQ ID NO:2, the split binding protein (e.g., the binding domain of the indicator compound) can be expressed as having 100% identity to SEQ ID NO:2 where each amino acid of the split binding protein coincides to each amino acid of SEQ ID NO:2, but for the split by SEQ ID NO:1.

[0173] In some embodiments, the fusion protein comprises one or more of a citrine sequence and/or a circularly permuted yellow fluorescent protein (cpYFP) sequence as shown in FIG. 2A (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 1) and FIG. 3A (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 14), respectively. In other embodiments, other fluorescent and/or luminescent proteins are used (including circularly permuted versions of those proteins) such as those disclosed in FIGS. 6A(1)-6A(54) and FIGS. 7A(1)-7A(88) (e.g., SEQ ID NOs: 34-122) (as well as variants of any of the foregoing).

[0174] In some embodiments, the signaling domain of the indicator compound has a sequence that is identical to that of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 14, 34-121 (as shown in the figures), and/or 222-823. In some embodiments, the signaling domain has a sequence that is a variant of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 14, 34-121, and/or 222-823. In some embodiments, the signaling domain has a sequence that is independently equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) identical to that of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 14, 34-121, and/or 222-823. In some embodiments, the signaling domain has a sequence that independently shares equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) homology or similarity to that of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 14, 34-121, and/or 222-823. In some embodiments, the signaling proteins or signaling domains, fragments, or portions thereof may be truncated or extended (e.g. with a linker) at the N-terminus and/or C-terminus by a number of amino acids, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 amino acids.

[0175] In some embodiments, a contiguous portion of the signaling domain of the indicator compound independently shares equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) identity, homology, and/or similarity to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 14, 34-121, and/or 222-823. In some embodiments, a contiguous portion of the signaling domain of the indicator compound independently shares equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) identity, homology, and/or similarity to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 3-13 and/or 16-20. In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of the indicator compound may include the entire signaling domain, one or more fragments of the signaling domain (e.g., luminescing fragments), and/or a signaling unit of the signaling domain. In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of the indicator compound and/or the contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 2, 14, 15, 34-121, and/or 222-823 is equal to or at least about: 200, 100, 80, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, or 10 amino acids in length (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values).

[0176] In several embodiments, the indicator compound may comprise multiple (two, three, four, etc.) contiguous portions that share the aforementioned identity values, homology values, or similarity values to contiguous portions of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 2, 14, 15, 34-121, and/or 222-823. To illustrate, the indicator compound may comprise a first contiguous portion 100 amino acids in length and that is between 80% and 100% homologous to a contiguous portion 100 amino acids in length of SEQ ID NO:1. Additionally, that indicator compound could comprise a second, different contiguous portion that is 80 amino acids in length and that is 100% identical to a second, different contiguous portion of SEQ ID NO:1 that is 80 amino acids in length.

[0177] In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 1, 2, 14, 15, 34-121, and/or 222-823 optionally has 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, or 20 amino acid differences relative to the contiguous portion of the indicator compound. In some embodiments, the amino acid differences include insertions, deletions, and/or substitutions. In some embodiments, the substitutions can include a substitution of any one or more of amino acids for other amino acids. In some embodiments, amino acid substitutions are conservative or non-conservative (radical). A conservative replacement (also called a conservative mutation or a conservative substitution) is an amino acid replacement in a protein (e.g., of the luminescent protein) that changes a given amino acid to a different amino acid with similar biochemical properties (e.g. charge, hydrophobicity and size). Three and single letter abbreviations for natural α-amino acids used throughout are as follows:

[0178]

	Amino acid	Abbreviation	Abbreviation
	α-Amino butyric acid	Abu	—
	Alanine	Ala	A
	Arginine	Arg	R
	Aspartic acid	Asp	D
	Asparagine	Asn	N
	Cysteine	Cys	C
	Glutamic acid	Glu	E
	Glutamine	Gln	Q
	Glycine	Gly	G
	Isoleucine	Ile	I
	Histidine	His	H
	Leucine	Leu	L
	Lysine	Lys	K
	Methionine	Met	M
	Phenylalanine	Phe	F
	Proline	Pro	P
	Serine	Ser	S
	Threonine	Thr	T
	Tryptophan	Trp	W
	Tyrosine	Tyr	Y
	Valine	Val	V

There are 20 naturally occurring amino acids. Some of these share similar characteristics (are conservative). For example, leucine and isoleucine are both aliphatic, branched hydrophobes. Similarly, aspartic acid and glutamic acid are both small, negatively charged residues. Although there are many ways to classify amino acids, they are often sorted into six main classes on the basis of their structure and the general chemical characteristics of their side chains (R groups).

[0179]

TABLE 1
Class	Amino acids	1-letter code
Aliphatic	Glycine, Alanine,	G, A, V, L, I
	Valine, Leucine,
	Isoleucine
Hydroxyl or	Serine, Cysteine,	S, C, U, T, M
sulfur/selenium -	Selenocysteine,
containing	Threonine, Methionine
Cyclic	Proline	P
Aromatic	Phenylalanine,	F, Y, W
	Tyrosine, Tryptophan
Basic	Histidine, Lysine,	H, K, R
	Arginine
Acidic and their amides	Aspartate, Glutamate,	D, E, N, Q
	Asparagine, Glutamine

In some embodiments, conservative changes are those that are within one or more of these six classes (for example, substituting one amino acid for a different amino acid in the same cell of Table 1).

[0180] In some embodiments, where amino acids are substituted, a series of non-natural amino acids which may be used in place of natural amino acids include, but are not limited to, 3-amino 2-hydroxy pyridine; (2-furyl)alanine; 1-amino-1-cyclohexane carboxylic acid; (2-thienyl)alanine; 2-aminobenzoic acid (2-Abz); 2-pyridylalanine; 1-amino-1-cyclopentanecarboxilic acid; 2-aminobutyric acid (2-Abu); 3-amino-3-phenylpropionic acid; aminocyclopentane carboxylic acid (ACPC); 4-aminomethylbenzoic acid (Amb); aminoisobutiric acid (Aib); p-benzoyl-1-phenylalanine (Bpa); allylglycine; 4-aminomethyl cyclohexane carboxylic acid (Amc); cyclohexyl-alanine (Cha); delta-valine; delta-leucine; cyanobbutylalanine (Cba); indanylglycine (IgI); 3-(1-naphtyl)-alanine; 3-(2-naphthyl)alanine (1-NaI); biphenylalanine (Bip); hydroxyproline (Hyp); isonipecotic acid (Inp); norvaline (Nva); 4-iodophenylalanine (Phe(pI)); 4-nitrophenylalanine; 4-methylphenylalanine; homophenylalanine (hPhe); 4-aminophenylalanine (Phe4NH(Boc); phenyl glycine; alanine(2′-quinolyl); alanine (2′ pyridine); tryptophan; tryptophan N-Methyl; 2-azetidine carboxylic acid; pipecolic acid (Pip); propargylglycine; thioproline (Thz); butylglycine (Tle); 3-nitrotyrosine; 3-aminobenzoic acid (3-Abz); 3-amino-3-phenyl propionic acid; (1-indanylglycine); (2-indanylglycine); allyl glycine; 3-nitrotyrosine; 1,2,3,4-tetrahydroisoquinoline-3-carboxylic acid; beta amino acids; gamma amino acids; Asp (tert-butyl)-OH, 3,3-diphenyl-alanine; 3,3,3 dimethylphenyl-alanine; Asp(β ethyl); Glu (β-ethyl), Asp (β-methyl), Asp (β-tert butyl), Glu (β-tert butyl), Leu (O-phosphate), Serine (O-phosphate), Serine(phosphate), leucine phosphate derivatives.

[0181] In some embodiments, the substitutions (e.g., from the luminescent protein to a portion of the signaling domain of the indicator compound) can include a substitution of any one or more of amino acids A, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, or Y to any one or more of amino acids A, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, or Y. In some embodiments, hydrophilic or nonhydrophobic amino acids are replaced by hydrophobic amino acids (including those comprising aromatic groups such as phenyl). In several embodiments, providing additional hydrophobic amino acids has been shown to improve the insensitivity of the proteins to temperature.

[0182] In several embodiments, these modifications increase the selectivity of the binding protein. The term “increased selectivity” means that the conformational change of the binding portion, as for instance detectable by a decrease of fluorescence and/or FRET between the two signaling portions of the fusion protein, is significantly reduced for at least one compound other than the desired analyte (e.g., glucose). Using glucose as an example, such other compounds may for example be sugars, i.e. mono-, di- or oligosaccharides, sugar alcohols, other carbohydrates like for instance starch or conjugates between a carbohydrate and an aglycone moiety. In several embodiments, this reduction of the conformational change (measured by, for example, comparing the change of energy emitted by the two detection portions at a concentration of 0.1 mM and 10 mM of the compound in question), is by equal to or at least about: 20%, 50%, 80%, 90%, 99%, 100%, or ranges spanning and/or including the aforementioned values. In several embodiments, the binding portion of a fusion protein of does not show any significant conformational change for at least one compound for which the corresponding wild-type binding protein shows a significant conformational change.

[0183] In some embodiments, as disclosed elsewhere herein, the indicator compound (e.g., the fusion protein, split fusion protein, etc.) comprises one or more binding proteins or binding domains, fragments, active portions, or variants of any one of the foregoing. In some embodiments, the fusion protein comprises one or more of a D-galactoside/methyl-galactoside ABC transporter periplasmic binding protein (MglB), or a binding domain, fragment, active portion thereof, and/or variant of any of the foregoing. In some embodiments, the fusion protein comprises one or more of a glucose/galactose-binding protein (GGBP) sequence or a binding domain, fragment, active portion thereof, and/or variant of any of the foregoing. In some embodiments, the fusion protein comprises one or more of a concanavalin protein, a binding domain, fragment, an active portion thereof, and/or variant of any of the foregoing.

[0184] GGBP belongs to a large family of proteins that have evolved to specifically recognize glucose/galactose molecules. The evolutionary driving force for these proteins was to help the organism migrate towards glucose; an energy source for survival of the organism, by activating chemotaxis. Given the central role of chemotaxis in survival of the organism, this protein has been conserved in many different species. These are families of glucose binding proteins found in many organisms belonging to bacteria, archea and eukaryote taxonomic groups. In several embodiments, a GGBP protein, binding domain, fragment, an active portion thereof, and/or variant of any of the foregoing is used as the analyte binding region of the indicator compound.

[0185] Concanavalin is another class of proteins that is primarily found in numerous species of bacteria and plants. Concanavalin A is specifically interesting in the application of the indicator compounds disclosed herein as it binds glucose and changes its protein structure. This change in protein structure can be utilized to design a glucose binding dependent fluorescence change either with a genetically engineered protein-based fluorescence tag or a fluorescence dye covalently attached to the protein that senses the change in environment as Concanavalin A changes its conformation due to glucose binding. This family of glucose binding proteins are found in 4251 distinct species across several taxonomic kingdoms, namely, plants, bacteria, archea, fungi and viruses. This class of proteins can potentially be swapped in place of glucose/galactose binding proteins to function as glucose detectors. In several embodiments, a Concanavalin protein, binding domain, fragment, an active portion thereof, and/or variant of any of the foregoing is used as the binding domain of the indicator compound.

[0186] Of particular interest are proteins from organisms (e.g., signaling proteins and/or binding proteins) that have evolved to survive in extreme conditions. Some of these organisms with enhanced robustness survive in high/extreme temperatures and are commonly known as thermophiles/hyperthermophiles such as Thermus Thermophilus, Sulfolobus solfataricus, Pyrolobus fumari, Thermus aquaticus, etc. among others. The glucose binding proteins found in these thermophiles/hyperthermophiles have the ability to endure extreme temperatures which increases the stability of the protein structure. This increased protein stability allows developing of a robust sensor with longevity, and signal stability essential for an implantable sensor. In several embodiments, the analyte binding protein, binding domain, fragment, an active portion thereof, and/or variant of any of the foregoing is from a thermophile or hyperthermophile. In several embodiments, having a large repertoire of glucose binding proteins allows for the flexibility to select good glucose binding segments to genetically engineer a chimeric fluorescence glucose sensor by selecting a signaling molecule (fluorescent reporter) from an equally large repertoire. In several embodiments, the indicator compounds disclosed herein have increased insensitivity to pH value and/or temperature. In several embodiments, the proteins from which the indicator compounds are derived have increased insensitivity to pH value and/or temperature. In several embodiments, the indicator compounds disclosed herein have stability. In several embodiments, the proteins from which the indicator compounds are derived have increased stability.

[0187] In some embodiments, analyte binding sequences (e.g., GGBP, concavalin, etc.) may provide the binding region of the indicator compound. In some embodiments, the analyte for these binding regions is glucose (e.g., the molecule that binds to the binding region). In some embodiments, the binding protein or binding domain thereof is modified to exclude post-translationally modified or other regions, such as the N-terminal signal peptide.

[0188] In some embodiments, the fusion protein comprises one or more of a Mg1B sequence and/or a Glucose Binding Protein Amino Acid sequence as shown in FIGS. 2B (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 2) and 3B (e.g., SEQ ID NO: 15), respectively. In other embodiments, other analyte and/or binding proteins are used (including circularly permuted versions of those proteins) including those disclosed in FIGS. 8A(1)-8A(100) (e.g., SEQ ID NOs: 122-221; concanavalin proteins) and FIGS. 9A(1)-9A(43) (e.g., SEQ ID NOs: 1704-1746; GGBP proteins from archea SEQ ID Nos: 1704-1734, GGBP proteins from fungi SEQ ID Nos: 1735-1743; GGBP proteins from plants SEQ ID Nos: 1744-1746) (as well as variants of any of the foregoing).

[0189] In some embodiments, the binding region (e.g., glucose binding region) of the indicator compounds has a sequence that is identical to that of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 15, 122-221, and/or 1704-1746 (as shown in the figures and/or the accompanying sequence listing). In some embodiments, the binding domain has a sequence that is a variant of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 15, 122-221, and/or 1704-1746. In some embodiments, the binding domain has a sequence that is independently equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) identical to that of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 15, 122-221, and/or 1704-1746. In some embodiments, the binding region has a sequence that independently shares equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) homology or similarity to that of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 15, 122-221, and/or 1704-1746. In some embodiments, the binding proteins or binding domains, fragments, or portions thereof are truncated or extended (e.g. with a linker) at the N-terminus and/or C-terminus by a number of amino acids, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 amino acids.

[0190] In some embodiments, the binding domain (e.g., sugar binding domain), one or more fragments of the binding domain, and/or a binding unit of the indicator compound independently shares equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) identity, homology, and/or similarity to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NO:2 or SEQ ID NO:15.

[0191] In some embodiments, a contiguous portion of the binding domain of the indicator compound independently shares equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) identity, homology, and/or similarity to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 15, 122-221, and/or 1704-1746. In some embodiments, a contiguous portion of the binding domain of the indicator compound independently shares equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) identity, homology, or similarity to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 3-13 and/or 16-20. In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of the indicator compound may include the entire binding domain, one or more fragments of the binding domain (e.g., binding fragments), and/or a binding unit of the signaling domain. In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 15, 122-221, and/or 1704-1746 is equal to or at least about: 200, 100, 80, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, or 10 amino acids in length (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values).

[0192] In several embodiments, the indicator compound may comprise multiple (two, three, four, etc.) contiguous portions that share the aforementioned identity values, homology values, or similarity values to contiguous portions of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 15, 122-221, and/or 1704-1746. To illustrate, the indicator compound may comprise a first contiguous portion 80 amino acids in length and that is between 90% and 100% homologous to a contiguous portion 80 amino acids in length of SEQ ID NO:15. Additionally, that indicator compound could comprise a second, different contiguous portion that is 40 amino acids in length and that is 100% identical to a second, different contiguous portion of SEQ ID NO:15 that is 40 amino acids in length.

[0193] As will be appreciated, the indicator compound may comprise single or multiple contiguous portions of both signaling and binding proteins. As an illustration, a split indicator compound having may comprise SEQ ID NO:1 split between Y143 and N144 with SEQ ID NO: 2. This structure would include a 143 amino acid contiguous segment with 100% identity to the first 143 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:1, a 332 amino acid contiguous segment with 100% identity to the 332 amino acids of SEQ ID NO: 2, and a 95 amino acid length contiguous segment with 100% identity to the second 93 amino acids of SEQ ID NO:1.

[0194] In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 2, 15, 122-221, and/or 1704-1746 optionally has 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 amino acid differences relative to the contiguous portion of the indicator compound. In some embodiments, the amino acid differences include insertions, deletions, and/or substitutions. In some embodiments, the substitutions can include a substitution of any one or more of amino acids for other amino acids. In some embodiments, amino acid substitutions are conservative or non-conservative. In some embodiments, conservative changes include those that are within one or more of these six classes shown in Table 1. In some embodiments, where amino acids are substituted, a series of non-natural amino acids (as disclosed elsewhere herein) may be used in place of natural amino acids. In some embodiments, the substitutions can include a substitution of any one or more of amino acids A, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, or Y to any one or more of amino acids A, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, or Y. In some embodiments, hydrophilic or nonhydrophobic amino acids are replaced by hydrophobic amino acids (including those comprising aromatic groups such as phenyl). In several embodiments, providing additional hydrophobic amino acids has been shown to improve the insensitivity of the proteins to temperature.

[0195] In some embodiments, the fusion proteins comprise one or more of the sequences disclosed herein (or variants thereof). In some embodiments, the indicator compounds (e.g., fusion proteins) have a sequence that is identical to that of any one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 3-13 and 16-20 (as shown in FIGS. 2C(1)-2C(11) and 3C(1)-3C(5)). In some embodiments, the indicator compounds have sequences that are independently equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% identical to that of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 3-13 and 16-20 (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, the indicator compounds have sequences that independently share equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% homology or similarity to that of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 3-13 and 16-20 (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values).

[0196] In some embodiments, a contiguous portion of the indicator compound (e.g., fusion protein) is independently equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% identical to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20 (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, a contiguous portion of the indicator compound independently shares equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% homology or similarity to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20 (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of the indicator compound is a portion of the compound that is equal to or at least about 200, 150, 100, 80, 60, 50, or 40 amino acids in length (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of SEQ ID NOS: 3-13 and 16-20 is a portion of the those proteins that is equal to or at least about: 200, 150, 100, 80, 60, 50, or 40 amino acids in length (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 3-13 or SEQ ID NOs: 16-20 optionally has 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 amino acid differences relative to the contiguous portion of the indicator compound. In some embodiments, the amino acid differences include insertions, deletions, and/or substitutions. In some embodiments, the substitutions can include a substitution of any one or more of amino acids for other amino acids. In some embodiments, amino acid substitutions are conservative or non-conservative. In some embodiments, conservative changes include those that are within one or more of these six classes shown in Table 1. In some embodiments, where amino acids are substituted, a series of non-natural amino acids (as disclosed elsewhere herein) may be used in place of natural amino acids. In some embodiments, the substitutions can include a substitution of any one or more of amino acids A, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, or Y to any one or more of amino acids A, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, or Y.

[0197] In some embodiments, as disclosed elsewhere herein, the binding region can be for an analyte other than a sugar. In some embodiments, the binding region (e.g., glucose binding region) of the indicator compounds has a sequence that is identical to that of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 824-1703 (as shown the accompanying sequence listing). In some embodiments, the binding domain has a sequence that is a variant of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 824-1703. In some embodiments, the binding domain has a sequence that is independently equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) identical to that of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 824-1703. In some embodiments, the binding region has a sequence that independently shares equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) homology or similarity to that of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 824-1703. In some embodiments, the binding proteins or binding domains, fragments, or portions thereof are truncated or extended (e.g. with a linker) at the N-terminus and/or C-terminus by a number of amino acids, such as 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 amino acids.

[0198] In some embodiments, a contiguous portion of the binding domain of the indicator compound independently shares equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) identity, homology, and/or similarity to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 824-1703. In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of the indicator compound may include the entire binding domain, one or more fragments of the binding domain (e.g., binding fragments), and/or a binding unit of the signaling domain. In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOs: 824-1703 is equal to or at least about: 200, 100, 80, 60, 50, 40, 30, 20, or 10 amino acids in length (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values).

[0199] In some embodiments, a strand of contiguous amino acids in the indicator compound (e.g., having 200, 150, 100, 50, 40, 30, 25, 20, or 10, contiguous residues, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) independently shares an identity or homology of equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) with a coinciding contiguous portion of the any one of SEQ ID NOs: 1-1746.

[0200] In some embodiments, as disclosed elsewhere herein, the binding protein (e.g., glucose binding protein) and/or binding portion of the binding protein splits (through insertion) the signaling portion and/or one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein. In other embodiments, as disclosed elsewhere herein, the signaling portion and/or one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein splits (through insertion) the binding protein (e.g., sugar binding protein) and/or binding portion of the binding protein. Where that insertion occurs along the signaling portion (and/or one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein chain) or along the binding protein (and/or binding portion of the binding protein) the position of the insertion can vary from fusion protein to fusion protein and can occur at any location so long as a conformational change occurs that allows detection of an analyte.

[0201] In some embodiments, the insertion may occur within the first 10% of the protein that is split, the second 10% of the protein that is split, the third 10% of the protein that is split, the fourth 10% of the protein that is split, the fifth 10% of the protein that is split, the sixth 10% of the protein that is split, the seventh 10% of the protein that is split, the eighth 10% of the protein that is split, the ninth 10% of the protein that is split, or the tenth 10% of the protein that is split. For instance, when the insertion is in the second 10% of a 100 amino acid length protein that is split, the insertion can occur between any one of amino acids 11 to 20. The insertion can be in a loop, a helix (e.g., an α-helix or π-helix), or in a β-strand of a β-sheet of a protein or protein fragment. The inserted portion may be inserted into the split domain at a position within the first quarter (e.g., ¼ or between the 0% and 25%) of the amino acids of the split domain, within the second quarter (e.g., between ¼ and 2/4 or between the 25% and 50%) of the amino acids of the split domain, within the third quarter (e.g., between 2/4 and ¾ or between the first 50% and 75%) of the amino acids of the split domain, or within the fourth quarter (e.g., between ¾ and 4/4 or between the first 75% and 100%) of the amino acids of the split domain.

[0202] In some embodiments, the fluorescent molecule is citrine, or a fluorescent fragment or portion thereof. In some embodiments, citrine is split at a position within the following amino acid sequence NRIELKGIDFKEDGNILGHKLEYNYNSHNV. In some embodiments, citrine is split after Y144 (or Y143 of SEQ ID NO: 1, which is lacking the first methionine). In some embodiments, the analyte binding protein is a glucose/galactose-binding protein (GGBP), or an analyte binding fragment or portion thereof. In some embodiments, where GGBP is of SEQ ID NO: 2, the GGBP is split at a position within the following amino acid sequence DGTNWKIDNKVVRVPYVGVDKDNLAEFSKK. In some embodiments, GGBP is split after P317 of SEQ ID NO: 2 (or P295 of SEQ ID NO: 15, which is lacking the N-terminal signal peptide sequence). Where variants of citrine or GGBP are used, the region that is split may have sequences that are independently equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% identical to those of NRIELKGIDFKEDGNILGHKLEYNYNSHNV or DGTNWKIDNKVVRVPYVGVDKDN-LAEFSKK (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). Where variants of citrine or GGBP are used, the region that is split may have sequences that independently share at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% homology or similarity to those of NRIELKGIDFKEDGNILGHKLEYNYNSHNV or DGTNWKIDNKVVRVPYVGVDKDN-LAEFSKK (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values).

[0203] In some embodiments, the indicator compound comprises one or more of the following proteins (as identified by their UniProt number), an indicating portion thereof, or a binding portion thereof: P02916, P68183, P0AEX7, P0A9K7, P33650, P0AFF4, P0A9S7, P0A830, P31547, P14176, P0ABV2, P46133, P0ABU7, P23847, P0AFT2, P15993, P0AFF2, P64604, P0AD99, P43671, P21345, P22729, P10384, P0ABB8, P64602, P64606, P0AE95, P30859, P06611, P0A6E6, P17315, P27254, P0AEA2, P75712, P0AAF3, P0AAE5, P31224, P52697, P0AAF6, P0A940, P0ADP5, P0AB93, P76345, P32705, P37019, P32720, P32721, P45955, P0AE16, P0ABC9, P0AB98, P30860, P0AE30, P0ABE5, P76175, P39180, P0AE98, P0AE06, P0AE56, P31553, P39265, P36548, P0ABA6, P0ABD3, P46481, P77610, P0ABB4, P75733, P24177, P69856, P63020, P07014, P0AG96, P0AAB2, Q47706, Q46909, P45769, P21829, P0AAA7, P77328, Q46819, Q46892, P0AGM9, P0AFQ2, P76344, P75683, P0ABD1, P77716, P39832, P39830, P0AA49, P0AFR7, P67444, Q46905, P0AA73, P39325, P0A9T8, P0AG90, P77223, P25396, P77529, P77504, P27837, P0AG80, P09835, P77726, Q46908, P0AGA6, P77315, P0AFP9, P76655, P43531, P45394, P37662, P37660, P43667, P0A850, P0AGG4, P39263, P37197, P75693, P46136, P45767, P10907, P75750, P0CE44, P75783, P52102, P0AD03, P39414, P76269, P0ADZ7, P37674, P0AA63, P77269, Q46833, P36879, P45537, P60869, P33011, P63340, P31437, P77519, P63389, P32135, P0AEB5, P69820, P45766, P37642, P39172, P0AA70, P76335, P32137, P76115, P56256, P77536, P42915, P31435, P52005, P76272, P76042, P45768, P31436, P39301, P77400, P0AGM0, P37388, P07604, Q46863, P76630, P37387, P0AA57, P23173, P0AFV2, P0A927, P37643, P0A9U3, P37621, P0AGC0, P75757, P37676, P0AFN6, P37675, P75763, P0AGH1, Q46834, P10906, P0ABT8, P39328, P39321, P31135, P31549, P0AFY6, P31679, P0AAH4, P77714, P33941, P46121, P36881, P20966, P69816, P33913, P76628, P0AEY8, P24241, P02930, P0A766, P77795, P45562, P39901, P0A9X1, P58035, C1P5Z7, P10905, P52052, P0AA25, P39365, P33361, P33362, P0A710, P39277, P02929, P65367, P60778, P76356, P37188, P75835, P0AAL9, P0A853, P43672, Q46871, P0AFZ7, P0AG93, P0AGA2, P0AGI4, P52636, P37774, P0A930, P31448, P76350, P0AGH3, P0A855, P31122, P76224, P30143, P00550, P02925, P0AGF4, P75870, P25714, P0AFS7, P33915, P0DP21, P33359, P45420, P0AAD4, P37619, P76186, P33360, P0AF43, P77481, P0AA60, P37327, P0AAH8, P69822, Q46821, P77156, P75788, P75810, P25747, P0AFR9, P76173, P76909, P0AAT4, P69210, P45762, P04983, P00448, P76201, P39352, P39357, P77179, P77611, P0AGH5, P77378, P0AC98, P21503, P52647, P32154, P77272, P33024, P0ABW3, P77409, P0AFU2, P0AFU0, P07001, P69826, P77285, P77228, P39282, P37772, P38055, P33916, Q47539, P77499, P24207, P64559, P0AAI1, P31675, P10408, P76352, P0AG78, P0AAD8, Q47622, P42910, P77439, P76182, P76037, P37177, P0AGI8, P08722, P77338, P33594, P0AC41, P0AAD6, P0AFS5, P76027, P0A8T1, P76470, P77468, Q47689, P76399, P09348, P23482, P0ADC6, P31134, P76045, P0AC96, P0AG38, P76197, P0AGM7, P39386, P77682, P31826, P77389, P33341, P76230, P0ADD5, P76108, P0A754, P19934, P0AG99, P75851, P77549, P75853, P37440, P0AGE4, P76417, P77196, P76198, P0AD30, P38101, P0A910, P37597, P0ADD2, P11350, P69434, P43676, P32136, P32703, P39836, P0AG86, P33026, P31126, P0AAJ1, P67729, P0A8H3, P0AAK7, P37746, P76425, P69824, P13445, P56579, P69811, P31548, P76278, P64423, P42911, P69831, P0ABU9, P0AF06, P69428, P33021, P36672, P0ADE4, P0AGH8, P09836, P0A9U1, P42590, Q46907, Q6BEX0, P0AEF8, P77031, P0AFJ7, P0AA67, P0ABV6, P37617, P60872, P77509, Q46832, P06996, P42909, P77579, P76773, P27125, P27844, P09323, P69783, P0AFL1, P0AFL9, P0AFJ5, Q46877, P0COL7, P31133, P0ADL1, P32670, P08839, P13738, P19642, P0ABL5, P0AFA9, P33602, P32676, Q47538, P0AAE2, P0AFA2, P29745, P19319, P21420, P32672, P69789, P23849, P41442, P08400, P0AA04, P42905, P36929, P33226, P75892, P69425, P0AG82, P09378, P56580, P69786, P69423, P39363, P0AFF0, P31550, P75831, P02932, P0A7N1, Q47537, P0A843, P0AFK9, P38683, P0AAM1, P17583, P37340, P0A9V1, P25737, P0ACK2, P31069, P0AFC3, P54745, P36646, P16685, P16256, P16677, P39285, P16678, P77589, P69212, P33231, P75742, P39835, P0A6X7, P41443, P45763, P16682, P0DP70, P60061, P46846, P31474, P39398, P0ADV, A5A616, P37028, P33129, P0AAG5, P0ACJ0, P22731, P0AFH6, P15030, P16869, P68688, P64638, P0AD96, P25527, P77672, P37595, P23200, P75824, P0ABN5, P77308, P75857, P0AFS1, P06972, P0AEL6, P25744, P45756, P63386, P45757, P36937, P0AE63, P0AEE5, P13669, P75958, P39276, P15029, P0AEL3, P37349, P37902, P0ABL8, P0ABA4, P0ABM, P0AC59, P0AER5, P0AC62, P0A712, P0ADV7, P07654, P69797, P69805, P0AG34, P05706, P0A915, P69791, P17334, P0AFE8, P0AFA7, P0AC65, P69828, P33607, P69801, P0AAZ4, P69795, P0AAG0, P32714, P16432, P75826, P0AGIl, P32155, P04982, P31452, P0A742, P02931, P69808, P0COS1, P11349, P37758, P60752, P0A9F1, P0A996, P42628, P37329, P0A759, P33590, P0AFK4, P0AFH2, P0AFK6, P77423, P63183, P16429, P42904, P19318, P0AB10, P07117, P77348, P0AFE4, P37624, P0AAK1, P03817, P23930, P0A9I5, P16684, P0ABK9, P77737, P09833, P0ABA0, P52599, P24169, P76242, P0A9G8, P23843, P0AEG1, P77257, P14175, P69874, P75901, P39344, P03960, P75830, P08189, P0A9A9, P52094, P36645, P0AFM2, P41036, P33591, P76264, P08190, P31462, P76398, P31554, Q47142, P75797, P0A6M2, P0ACK5, P75798, P52074, P45758, P45522, P38038, P16701, P0AF52, P0AAI3, P77279, P0AEX3, P68699, P03959, P76249, P0AE74, P75681, P77307, P32715, P75957, P69367, P29018, P38135, P0AC94, P03961, P37180, P0A9R7, P76552, P69451, P0ADC3, P0AF98, P16700, P06149, P0AEQ6, P52612, P76014, P0AEP, P76343, P09152, P0A769, P0A6T1, P10903, P0AF16, P33593, P0AAL3, P33937, P0AF0, P0ABL3, P0AAD2, P0AAH0, P77747, P45761, P75796, P68187, P02921, P76081, P76078, P39396, P23895, P07109, Q46916, P60664, P0DP69, P31060, P33599, P36837, P23485, P23878, P76555, P0AB24, P23481, P41441, P31442, P63235, P37339, P0AFI9, P0AFK2, P0AEU0, P24232, P37637, P45759, P0AEX9, P0ABB0, P0ABJ1, P61949, P0ABL1, P33934, P0AC26, P0AFC7, P37002, P36678, P04816, P76007, P0ADC1, P08200, P00634, P0AF32, P40191, P0AA47, P0AEU3, P76397, P0AAF1, P52600, P0ABJ9, P02920, P64550, P0ABK2, P0ABN9, P23876, P26266, P76128, P0A8V6, P0AC47, P76299, P0AAE0, P45539, P77211, P0ABT5, P0AC23, P45428, P60566, P77622, P76298, P0A6J3, P77463, P77268, P0AE26, P69681, P27303, P0A998, P0ABP3, P09394, P0A9R4, P69490, P26459, P0AC02, P0ABM5, P33931, P56100, P0AAE8, Q46839, P24180, P0A901, P75925, P0AAW9, P09551, P0AA82, Q47377, P36655, P39196, P0A756, P45760, P02943, P03819, P77304, P69054, P0ABW0, P37195, P0AAJ3, P26648, P07822, P0ABJ3, P0AEQ3, P06971, P00393, P0AA76, P68646, P22255, P0AEB0, P36554, P34749, P03841, P31125, P08194, P0ABG4, P37636, P0AFR2, P54746, P28635, P0AAG8, P61320, P0ADV9, P75799, P76506, P76474, P06609, P31466, P31574, P31068, P15028, P69380, P77265, P16676, P30750, P25960, P0AAK4, P06989, P39163, P24181, P38054, P32716, P61316, P08555, P0ABI8, P68644, P0AF61, P23484, P0AA78, P0A9A2, P29131, P0AEL0, P37313, P0AEJ0, P23877, P77733, P0AC05, P0AAJ5, P52613, P0C8J8, P0AEK7, P0AER0, P69937, P18777, P16703, P23910, P0A8S1, P76460, P36930, P31440, P06129, P26218, P76015, P0A9E0, P31545, P10346, P77239, P75780, P07821, P00363, P0ABC0, P0AEN1, P0ABY4, P11551, P27296, P11667, P15078, P10378, P0AE12, Q46817, P15031, P0C8J6, P05825, P63883, P06610, Q59385, P31801, P30130, P0AAG3, P28246, P0ABJ6, P46482, P60844, P0AEM9, P0AE34, P0A932, P0ABI4, P37009, P24077, P52067, P26458, P77802, P0AA80, P23886, P13039, P0AER8, P0AE78, P0AE24, P13036, P02924, P69922, P18776, P0AER3, P0AC44, luminescing or fluorescing fragments of any of the foregoing, portions of any of the foregoing, or variants of any of the foregoing. In some embodiments, the indicator compounds (e.g., fusion proteins) comprise one or more of proteins having a sequence that is independently equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% identical to that of any one of the proteins as identified by their UniProt number herein (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, the indicator compounds (e.g., fusion proteins) comprise one or more of proteins that independently share equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% homology or similarity to that of any one of the proteins as identified by their UniProt number herein (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, a contiguous portion of the indicator compound (e.g., fusion protein) is independently equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% identical to a contiguous portion of to any one of the proteins as identified by their UniProt number herein (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, a contiguous portion of the indicator compound independently shares equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% homology or similarity to a contiguous portion of to any one of the proteins as identified by their UniProt number herein (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of the indicator compound is a portion of the compound that is equal to or at least about: 200, 150, 100, 80, 60, 50, or 40 amino acids in length (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of a protein as identified by its UniProt number herein (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) is a portion of the those proteins that is equal to or at least about: 200, 150, 100, 80, 60, 50, or 40 amino acids in length (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of a protein as identified by its UniProt number herein optionally has 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 amino acid differences relative to the contiguous portion of the indicator compound. In some embodiments, the amino acid differences include insertions, deletions, and/or substitutions. In some embodiments, the substitutions can include a substitution of any one or more of amino acids for other amino acids. In some embodiments, amino acid substitutions are conservative or non-conservative. In some embodiments, conservative changes include those that are within one or more of these six classes shown in Table 1. In some embodiments, where amino acids are substituted, a series of non-natural amino acids (as disclosed elsewhere herein) may be used in place of natural amino acids. In some embodiments, the substitutions can include a substitution of any one or more of amino acids A, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, or Y to any one or more of amino acids A, C, D, E, F, G, H, I, K, L, M, N, P, Q, R, S, T, V, W, or Y. In some embodiments, a strand of contiguous amino acids in the indicator compound (e.g., having 200, 150, 100, 50, 40, 30, 25, 20, or 10, contiguous residues, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) independently shares an identity or homology of equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) with a coinciding contiguous portion of a protein as identified by its UniProt number herein.

[0204] As an alternative to fully genetically engineered glucose binding fluorescent proteins, fluorescent dyes can be covalently attached to binding domains of the indicator compound (e.g., proteins, such as, GGBP or Concanavalin A). These dyes may be bonded as a subsequent step after purifying binding proteins from their respective protein expression systems. In some embodiments, this would involve engineering a covalent binding site such as cysteine, lysine, arginine, glutamic acid, aspartic acid residues on a specific site on the glucose binding domain in such a manner that the conformational changes in the protein due to analyte (e.g., glucose) binding are picked up as fluorescence changes on that covalently attached dye. In some embodiments, dyes are specifically picked to sense such environment changes with conformational changes in the protein. In general, these dyes change their fluorescent propensities depending on the polarity of their environments.

[0205] Exemplary dyes include but are not limited to indole, Cascade Yellow, Prodan, Dansyl, Dapoxyl, (2-(4-nitro-2,1,3-benzoxadiazol-7-yl)) (NBD), 1-(3-carboxybenzyl)-4-(5-(4-methoxyphenyl)oxazol-2-yl)pyridiniumbromide (PyMPO), Pyrene and diethylaminocumarin are such chemical groups that exhibit this property. Based on these chemical moieties, there are a large range of fluorescent dyes that has been developed commercially to site specifically attach to the previously mentioned binding sites on protein, namely, thiol-reactive for Cysteine, amine-reactive for Lysine and Arginine residues, carboxylic acid-reactive for aspartic acid and glutamic acid residues. These reactions can include coupling reactions with, for example, carbodiimides, such as EDC.

[0206] Apart from simply detecting change in fluorescence, another phenomenon called FRET (Förster resonance energy transfer) can be alternately used to detect the conformation changes in binding proteins (e.g., glucose binding proteins such as GGBP or Concanavalin A). FRET is a property in which the energy of the excited electron of one fluorescent dye, called the donor, is passed on to a nearby acceptor fluorescent dye, which has an excitation spectrum which overlaps with the emission spectrum of the donor dye resulting in a reduced fluorescence of the donor, while increased fluorescence of the acceptor. This can be used to detect changes in conformation of the protein by carefully engineering the fluorescent sites on the analyte (e.g., glucose) binding proteins. FRET is versatile enough to accommodate the use of either fluorescent dyes or fluorescent proteins (GFP). Commercially there are a large repertoire of FRET pairs for both fluorescent dyes, including but not limited to Cy3-Cy5, Fluorescein-Tetramethylrhodamine, IAEDANS-Fluorescein, EDANS-Dabcyl, etc. and fluorescent proteins (CFP-YFP, GFP-RFP). It is noted here that each pairs have an unique optimal distance between the acceptor and donor fluorescence. The modular design of the sites of attachment of acceptor and donor allows developing such FRET based glucose sensors.

[0207] General characteristics of stable protein based analyte (e.g., glucose) sensors include one or more of the following (or other properties): Presence of extra hydrogen bonding interactions, rich in electrostatics based salt-bridges, rich in extra disulfide bridges within the core of the protein, higher levels of hydrophobic amino acids that stabilize the protein core. The stability of analyte (e.g., glucose) binding proteins will translate to greater stability of the constructed analyte (e.g., glucose) sensors. The above general characteristics of a protein decreases the unfolding rate of any soluble protein. By scanning the variants of GGBP protein in other organisms, especially the species that are classified as extremophiles that have evolved in extreme temperatures, pH conditions, high salt concentrations, high pressure, ionizing radiation etc. will help in choosing the optimal glucose sensor developing a sensor.

[0208] As disclosed herein, this application of glucose binding proteins to build glucose sensors can be extended to other analytes. There are the large group proteins that bind various analytes (including those provided in the UniProt listing elsewhere herein). These glucose binding proteins can be swapped out for other analyte binding proteins to extend this application to detecting other analytes. In some embodiments, the indicator compounds can be used for in vivo, ex vivo, and/or in vitro analyte measurements. In some embodiments, the analyte may comprise any molecule of interest (e.g., sugars, a metabolite such as NADPH, heavy metals, Ca²⁺, sodium, potassium, chloride, iron, copper, zinc, magnesium, phosphorus, urea, creatinine, phosphate, O₂, CO₂, bicarbonate, cholesterol, HDL, LDL, triglyceride, C-reactive protein, TSH, PTH, thyroxine, triiodothyronine, albumin, globulin, immunoglobulin, bilirubin, AFP, HCG, carcinoembryonic antigen, PSA, PAP, calcitonin, testosterone, dihydrotestosterone, progesterone, FSH, LH, estradiol, cortisol, growth hormone, aldosterone, vitamin A, vitamin B, vitamin C, vitamin D, vitamin E, lead, ethanol, LDH, or amylase, or any combination thereof), which may be used to determine a feature of the environment in which the indicator compound is located. For example, in some embodiments, the analyte is a proton (e.g., H⁺) and the feature of the environment that is measured is the pH. In some embodiments, as disclosed elsewhere herein, the analyte is glucose. Thus, the indicator can be used to measure blood glucose in, for example, a diabetic, pre-diabetic, or non-diabetic patient. In several embodiments, the analyte is ligand that binds to an E. coli transporter protein, such as those of SEQ ID NOs: 824-1703.

[0209] Further, based on general protein architecture of periplasmic binding proteins, one can rationally design or artificially direct-evolution such that these proteins can develop binding capabilities to other analytes. Peptides or proteins of the present embodiments can be produced and obtained by various methods. For example, the peptide may be produced by genetic engineering, based on the nucleotide sequence coding for the peptide of the present embodiments, or chemically synthesized by means of peptide solid-phase synthesis and the like, or produced and obtained in their combination. One skilled in the art of solid-phase peptide synthesis can readily incorporate natural or non-natural amino acids in the (D) as well as (L), or the (R) as well as (S), stereochemical configuration. The peptides of the present embodiments may be linear or cyclic, and may include (D) as well as (L) amino acids. Peptides of the present embodiments may also contain one or more rare amino acids (such as 4 hydroxyproline or hydroxylysine), organic acids or amides and/or derivatives of common amino acids, such as amino acids having the C terminal carboxylate esterified (e.g., benzyl, methyl or ethyl ester) or amidated and/or having modifications of the N terminal amino group (e.g., acetylation or alkoxycarbonylamino), with or without any of a wide variety of side chain modifications and/or substitutions (e.g., methylation, benzylation, t butylation, tosylation, alkoxycarbonylamino, and the like). Residues other than common amino acids that may be present include, but are not limited to, penicillamine, tetramethylene cysteine, pentamethylene cysteine, mercaptopropionic acid, pentamethylene-mercaptopropionic acid, 2 mercaptobenzene, 2 mercaptoaniline, 2 mercaptoproline, ornithine, diaminobutyric acid, aminoadipic acid, m aminomethylbenzoic acid, and diaminopropionic acid. Peptides of the present embodiments can be produced and obtained by various methods known to those skilled in the art. For example, the peptide may be produced by genetic engineering, based on the nucleotide sequence coding for the peptide of the present embodiments, or chemically synthesized by means of peptide solid-phase synthesis and the like, or produced and obtained in their combination.

[0210] Some embodiments pertain to the nucleic acid sequences that translate to one or more proteins having the sequence of SEQ ID Nos: 1-20 or 33-1746 or to fusion proteins (e.g., split indicator compounds) comprising multiple proteins of SEQ ID Nos: 1-20 or 33-1746. It is envisioned that multiple nucleic acids sequences can be translated to the proteins disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid sequences differ by codons that encode for the same amino acid. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid sequences are codon optimized for a certain organism, such as a human, mouse, rat, rabbit, dog, cat, horse, goat, pig, chicken, fungus, yeast, bacteria, or protozoan.

[0211] As disclosed elsewhere herein, certain embodiments pertain to indicator compounds with enhanced stability. Several GGBP proteins are sensitive to pH changes. In view of these findings, GGBP proteins from were generated and screened for novel properties, i.e. a higher selectivity for glucose and/or an increased insensitivity to pH changes. In some embodiments, GGBP fusion proteins in which histidines were modified so that their side chain cannot be protonated are considerably more insensitive to pH. Truncations also may improve stability to pH.

[0212] In some embodiments, the fusion protein further comprises one or more linker peptides connecting the first and/or the second signaling portions to the binding portion (or the first and/or the second binding portions to the signaling portion, as the case may be). Such linker peptides may in principle have any length and amino acid sequence which ensures that they do not interfere negatively with the analyte detection function of the fusion protein. In several embodiments, the linker includes equal to or greater than about: 1 amino acid, 3 amino acids, 5 amino acids, 10 amino acids, 15 amino acids, 25 amino acids, 35 amino acids, 50 amino acids, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values. In several embodiments, any amino acid can be used. In several embodiments, the linker is mainly or only composed of hydrophilic amino acid residues, such as glycine, alanine, threonine and/or serine residues.

[0213] Some embodiments also relate to nucleotide sequences encoding fusion proteins and/or indicator compounds as well as methods of delivering those sequences to organisms such that those indicator compounds are expressed. In addition, some embodiments relate to methods for detecting an analyte in a sample or in a cell using said fusion protein, and optionally, a control sensor allowing a calibration of analyte detection made by said fusion protein. In some embodiments, the control sensor and nucleic acid molecules encoding it are disclosed, as well as to diagnostic compositions, kits, and uses of the fusion protein and the control sensor for in vitro or in vivo analyte detection and for preparing a diagnostic composition.

[0214] In some embodiments, the nucleotides encoding the indicator compounds have a sequence that is identical to that of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 21-33 (as shown in FIGS. 4A(1)-5A(5)). In some embodiments, the indicator compounds have sequences that are independently equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% identical to that of any one of SEQ ID NOs: 21-33 (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). Some embodiments pertain to any nucleic acid that can hybridize a portion of these sequences under moderate or highly stringent conditions.

[0215] In some embodiments, a contiguous portion of the DNA encoding the indicator compound is at least equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) identical to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33. In some embodiments, a contiguous portion of the DNA encoding the indicator compound shares equal to or at least about: 60%, 70%, 80%, 85%, 86%, 87%, 88%, 89%, 90%, 91%, 92%, 93%, 94%, 95%, 96%, 97%, 98%, 99%, 99.9%, 99.99%, or 100% (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values) homology or similarity to a contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33. In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of the DNA encoding the indicator compound is equal to or at least about 200, 150, 100, 80, 60, 50, or 40 nucleotides in length (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values). In some embodiments, the contiguous portion of one or more of SEQ ID NOS: 21-33 is a portion of the those DNAs that is equal to or at least about 200, 150, 100, 80, 60, 50, or 40 nucleotides in length (or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values).

[0216] Some embodiments relate to expression cassettes comprising nucleic acid molecules as disclosed elsewhere herein (e.g., SEQ ID NOS: 21-33, etc.) and/or nucleic acids transcribing the proteins disclosed herein (e.g., SEQ ID NOs: 1-20 and 34-1746). In some embodiments, the nucleic acid molecules are operably linked to control sequences allowing expression in prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells. Suitable expression control sequences include promoters that are applicable in the target host organism. Such promoters are well known to the person skilled in the art for diverse hosts from prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms and are described in the literature. For example, such promoters can be isolated from naturally occurring genes or can be synthetic or chimeric promoters. Likewise, the promoter can already be present in the target genome and will be linked to the nucleic acid molecule by a suitable technique known in the art, such as for example homologous recombination.

[0217] In some embodiments, the vectors are suitable for the transformation of fungal cells, plant cells, cells of microorganisms (i.e. bacteria, protists, yeasts, algae etc.) or animal cells, in particular mammalian cells. In some embodiments, such vectors are suitable for the transformation of human cells. In addition to the nucleic acid molecule or expression cassette, the vector may contain further genes such as marker genes which allow for the selection of said vector in a suitable host cell and under suitable conditions. Generally, the vector also contains one or more origins of replication. Advantageously, the nucleic acid molecules contained in the vectors may be operably linked to expression control sequences allowing expression, i.e. ensuring transcription and synthesis of a translatable RNA, in prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells.

[0218] In one aspect, the expression of the nucleic acid molecules in prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells is interesting because it permits a more precise characterization of the function of the fusion protein encoded by these molecules. In addition, it is possible to insert different additional mutations into the nucleic acid molecules by methods usual in molecular biology (see for instance Sambrook and Russell (2001), Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, CSH Press), leading to the synthesis of proteins possibly having modified properties, e.g. as concerns binding affinity or energy emission (e.g. RET) efficiency. In this regard, it is possible to mutate the nucleic acid molecules present in the vector by inserting or deleting coding sequences or to introduce amino acid substitutions by replacing the corresponding codon triplets.

[0219] For genetic engineering, e.g. in prokaryotic cells, the nucleic acid molecules or parts of these molecules can be introduced into plasmids which permit mutagenesis or sequence modification by recombination of DNA sequences. Standard methods (see Sambrook and Russell (2001), Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, CSH Press) allow base exchanges to be performed or natural or synthetic sequences to be added. DNA fragments can be connected to each other by applying adapters and linkers to the fragments. Moreover, engineering measures which provide suitable restriction sites or remove surplus DNA or restriction sites can be used. In those cases, in which insertions, deletions or substitutions are possible, in vitro mutagenesis, “primer repair”, restriction or ligation can be used. In general, sequence analysis, restriction analysis and other methods of biochemistry and molecular biology are carried out as analysis methods.

[0220] The term “identity” refers to a relationship between the sequences of two or more polypeptide molecules or two or more nucleic acid molecules, as determined by aligning and comparing the sequences. “Percent identity” means the percent of identical residues between the amino acids or nucleotides in the compared molecules and is calculated based on the size of the smallest of the molecules being compared. For these calculations, gaps in alignments (if any) are preferably addressed by a particular mathematical model or computer program (i.e., an “algorithm”). Methods that can be used to calculate the identity of the aligned nucleic acids or polypeptides include those described in Computational Molecular Biology, (Lesk, A. M., ed.), 1988, New York: Oxford University Press; Biocomputing Informatics and Genome Projects, (Smith, D. W., ed.), 1993, New York: Academic Press; Computer Analysis of Sequence Data, Part I, (Griffin, A. M., and Griffin, H. G., eds.), 1994, New Jersey: Humana Press; von Heinje, G., 1987, Sequence Analysis in Molecular Biology, New York: Academic Press; Sequence Analysis Primer, (Gribskov, M. and Devereux, J., eds.), 1991, New York: M. Stockton Press; and Carillo et al., 1988, SIAM J. Applied Math. 48:1073.

[0221] In calculating percent identity, the sequences being compared are typically aligned in a way that gives the largest match between the sequences. One example of a computer program that can be used to determine percent identity is the GCG program package, which includes GAP (Devereux et al., 1984, Nucl. Acid Res. 12:387; Genetics Computer Group, University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.). The computer algorithm GAP is used to align the two polypeptides or polynucleotides for which the percent sequence identity is to be determined. The sequences are aligned for optimal matching of their respective amino acid or nucleotide (the “matched span”, as determined by the algorithm). A gap opening penalty (which is calculated as 3.times.the average diagonal, wherein the “average diagonal” is the average of the diagonal of the comparison matrix being used; the “diagonal” is the score or number assigned to each perfect amino acid match by the particular comparison matrix) and a gap extension penalty (which is usually 1/10 times the gap opening penalty), as well as a comparison matrix such as PAM 250 or BLOSUM 62 are used in conjunction with the algorithm. In certain embodiments, a standard comparison matrix (see, Dayhoff et al., 1978, Atlas of Protein Sequence and Structure 5:345-352 for the PAM 250 comparison matrix; Henikoff et al., 1992, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 89:10915-10919 for the BLOSUM 62 comparison matrix) is also used by the algorithm.

[0222] Examples of parameters that can be employed in determining percent identity for polypeptides or nucleotide sequences using the GAP program are the following: Algorithm: Needleman et al., 1970, J. Mol. Biol. 48:443-453 Comparison matrix: BLOSUM 62 from Henikoff et al., 1992, supra Gap Penalty: 12 (but with no penalty for end gaps) Gap Length Penalty: 4 Threshold of Similarity: 0.

[0223] Certain alignment schemes for aligning two amino acid sequences may result in matching of only a short region of the two sequences, and this small aligned region may have very high sequence identity even though there is no significant relationship between the two full-length sequences. Accordingly; the selected alignment method (GAP program) can be adjusted if so desired to result in an alignment that spans at least 50 or other number of contiguous amino acids of the target polypeptide.

[0224] As used herein and as described elsewhere herein, the twenty conventional (e.g., naturally occurring) amino acids and their abbreviations follow conventional usage. See Immunology—A Synthesis (2nd Edition, E. S. Golub and D. R. Gren, Eds., Sinauer Associates, Sunderland, Mass. (1991)), which is incorporated herein by reference for any purpose. Stereoisomers (e.g., D-amino acids) of the twenty conventional amino acids, unnatural amino acids such as .alpha.-,.alpha.-disubstituted amino acids, N-alkyl amino acids, lactic acid, and other unconventional amino acids can also be suitable components for polypeptides of the present invention. Examples of unconventional amino acids include: 4-hydroxyproline, .gamma.-carboxyglutamate, .epsilon.-N,N,N-trimethyllysine, .epsilon.-N-acetyllysine, O-phosphoserine, N-acetylserine, N-formylmethionine, 3-methylhistidine, 5-hydroxylysine, .sigma.-N-methylarginine, and other similar amino acids and imino acids (e.g., 4-hydroxyproline). In the polypeptide notation used herein, the left-hand direction is the amino terminal direction and the right-hand direction is the carboxy-terminal direction, in accordance with standard usage and convention.

[0225] Similarly, unless specified otherwise, the left-hand end of single-stranded polynucleotide sequences is the 5′ end; the left-hand direction of double-stranded polynucleotide sequences is referred to as the 5′ direction. The direction of 5′ to 3′ addition of nascent RNA transcripts is referred to as the transcription direction; sequence regions on the DNA strand having the same sequence as the RNA and which are 5′ to the 5′ end of the RNA transcript are referred to as “upstream sequences”; sequence regions on the DNA strand having the same sequence as the RNA and which are 3′ to the 3′ end of the RNA transcript are referred to as “downstream sequences.”

[0226] Conservative amino acid substitutions can encompass non-naturally occurring amino acid residues, which are typically incorporated by chemical peptide synthesis rather than by synthesis in biological systems. These include peptidomimetics and other reversed or inverted forms of amino acid moieties.

[0227] As disclosed elsewhere herein, naturally occurring residues can be divided into classes based on common side chain properties:

• • [0228] 1) hydrophobic: norleucine, Met, Ala, Val, Leu, Ile;
  • [0229] 2) neutral hydrophilic: Cys, Ser, Thr, Asn, Gln;
  • [0230] 3) acidic: Asp, Glu;
  • [0231] 4) basic: His, Lys, Arg;
  • [0232] 5) residues that influence chain orientation: Gly, Pro; and
  • [0233] 6) aromatic: Trp, Tyr, Phe.

[0234] For example, non-conservative substitutions can involve the exchange of a member of one of these classes for a member from another class. Such substituted residues can be introduced, for example, into regions of a human antibody that are homologous with non-human antibodies, or into the non-homologous regions of the molecule.

[0235] In making changes to the protein domains specified herein, according to certain embodiments, the hydropathic index of amino acids can be considered. Each amino acid has been assigned a hydropathic index on the basis of its hydrophobicity and charge characteristics. They are: isoleucine (+4.5); valine (+4.2); leucine (+3.8); phenylalanine (+2.8); cysteine/cystine (+2.5); methionine (+1.9); alanine (+1.8); glycine (−0.4); threonine (−0.7); serine (−0.8); tryptophan (−0.9); tyrosine (−1.3); proline (−1.6); histidine (−3.2); glutamate (−3.5); glutamine (−3.5); aspartate (−3.5); asparagine (−3.5); lysine (−3.9); and arginine (−4.5).

[0236] The importance of the hydropathic amino acid index in conferring interactive biological function on a protein is understood in the art. Kyte et al., J. Mol. Biol., 157:105-131 (1982). It is known that certain amino acids can be substituted for other amino acids having a similar hydropathic index or score and still retain a similar biological activity. In making changes based upon the hydropathic index, in certain embodiments, the substitution of amino acids whose hydropathic indices are within ±2 is included. In certain embodiments, those which are within ±1 are included, and in certain embodiments, those within ±0.5 are included.

[0237] It is also understood in the art that the substitution of like amino acids can be made effectively on the basis of hydrophilicity, particularly where the biologically functional protein or peptide thereby created is intended for use in immunological embodiments, as in the present case. In certain embodiments, the greatest local average hydrophilicity of a protein, as governed by the hydrophilicity of its adjacent amino acids, correlates with its immunogenicity and antigenicity, i.e., with a biological property of the protein.

[0238] The following hydrophilicity values have been assigned to these amino acid residues: arginine (+3.0); lysine (+3.0); aspartate (+3.0±1); glutamate (+3.0±1); serine (+0.3); asparagine (+0.2); glutamine (+0.2); glycine (0); threonine (−0.4); proline (−0.5±1); alanine (−0.5); histidine (−0.5); cysteine (−1.0); methionine (−1.3); valine (−1.5); leucine (−1.8); isoleucine (−1.8); tyrosine (−2.3); phenylalanine (−2.5) and tryptophan (−3.4). In making changes based upon similar hydrophilicity values, in certain embodiments, the substitution of amino acids whose hydrophilicity values are within ±2 is included, in certain embodiments, those which are within ±1 are included, and in certain embodiments, those within ±0.5 are included. One can also identify epitopes from primary amino acid sequences on the basis of hydrophilicity. These regions are also referred to as “epitopic core regions.”

Devices

[0239] Some embodiments pertain to a device that may comprise one or more indicator compounds as disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the device is a sensor, as shown in FIG. 10A. In some embodiments, the sensor 500 is implanted into the body of a subject in need of monitoring and/or treatment (e.g., a diabetic patient, a pre-diabetic patient, or another patient in need of monitoring). In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 10A, the sensor is an implant. In some embodiments, the sensor 500 that is inserted under the epidermis 600 and into the dermis 601. In some embodiments, an indicator compound 503 of the sensor allows the detection of an analyte 600 (e.g., glucose) and/or allows quantification of an amount of an analyte. In some embodiments, the sensor may be interrogated with electromagnetic radiation (e.g., an optical signal such as light radiation). In some embodiments, an optical signal 504″ (e.g., fluorescence) is used to illuminate the sensor 500. In some embodiments, as disclosed elsewhere herein, the illuminated sensor 500 provides fluoresces to provide a return optical signal 504″. In some embodiments, the optical signal 504″ generated by the sensor 500 may be detected transcutaneously (e.g., through the skin and/or via the upper layers of the skin). In some embodiments, for example, a interrogating device 502 is used to illuminate the sensor through the skin. In some embodiments, the interrogating device 502 is also (or alternatively) used to collect a signal 504″ from the sensor through the skin. In some embodiments, this configuration allows direct communication between the sensor 500 to the external environment. For example, the patient may bring the interrogating device into proximity to the sensor at which point the interrogating device interrogates the sensor to provide data regarding the amount of the analyte present. In some embodiments, this is a particular advantageous in connection with the long-term care of diabetic patients. In some embodiments, once the sensor 500 is in place within and/or under the skin, readings of the analyte are read as often as needed (e.g., by a user including the patient, medical personnel, etc.). In some embodiments, the sensor allows frequent reading of analyte (e.g., glucose) measurement and more precise control of the analyte levels (e.g., blood glucose levels) in the body. For example, by providing more continuous measurement of glucose levels, high glucose levels can be better avoided. Avoiding the higher the blood glucose level can allow the patient to delay or avoid the onset of related conditions, such as retinopathy, arthritis and circulatory deterioration. In some embodiments, the risk of developing symptoms associated with poor analyte control can be reduced.

[0240] In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 10A, the sensor 500 does not itself contain any optical components. In some embodiments, these components are provided separately (e.g., are also extracorporeal). In some embodiments, the sensor 500 is configured to be interrogated by a light-emitting device 502 that produces a light signal 504′ (e.g., from an light emitting diode, laser, etc.). In some embodiments, the light emitting device 502 is ambulatory (e.g., hand-held device). In several embodiments, the light source 504 of the device is configured for use in performing remote interrogation of the sensor device. In some embodiments, the light emitting device includes excitation light filters, such as one or more light emitting diodes 504 (dichroic or dye filters).

[0241] In several embodiments, the light emitting device 502 also is configured to receive a signal from the sensor. In several embodiments, as shown in FIG. 10A, the light emitting device 502 may include one or more a fluorescence detectors 505, 506 (e.g., as part of a fluorimeter). In some embodiments, the light emitting device comprises a fluorimeter. In some embodiments, the fluorimeter is configured to measure picomolar to femtomolar concentrations of a fluorescent signal from the indicator compound. In some embodiments, as shown, measurement the amount of analyte is performed by holding the fluorimeter close to the skin or against the skin.

[0242] When transcutaneously measuring the fluorescence signal generated inside the sensor, it may be necessary to consider the absorption of the signal by the skin. In several embodiments, the absorption of human skin is corrected for (e.g., separated from the signal received) to allow quantification of the signal.

[0243] In some embodiments, as shown, the sensor also generates a reference signal measured by a reference filter 506. This reference signal can be deducted from the read filter detector 505 to provide a calibrated signal. The reference signal can be generated by measuring baseline signal from an indicator compound that is not bound by an analyte. In several embodiments, the signals 504′, 504″ are received by an encoder 507 that provides data regarding the analyte level to a transmitter 508. In several embodiments, the transmitter communicates with a signal a receiver that may be outside the interrogating device or inside the interrogating device. In several embodiments, the internal unit (e.g., the sensor 500) does not require a power source, as it is interrogated using light from the external unit. In some embodiments, the light emitting device 502 is also a receiver for the signal produced by the sensor. In some embodiments, the receiver 508 communicates with a display to produce a readout indicating a level of analyte present. In several embodiments, the display can be read by the patient or a medical practitioner. In several embodiments, the receiver transmits the signal (e.g., wirelessly through, for example, blue tooth, etc.) to a handheld device (e.g., a smart phone, tablet, etc.). In several embodiments, alternatively, the interrogating device is a handheld device.

[0244] In some embodiments, as disclosed elsewhere herein and as shown in FIG. 10A, the sensor may comprise a matrix material in which the indicator compound resides 501. Alternatively, in some embodiments, not shown, the indicator compound may be bound to an outer surface of the sensor. In several embodiments, the indicator compound may be bound within the and/or to the matrix material 501 covalently, through dative bonds, van der Waals forces or the like. In several embodiments the matrix material is a biocompatible material. In several embodiments the matrix material is a hydrogel. In several embodiments, the hydrogel is configured to allow transmission of the analyte in and out of the matrix material. In some embodiments, the fast diffusion (e.g., diffusion controlled) transportation of the analyte through the matrix allows real-time monitoring of the analyte concentration in the body. In several embodiments, hydrogels can be prepared using conventional means, including but not limited to polymerizing one or more monomers with a multifunctional crosslinking agent. Some polymers that may be provided as hydrogels include crosslinked: proteins, peptides, and biological molecules (including polymers such as human albumin, fibrin gel, etc.), polysaccharides (including but not limited to those produced from arabinoxylans, starch, agarose, cellulose, chitin, alginates, hyaluronate, etc.) and derivatives thereof, poly(lactide-co-glycolide), poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), poly(L-lactic acid) (PLA), poly(glycolic acid) (PGA), polyhydroxybutyrate (PHB), polyhydroxyvalerate (PHV), copolymers of PHB and PHV, polycaprolactone, polyanhydrides, polyhydroxybuterate, poly(vinyl alcohol), poly(N-vinyl pyrrolidone), poly(octamethylene citrate) (POC), poly(octamethylene maleate citrate) (POMC), polycarboxylic acids (such as polymethacrylic acid, glutamic acid and aspartic acid containing proteins and peptide polymers, etc.), polyamines (such as lysine containing proteins and peptide polymers, etc.), mixtures or copolymers of any of the foregoing, or others.

[0245] Another embodiment is shown in FIG. 10B. Similar features for the separate embodiments of FIGS. 10A and 10B can comprise one or more coinciding features offset numerically by a factor of 50 but otherwise having the same numerical value. For example, features of one sensor 500 and its matrix material 501 may be similar or the same as features the second sensor 550 and its matrix material 551.

[0246] In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 10B, the optical components including optoelectronic features may be provided in the sensor 550 (and/or in the implant). In some embodiments, the optical components may be configured to provide a signal 559 that transmitted from the transmitter 558 and is received by a receiver outside the patient. In some embodiments, the sensor may comprise optical components that produce a fluorescent signal 554″ by interrogating a portion of the sensor 550 having the indicator compound 553 embedded in a matrix material 551. For example, the sensor may include a light source (e.g., an light emitting diode) that excites the indicator compound (or different indicator compounds) of the sensor. In some embodiments, the implanted sensor 550 comprises a fluorimeter. In such an embodiment, the sensor may produce a signal that is transmitted outside the body and received by a receiver.

[0247] In some embodiments, the optoelectronics circuitry of the implant 550 obtains quantitative measurement information and modifies a load as a function of the obtained information. In some embodiments, as disclose in U.S. Pat. No. 6,400,974 the load may vary the amount of current through for example a coil. Alternatively, the internal device may comprise another power source (e.g., a battery, etc.). For the system of FIG. 10B, the coil 558 may be internal and may be coupled to a coil of the external unit. An amplitude modulation (AM) demodulator, detects the current variations induced in coil and applies the detected signal to processing circuitry, such as a pulse counter and computer interface, for processing the signal into computer-readable format for inputting to, for example, a computer. In some embodiments, a variable RF oscillator provides an radiofrequency (RF) signal to coil, which in turn provides electromagnetic energy to coil an external coil, when the coils are within close enough proximity to each other to allow sufficient inductive coupling between the coils. The energy from the RF signal provides operating power for the internal unit to obtain quantitative measurements, which are used to vary the load and in turn provide a load variation to the coil that is detected by the external unit and decoded into information. In some embodiments, the sensor is provided in a shape that can be injected into the subject's body (e.g., patient's body). In some embodiments, the sensor is surgically inserted into the body of a patient. In some embodiments, as disclosed elsewhere herein, the indicator compound is incorporated into a matrix material that is permeable to skin fluids, such that analytes such as glucose penetrate into the sensor by reduced diffusion and also form components of the assay. It makes it possible to interact with the components. The matrix material may be an injectable formulation that forms a gel at the point of injection in the patient's skin. In some embodiments, alternatively, the sensor is formed from a solid polymeric matrix material injected into the skin

[0248] In some embodiments, the sensor may be biodegradable or hydrolysable in vivo. In some embodiments, the sensor is not degradable. The reason for this is that natural growth and replacement processes inside the skin cause the epidermis in which the sensor is embedded to fall off, so that this sensor also eventually excretes and falls off with the epidermis. In several embodiments, the degradation rate of the sensor can be matched to the lifetime of the indicator compound. Once this sensor no longer functions effectively to monitor the analyte (e.g., due to photobleaching, etc.), a new sensor may be implanted, and there is no need to surgically remove the old sensor. In some embodiments, non-biodegradable materials can also be used.

[0249] A hurdle that has greatly hindered biomedical optical technologies, is the turbidity of biological tissues. Due to significant scattering and absorption loss, light often cannot be delivered to or collected from target regions within tissues. Implanting fiber optical waveguide in tissues or organs for light delivery or collection may be an effective method for alleviating this problem. FIG. 10C provides another embodiment of a sensor that addresses these problems or others. In some embodiments, the sensor 800 comprises a waveguide fiber 807 (e.g., fiber optic portion) that is embedded under the skin of a subject in need of monitoring and/or treatment (e.g., a diabetic patient, a pre-diabetic patient, or another patient in need of monitoring). In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 10C, the wave guide 807 protrudes under the epidermis 600 and into the dermis 601. In some embodiments, the sensor is adhered to the skin via an adhesive layer 805. As shown, the waveguide may comprise a flange 806 that adheres it to the adhesive layer 805 to hold in place. In some embodiments, an indicator compound 803 of the sensor allows the detection of an analyte 700 (e.g., glucose) or measuring the amount of an analyte. In some embodiments, the reading of the measurement is provided as an optical signal 904b (e.g., fluorescence). In some embodiments, the optical signal 904b generated by the sensor 800 are detected at a surface of a light transmissive substrate 804 of the sensor 800. In some embodiments, as shown, the transmissive substrate 804 of the sensor 800 is dome shaped to allow multiple signals to be measured about the transmissive substrate 804 simultaneously. In some embodiments, this configuration allows direct communication between the sensor 800 to the external environment. In some embodiments, once the sensor 800 is in place within the skin, the readings of the analyte are read as often as needed (e.g., by a user including the patient, medical personnel, etc.).

[0250] In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 10C, the sensor 800 does not itself contain any optical components. In some embodiments, these components are provided separately (e.g., in a light-emitting device 900). In some embodiments, the sensor is configured to be interrogated by a light-emitting device 900 that produces a light signal 904a (e.g., from a light emitting diode, laser, etc.). In some embodiments, the light emitting device 900 is ambulatory (e.g., handheld device). In several embodiments, the light source 904 of the device is configured for use in performing remote interrogation of the sensor device. In some embodiments, the light emitting device includes excitation light filters, such as one or more light emitting diodes 904 (dichroic or dye filters). In several embodiments, the light emitting device 900 also includes one or more a fluorescence detectors 905, 906. Though shown with only one in FIG. 10C, multiple detectors and light sources (e.g., detection assemblies 907) can be provided in the light emitting device, including light sources with different wavelengths of light configured to interrogate differing indicator compounds. These light source and detector modules may be positioned to interact with the transmissive substrate at various positions about the transmissive substrate. In several embodiments, as disclosed herein, the light transmissive substrate 804 of the sensor 800 is a light transmissive polymer. In some embodiments, the light transmissive substrate is a medical grade polymer, such as medical grade silicon.

[0251] In some embodiments, the light emitting device comprises a fluorimeter (and/or is a fluorimeter). In some embodiments, the fluorimeter is configured to measure picomolar to femtomolar concentrations of a fluorescent signal from the indicator compound. In some embodiments, as shown, measurement the amount of analyte is performed by holding the fluorimeter close to and/or against the skin light transmissive substrate 804. In some embodiments, the sensor also generates a reference signal measured by a reference filter 906. This reference signal can be deducted from the read filter detector 905 to provide a calibrated signal. In some embodiments, the sensor does not generate a reference signal and/or lacks a detector configured to measure the reference signal. In several embodiments, the signals are transmitted to an encoder that communicates with a receiver (not shown). In some embodiments, the light emitting device is also a receiver for the signal produced by the sensor. In some embodiments, the receiver produces a readout indicating a level of analyte present that can be read by the patient or a medical practitioner. In several embodiments, the receiver transmits the signal (e.g., wirelessly through, for example, blue tooth, etc.) to a handheld device (e.g., a smart phone, tablet, etc.). In several embodiments, alternatively, the light emitting device is the handheld device (e.g., a smart phone, tablet, etc.).

[0252] In some embodiments, as disclosed elsewhere herein and as shown in FIGS. 10C and 10D (which is a cross-sectional view of a section of the fiber 807), the sensor may comprise a matrix material 802 in which the indicator compound resides. Alternatively, in some embodiments, not shown, the indicator compound may be bound to an outer surface of the sensor (e.g., an outer surface of the matrix material 802). In several embodiments, the indicator compound may be bound within the and/or to the matrix material 802 covalently, through dative bonds, van der Waals forces or the like. In several embodiments the matrix material is a biocompatible material. In several embodiments the matrix material is a hydrogel. In several embodiments, the hydrogel allows transmission of the analyte in and out of the matrix material. In some embodiments, the fast diffusion (e.g., diffusion controlled) transportation of the analyte through the matrix allows real-time monitoring of the analyte concentration in the body. In some embodiments, the fiber also comprises a core 801 that transmits the signal through the fiber.

[0253] In some embodiments, the waveguides are made from single polymer materials. In some embodiments, the wave guides are made from combinations of materials (e.g., having a core structure as shown in FIG. 10C). Materials such as poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), silk, agarose gel, and poly(L-lactic acid) (PLA) may be used, as well as hydrogels as disclosed herein. However, due to the lack of an intrinsic cladding layer, single material waveguides tend to have high loss, resulting from significant interaction of the guided optical wave with surrounding medium (such as tissues in vivo). In some embodiments, to address this issue, a biocompatible step-index fiber optical waveguide as shown in FIG. 10C is shown.

[0254] In some embodiments, the fiber comprises, consists of, or consists essentially of a polymer core 801 and cladding layer 802 (as shown in FIGS. 10C and 10D). An expanded view of the polymer core 801 and the cladding layer is shown in FIG. 10C. In some embodiments, the fiber is a biocompatible and biodegradable step-index optical fiber (having a core of one refractive index and a cladding layer of a separate refractive index.

[0255] In some embodiments, the fiber may comprise, PEG (polyethylene glycol), an alginate hydrogel, a polyacrylamide hydrogel, an alginate-polyacrylamide hydrogel, a silk, citrate-based polymeric elastomer (including one or more of poly(octamethylene citrate) (POC), poly(octamethylene maleate citrate) (POMC)), mixtures of any of foregoing, and/or combinations of any of the foregoing. These materials may be in either the cladding layer or the core layer. In some embodiments, the waveguide comprises, consists of, or consists essentially of a citrate-based polymeric elastomer. Crosslinkable elastomeric polymers can be synthesized by reacting the multifunctional citric acid with different diols and/or amino acids via a facile polycondensation reaction. Unlike natural materials (e.g., silk) or traditional synthetic polymers (e.g., poly lactic-co-glycolic acid (PLGA)) that usually have limited tunability for key optical, mechanical, and/or degradation properties, the family of citrate-based biodegradable elastomers possesses tunable mechanical strengths (from tens of Pascal to mega Pascal), programmable degradation rates (from a few days to over a year), reactive nature between citrate-based polymers, multifunctionalities (e.g., adhesive, fluorescent), and ultrafine tuning of refractive index (˜10⁻³). Citrate-based elastomers can be used as implant materials and serve as a platform for the development of fully biodegradable and seamlessly integrated step-index optical fibers for in vivo applications. In several embodiments, POC is used as the cladding outer layer 802 and POMC is used as a core material 801.

[0256] In some embodiments, additional configurations are possible. In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 10E, the waveguide may be a gradient copolymer with an internal area protected by a cladding outer area.

[0257] In some embodiments, as shown in FIG. 10F, the waveguide may comprise multiple fibers (equal to or greater than at least about 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 20 fibers (or ranges including and/or spanning any of the aforementioned values) as a fiber bundler. In some embodiments, the fiber bundle may comprise one or more excitation fibers 801″ that receive the radiation (e.g., light) from the light source 904 and one or more collection fibers 801′ that transmit radiation (e.g., fluorescent light) to the detector 905, 906. In several embodiments, as shown in FIG. 10F, the excitation fiber may be surrounded by a plurality of collection fibers. In several embodiments, as shown in FIG. 10G, other fiber configurations are possible, including a random distribution or a distribution of excitation fibers surrounding collection fibers. In several embodiments, the indicator compound may be positioned in the excitation fiber, the collection fiber, at the surface of the excitation fiber and/or collection fibers, and/or at any combination of the aforementioned positions.

[0258] In several embodiments, as provided in FIG. 10H, and additional coating 808 (e.g., polymer coating) may be provided over the waveguide. In several embodiments, the coating shields the indicator compound from the environment surrounding the waveguide (protecting it). In several embodiments, the indicator compound can be distributed between the core and the matrix material (e.g., at the interface), in the matrix material 802, or at the interface of the matrix material and the protective coating 808.

[0259] In several embodiments, the sensor 800 can be placed within the skin of a patient using an inserter. In several embodiments, as show in FIG. 10I (showing an embodiment with a coated waveguide as in FIG. 10H), the transmissive substrate 804 can be placed over the waveguide after insertion of the waveguide 807 beneath the skin. In several embodiments, the transmissive substrate 804 adheres to the adhesive layer 805 to couple the transmissive substrate 804 to the adhesive layer. As shown, the transmissive substrate may have a notch 815 configured to receive a portion of the flange 806 and waveguide 807 that protrude from the adhesive layer 805.

[0260] FIG. 10J shows an embodiment of a sensor being interrogated by a light emitting device with multiple detection assemblies 904a, 904b, 904c. As shown, each assembly, 904a, 904b, 904c, comprises a light source 904, 904′, 904″ and one or more a fluorescence detectors 905, 906, 905′, 906′, 905″, 906″. The light assemblies can be configured to interrogate the same indicator compound (e.g., each may have the same excitation wavelength and detection wavelength) different indicator compounds (e.g., each may have the same excitation wavelength and detection wavelength). Where multiple different indicator compounds are used in the waveguide (or in the matrix material as disclosed elsewhere herein), the indicator compounds may be for the same analyte (e.g., to provide multiple different data points for a single analyte such as glucose) or for different analytes. In some embodiments, each assembly may be activated simultaneously. In other embodiments, each assembly may be activated at a different time (including serially). By interrogating the sensors at different time points, less heating of the sensor may occur. In some embodiments, the sensor may include heat dissipating devices (e.g., a heat sink, peltier devices, etc.)

[0261] In some embodiments, the waveguide may have indicator compounds distributed homogeneously throughout the matrix material 802. In some embodiments, the indicator compound may be distributed heterogeneously down the length or axially within the waveguide. For example, in some embodiments, the indicator compound may have a higher concentration toward the center of the waveguide. In some embodiments, the waveguide may have a higher concentration at the distal tip of the waveguide (distal to the light transmissive substrate 804). In other embodiments, the waveguide may have a higher concentration at the proximal section of the waveguide (proximal to the light transmissive substrate 804).

[0262] In several embodiments, the waveguide is a length suitable to extend through the epidermis and into the dermis. In several embodiments, the waveguide is a length equal to or at least about: 1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values. In several embodiments, the waveguide has a thickness (e.g., diameter) equal to or at least about: 25 μm, 50 μm, 75 μm, 100 μm, 150 μm, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values. In several embodiments, the core of the waveguide has a thickness equal to or at least about: 25 μm, 50 μm, 75 μm, 100 μm, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values. In several embodiments, the matrix material around the core of the waveguide has a thickness equal to or at least about: 5 μm, 10 μm, 15 μm, 25 μm, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values. In several embodiments, where present, the protective coating for the waveguide has a thickness equal to or at least about: 2.5 μm, 5 μm, 10 μm, 15 μm, 25 μm, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values. In several embodiments, the waveguide is a length suitable to extend through the epidermis and into the dermis. In several embodiments, the transmissive substrate is circular or semicircular when viewed from the top. In several embodiments, the diameter of the transmissive substrate is equal to or at least about: 10 mm, 15 mm, 20 mm, 30 mm, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values. In several embodiments, where the waveguide comprises multiple fibers (e.g., a bundle), each individual fiber may have a thickness (e.g., diameter) equal to or at least about: 10 μm, 15 μm, 25 μm, 50 μm, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values.

[0263] In several embodiments, the matrix material has a refractive index of equal to or less than about: 1.20, 1.30, 1.40, 1.49, 1.50, 1.60, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values. In several embodiments, the core has a refractive index of equal to or less than about: 1.20, 1.30, 1.40, 1.49, 1.50, 1.60, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values. In some embodiments, the refractive index of the matrix material and the core differ by less than equal to or less than about: 0.01, 0.05, 0.10, 0.20, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values.

[0264] In several embodiments, as shown, the light transmissive material of the waveguide sensor may be dome shaped. In other embodiments, the light transmissive material need not be dome shaped. In several embodiments, where the light transmissive material of device of FIG. 10C-10J is dome shaped, the radius of curvature of the light transmissive material may a length sufficient to focus the emitted light signal at the proximal end of the waveguide. As shown in FIG. 10J, the radius of curvature of the light transmissive material may be a length that matches (or substantially matches) the distance from the proximal end of the waveguide to the peripheral surface of the transmissive material.

[0265] Suitable optical signals that can be used as an analytical readout in accordance with the present invention include, for example, fluorescence resonance energy transfer, fluorescence polarization, fluorescence quenching, phosphorescence, luminescence enhancement, luminescence quenching, diffraction or plasmon resonance, and the like. All optical signals that can be generated by approximation assays known per se in the art are included.

[0266] Some embodiments pertain to systems. In some embodiments, the system includes internal or partially internal unit 500, 550, 800, and an external unit 502, 900. In some embodiments, the internal unit would be implanted either subcutaneously or otherwise within the body of a subject. In some embodiments, the internal unit contains optoelectronics circuitry, a component of which may be comprised of a fluorescence sensing device as described with reference to FIGS. 10A-10C.

[0267] Various components for implantable sensors and systems incorporated such sensors have been described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,400,974; 6,794,195; 7,800,078; 7,713,745; 7,375,347; 9,717,413; 7,060,503; 7,157,723; 7,190,445; 7,227,156; 7,939,332; 7,405,387; 7,851,225; 7,822,450; 8,502,167; 8,143,068; 9,693,714; 9,681,824; 9,498,156; 9,717,413; 10,111,588 9,931,068; 9,414,775; 9,814,389; 9,867,540; 9,778,190; 9,743,869; 10,119,911; 10,662,333; and U.S. Application Publication No. 2014/0088383, each of which is incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.

Methods of Manufacture

[0268] Methods for preparing a fusion of the protein portions comprised in the fusion protein are known to those skilled in the art and are described in the literature. Preferably, such fusions are carried out by recombinant techniques, i.e. by combining nucleic acid molecules encoding the respective portions of the fusion protein, e.g., by classical cloning techniques, by in vitro techniques such as PCR or by chemical synthesis or by combinations of these techniques, followed by the expression of the fusion protein from the recombinant nucleic acid molecule. Other methods for producing protein fusions may be applied as well, such as the introduction of chemical linkages between polypeptides. A connection between a signaling domain and the binding domain may be either direct or indirect (e.g., via a polypeptide stretch lying between these portions such as a linker peptide). This linker may be used to bring the two detection portions into relative positions in order to allow or improve the change of energy emission such as the change of FRET of the detection portions upon binding of a compound.

[0269] In some embodiments, variants are encoded by a nucleotide sequence which hybridizes, including under stringent conditions with a nucleotide sequence encoding a binding and/or signaling protein as described above. For such variants, the hybridization conditions and sequence identities likewise apply. Binding and/or signaling proteins and/or variants may be modified by addition, deletion, shuffling, substitution (e.g., by conservative amino acid substitution) and the like with respect to a naturally occurring binding and/or signaling proteins. For instance, such alterations may be introduced in order to adapt a coding sequence to a certain codon usage of a given host organism or to modify the binding properties, i.e. the specificity for the compound or the binding affinity, or to improve the three-dimensional structure, e.g. the relative position and topology of the detection portions contained in the fusion protein and/or to improve the change in resonance energy transfer ratio or to increase the insensitivity to ionic conditions, e.g. the pH. Techniques of determining variant properties include X-ray crystallography, NMR studies, modelling etc. and whether it undergoes a conformational change upon binding of a compound.

[0270] In some embodiments, the invention relates to a method for producing cells capable of expressing the fusion protein, as disclosed herein, comprising genetically engineering cells with an above-described nucleic acid molecule, expression cassette or vector, as disclosed herein. Another embodiment, as disclosed herein, relates to host cells, in particular prokaryotic or eukaryotic cells, genetically engineered with an above-described nucleic acid molecule, expression cassette or vector, and to cells descended from such transformed cells and containing a nucleic acid molecule, expression cassette or vector and to cells obtainable by the above-mentioned method for producing the same.

[0271] In some embodiments, transgenic human cells or tissues are made using the techniques disclosed herein. In some embodiments, those tissues (e.g., a section of skin), can be implanted back onto a human (autologous or allogeneic) to allow analyte detection. For instance, a skin graft using a patient's own skin cells that are transgenic to the patient can be reintroduced to the patient (e.g., on his or her arm, leg, stomach, etc.) to provide a patch of skin that allows analyte detection and observation in a non-invasive manner. These transgenic tissues and cells can be made using the techniques described elsewhere herein.

[0272] In some embodiments, these host cells are bacterial, fungal, insect, plant or animal host cells. In some embodiments, the host cell is genetically engineered in such a way that it contains the introduced nucleic acid molecule stably integrated into the genome. In some embodiments, the nucleic acid molecule can be expressed so as to lead to the production of the fusion protein, as disclosed herein.

[0273] An overview of different expression systems is for instance contained in Methods in Enzymology 153 (1987), 385-516, in Bitter et al. (Methods in Enzymology 153 (1987), 516-544) and in Sawers et al. (Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 46 (1996), 1-9), Billman-Jacobe (Current Opinion in Biotechnology 7 (1996), 500-4), Hockney (Trends in Biotechnology 12 (1994), 456-463), Griffiths et al., (Methods in Molecular Biology 75 (1997), 427-440). An overview of yeast expression systems is for instance given by Hensing et al. (Antoine von Leuwenhoek 67 (1995), 261-279), Bussineau (Developments in Biological Standardization 83 (1994), 13-19), Gellissen et al. (Antoine van Leuwenhoek 62 (1992), 79-93, Fleer (Current Opinion in Biotechnology 3 (1992), 486-496), Vedvick (Current Opinion in Biotechnology 2 (1991), 742-745) and Buckholz (Bio/Technology 9 (1991), 1067-1072). Expression vectors have been described in the literature. In some embodiments, they contain not only a selection marker gene and a replication origin ensuring replication in the host selected, but also a bacterial or viral promoter and, in most cases, a termination signal for transcription. In some embodiments, between the promoter and the termination signal, there is in general at least one restriction site or a polylinker which enables the insertion of a coding nucleotide sequence. It is possible to use promoters ensuring constitutive expression of the gene and inducible promoters which permit a deliberate control of the expression of the gene. Bacterial and viral promoter sequences possessing these properties are described in detail in the literature. Regulatory sequences for the expression in microorganisms (for instance E. coli, S. cerevisiae) are sufficiently described in the literature. Promoters permitting a particularly high expression of a downstream sequence are for instance the T7 promoter (Studier et al., Methods in Enzymology 185 (1990), 60-89), lacUV5, trp, trp-lacUV5 (DeBoer et al., in Rodriguez and Chamberlin (Eds), Promoters, Structure and Function; Praeger, New York, (1982), 462-481; DeBoer et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA (1983), 21-25), Ip1, rac (Boros et al., Gene 42 (1986), 97-100). In some embodiments, inducible promoters are used for the synthesis of proteins. These promoters often lead to higher protein yields than do constitutive promoters. In some embodiments, in order to obtain an high yields of protein, a two-stage process is often used. First, the host cells are cultured under optimum conditions up to a relatively high cell density. In the second step, transcription is induced depending on the type of promoter used. In this regard, a tac promoter is particularly suitable which can be induced by lactose or IPTG (isopropyl-β-D-thiogalactopyranoside) (deBoer et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80 (1983), 21-25). Termination signals for transcription such as the SV40-poly-A site or the tk-poly-A site useful for applications in mammalian cells are also described in the literature. Suitable expression vectors are known in the art such as Okayama-Berg cDNA expression vector pcDV1 (Pharmacia), pCDM8, pRc/CMV, pcDNA1, pcDNA3 (In-vitrogene), pSPORT1 (GIBCO BRL)) or pCI (Promega).

[0274] The transformation of the host cell with a nucleic acid molecule or vector can be carried out by standard methods, as for instance described in Sambrook and Russell (2001), Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, CSH Press; Methods in Yeast Genetics, A Laboratory Course Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press (1990). In some embodiments, for example, calcium chloride transfection is commonly utilized for prokaryotic cells, whereas, e.g., calcium phosphate or DEAE-Dextran mediated transfection or electroporation may be used for other cellular hosts. In some embodiments, the host cell is cultured in nutrient media meeting the requirements of the particular host cell used, in particular in respect of the pH value, temperature, salt concentration, aeration, antibiotics, vitamins, trace elements etc. In some embodiments, the fusion protein can be recovered and purified from recombinant cell cultures by methods including ammonium sulfate or ethanol precipitation, acid extraction, anion or cation exchange chromatography, phosphocellulose chromatography, hydrophobic interaction chromatography, affinity chromatography, hydroxylapatite chromography and lectin chromatography. In some embodiments, the fusion protein may be purified applying an affinity chromatography with a substrate to which the binding portion of the fusion protein binds. Protein refolding steps can be used, as necessary, in completing the configuration of the protein. Finally, high performance liquid chromatography (HPLC) can be employed for final purification steps.

[0275] In some embodiments, a method for producing the fusion protein, as disclosed herein, comprising culturing the above-described host cells under conditions allowing the expression of said fusion protein and recovering said fusion protein from the culture is provided. Depending on whether the expressed protein is localized in the host cells or is secreted from the cell, the protein can be recovered from the cultured cells and/or from the supernatant of the medium.

[0276] In some embodiments, the fusion protein or non-protein construct may be a product of chemical synthetic procedures or produced by recombinant techniques from a prokaryotic or eukaryotic host (for example, by bacterial, yeast, higher plant, insect or mammalian cells in culture). Depending upon the host employed in a recombinant production procedure, the expressed fusion protein may be glycosylated or may be non-glycosylated. In some embodiments, the fusion protein may also include an initial methionine amino acid residue. In some embodiments, the protein may be further modified to contain additional chemical moieties not normally part of the protein. Those derivatized moieties may, e.g., improve the stability, solubility, the biological half-life or absorption of the protein. The moieties may also reduce or eliminate any undesirable side effects of the protein and the like. An overview for these moieties can be found, e.g., in Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences (18th edition, Mack Publishing Co., Easton, Pa. (1990)).

[0277] Some embodiments relate to non-human transgenic organisms, i.e. multicellular organisms comprising a nucleic acid molecule encoding a fusion protein, as disclosed herein, or an expression cassette or vector as described above, e.g., stably integrated into its genome, at least in a subset of the cells of that organism, or to parts thereof such as tissues or organs. Where non-human organisms are used, the animal can be used as a model for studying glucose levels or other analyte levels in the organism. In some embodiments, tissue from a human can be harvested and the cells therein can be treated with a nucleic acid molecule encoding a fusion protein as disclosed herein (or an expression cassette or vector as described above), to stably integrate the nucleic acid into the genome. In some embodiments, this tissue can be implanted back into the human for the purposes of diagnoses or treatment.

[0278] Some embodiments also relate to a method for producing transgenic plants and animals, plant or animal tissue or plant or animal cells comprising the introduction of a nucleic acid molecule, expression cassette or vector, as disclosed herein, into a cell and, optionally, regenerating a transgenic plant or animal or plant or animal tissue therefrom. In particular, transgenic plants or animals expressing a fusion protein as described herein can be of use for investigating metabolic or transport processes of, e.g., organic compounds with a timely and spatial resolution that was not achievable previously. In some embodiments, harvestable parts and to propagation material of the transgenic organisms are prepared according to the invention which contain transgenic cells as described above. Harvestable parts can be in principle any useful part of an organism, for example, skin, organs, etc. In some embodiments, a skin graft comprising cells modified to produce the disclosed indicators could be used to detect analyte levels (e.g., glucose levels) in a patient and to diagnose and/or treat diseases (e.g., diabetes).

[0279] The invention also relates to a transgenic non-human animal comprising at least one nucleic acid molecule, expression cassette or vector, as disclosed herein, as described above. Some embodiments pertain to a method for the production of a transgenic non-human animal comprising introducing a nucleic acid molecule, expression cassette or vector of the invention into a germ cell, an embryonic cell, stem cell or an egg or a cell derived therefrom. Such transgenic animals expressing the fusion protein of the invention or any developmental stage thereof starting from the zygote may be used as model organisms where it is possible to determine the distribution of a certain compound in real time without disrupting tissue integrity. These model organisms may be particularly useful for testing. Production of transgenic embryos and screening of them can be performed, e.g., as described by A. L. Joyner Ed., Gene Targeting, A Practical Approach (1993), Oxford University Press. The DNA of the embryos can be analyzed using, e.g., Southern blots with an appropriate probe or based on PCR techniques.

[0280] A transgenic non-human animal in accordance with the invention may, e.g., be a transgenic mouse, rat, hamster, dog, monkey, rabbit, pig, frog, nematode such as Caenorhabditis elegans, fruitfly such as Drosophilia melanogaster or fish such as torpedo fish or zebrafish comprising a nucleic acid molecule, expression cassette or vector, as disclosed herein, e.g., stably integrated into its genome, or obtained by the method mentioned above. Such a transgenic non-human animal may comprise one or several copies of the same or different nucleic acid molecules, as disclosed herein. In some embodiments, the presence of a nucleic acid molecule, expression cassette or vector, as disclosed herein, in such a transgenic non-human animal leads to the expression of the fusion protein, as disclosed herein. The transgenic non-human animal has numerous utilities, including as a research model. Accordingly, in some embodiments, the mammal is a laboratory animal such as a mouse or rat.

[0281] For intracellular analyte measurements, the fusion protein, as disclosed herein, may be transferred into a cell by direct microinjection or by microinjection of RNA encoding the fusion protein and capable of expressing it in the cell. Apart from the way of introducing the fusion protein into the cell, this embodiment corresponds to the method for detecting an analyte in a cell described above, wherein the cells are genetically engineered with an nucleic acid molecule, expression construct or vector encoding and capable of expressing the fusion protein in the cell. Suitable techniques for introducing proteins or protein-expressing RNA into cells by way of microinjection are known to the person skilled in the art and are described in the literature. For instance, such introduction may be carried out by applying techniques as described in Celis J. E., Graessmann A., Loyter A. (1986), Microinjection and Organelle Transplantation Techniques, Academic Press, London; Celis J. E. (1994), Cell Biology: A Laboratory Handbook, Vol. 3, Academic Press, New York; and Cid-Arregui A. and Garcia-Carranca A. (eds) (1997), Microinjection and Transgenesis: Strategies and Protocols, Springer-Verlag, Berlin-Heidelberg-New York.

[0282] The use of microinjection for introducing the fusion protein, as disclosed herein, whether directly or indirectly in the form of an expressable mRNA, brings about the advantage of a reduced time required until results are obtained, as compared to transformation approaches. In particular, it usually takes only a few days until the introduced mRNA expresses the encoded fusion protein and subsequently fluorescence can be measured. When it is the fusion protein which is microinjected, then the results may be obtained even faster and fluorescence can be measured within minutes. Another advantage is that the level of expression of the introduced mRNA and the abundance of the introduced protein, respectively, can easily be modulated by the amount of the microinjected material. Since fluorescence is known to be a sensitive method, usually relatively small amounts of material may be required in order to achieve significant measurements of intracellular analyte concentration. On the other hand, the application of microinjection may be less favorable than transformation approaches if it is intended to observe analyte concentration in a given cell for a longer time period than for instance a few days. Also, if analyte concentration in cellular compartments other than the cytoplasm or the nucleus is intended to be measured, microinjection may not be feasible since direct microinjection into such other compartments is, at least at present, not possible.

[0283] Other methods of delivering genes, nucleic acids, DNA, RNA, proteins, or vectors into living cells include but are not limited to electroporation, viruses (transduction), lipofection, gene gun (biolistics), vesicle fusion, or chemical transformation. One type of viral vector is based on an adeno-associated virus (AAV). This defective parvovirus can infect many cell types (including non-dividing cells) and is nonpathogenic to humans. AAV can be produced in mammalian cells, including HEK 293T cells, COS cells, HeLa cells, KB cells, and other mammalian cell lines and in insect cells including Sf9, Sf21, and other insect cells using the baculovirus expression vector system (BEVS).

[0284] With the provision of the indicator compounds and fusion proteins disclosed herein, it is possible to directly observe the distribution and concentration of a certain analyte (e.g. a metabolite) in a single living cell. This allows the observation whether contacting a single cell expressing an appropriate fusion protein, as disclosed herein, with a candidate compound leads to a change in the concentration and/or distribution of the analyte in the cell, such a change being apparent from a change in the energy emission pattern that is emitted by the cell that expresses the fusion protein. In addition, the technology provided herein not only allows detecting whether there is a change in analyte concentration and/or distribution but it also allows quantifying such a change.

[0285] In some embodiments, in principle any kind of cell may be used for the present method that is amenable to optical detection and that can be transformed so as to express a heterologous protein. Thus, the cells may be single cells such as bacteria, yeasts, protozoa or cultured cells, e.g., of vertebrate, mammalian, human origin or plant cells. For certain applications, it may be useful to take pathogenetically affected cells such as tumor cells or cells infected by an infectious agent, e.g. a virus, wherein measurements may be conducted in comparison with corresponding healthy cells. Likewise, the cells may be part of a tissue, organ or organism. In some embodiments, the cells are immobilized which facilitates their observation (e.g., as a skin patch).

[0286] Furthermore, some embodiments relate to the use of a fusion protein, as disclosed herein, or the nucleic acid molecule, the expression cassette, the vector, the host cell or the control sensor, as disclosed herein, as described above, for preparing a diagnostic composition for diagnosing a condition which is correlated with a concentration of an analyte in cells, tissues or parts of a body. In some embodiments, the condition is a pathological condition correlated with an abnormal concentration of an analyte (e.g., diabetes and glucose).

[0287] In some embodiments, the detection of analytes using the techniques and compounds disclosed herein offer one or more of the following advantages (or others): high specificity toward glucose that does not chemically change glucose; high customizability with mutations to the luminescent protein and the glucose binding protein; low cost of manufacturing; the indicator compound may be synthesized as a whole; E. coli alone has approximately ˜1200 transporters specifically evolved to transport various molecules, including metals, proteins, ions, small chemicals, etc.

[0288] It is understood that the protein sequences disclosed herein are to be interpreted as being in the N-terminal to C-terminal direction. Similarly, it is understood that the nucleic acid sequences disclosed herein are to be interpreted as being in the 5′ to 3′ direction.

Methods of Using

[0289] Some embodiments pertain to a method for detecting glucose in a diabetic patient. In embodiments, a sensor as disclosed herein is injected, surgically implanted, and/or partially inserted (with an inserter) into the body of the patient. In several embodiments, the sensor is inserted to a depth so that the indicator compound (e.g., in the device) is at a depth under the surface of the skin of equal to or at least about: 1 mm, 2 mm, 3 mm, 4 mm, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values. In some embodiments, the sensor is interrogated with a light emitting device. In some embodiments, the light emitting device is brought into proximity to the sensor. In some embodiments, the light emitting device is provided within the sensor.

[0290] In some embodiments, an indicator compound is administered to the patient. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is a fusion protein. In some embodiments, the fusion protein comprises a luminescent protein and/or a one or more luminescing fragments of a luminescent protein. In some embodiments, the fusion protein further comprises a sugar binding protein and/or a sugar binding portion of a sugar binding protein. In some embodiments, the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein is configured to bind glucose. In some embodiments, the indicator compound undergoes a conformational change from a first conformation to a second conformation when glucose binds to indicator compound. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is exposed to a light having energy that is sufficient to induce luminescence of the indicator compound when glucose is bound by the sugar binding protein and/or sugar binding portion of the sugar binding protein.

[0291] In some embodiments, the method comprises illuminating the indicator compound with light and detecting an emission of generated light at a maximum wavelength. In some embodiments, the λ_max of the light absorbed by the indicator compound is equal to or at least about: 300 nm, 350 nm, 400 nm, 450 nm, 500 nm, 550 nm, 600 nm, 650 nm, 700 nm, 750 nm, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values. In some embodiments, the λ_max of the light emitted by the indicator compound is equal to or at least about: 300 nm, 350 nm, 400 nm, 450 nm, 500 nm, 550 nm, 600 nm, 650 nm, 700 nm, 750 nm, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values.

[0292] In some embodiments, as disclosed elsewhere herein, multiple indicator compounds may simultaneously be used to detect different analytes. In several embodiments, where multiple indicator compounds are used, the λ_max of the light absorbed by the indicator compounds is independently equal to or at least about: 300 nm, 350 nm, 400 nm, 450 nm, 500 nm, 550 nm, 600 nm, 650 nm, 700 nm, 750 nm, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values. In some embodiments, the λ_max of the light emitted by the indicator compounds is independently equal to or at least about: 300 nm, 350 nm, 400 nm, 450 nm, 500 nm, 550 nm, 600 nm, 650 nm, 700 nm, 750 nm, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values. In some embodiments, multiple indicator compounds may simultaneously be used to the same analyte (thereby providing internal standards to ensure accurate measurement). In some embodiments, where more than one indicator compound is used, the indicator compounds are selected to have λ_max values for light absorbed that are different by equal to or at least about: 10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 60 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values. In some embodiments, where more than one indicator compound is used, the indicator compounds are selected to have λ_max values for light emitted that are different by equal to or at least about: 10 nm, 20 nm, 30 nm, 40 nm, 50 nm, 60 nm, 70 nm, 100 nm, 200 nm, 300 nm, or ranges including and/or spanning the aforementioned values. Having different emission and absorption wavelengths helps avoid overlapping signals and errors in measurements.

[0293] Some embodiments disclosed herein related to selecting a subject or patient in need. In some embodiments, a patient is selected who has a disease. In some embodiments, a patient is selected who has diabetes mellitus, such as type 1 diabetes or type 2 diabetes. In some embodiments, a patient is selected who is a risk of contracting diabetes. In some embodiments, a patient is selected who is in need of treatment for diabetes. In some embodiments, a patient is selected who is need of diagnosing diabetes. In some embodiments, a patient is selected who is in need of managing diabetes, including but not limited to measuring blood glucose levels. In some embodiments, a patient is selected who may have any combination of the aforementioned selection criteria.

[0294] In some embodiments, a method for detecting an analyte is provided. In some embodiments, the method for detecting an analyte comprises contacting a sample with an indicator compound. In some embodiments, the indicator compound is a fusion protein. In some embodiments, the method comprises supplying the fusion protein with energy suitable for exciting energy emission by the signaling domain of the indicator compound. In some embodiments, the method comprises measuring the energy emission. In some embodiments, the analyte is in the body of a patient. In some embodiments, a device comprising the indicator compound is introduced to the body of the patient.

[0295] Some embodiments provide a method for detecting or quantifying an analyte in mammalian skin fluid. In some embodiments, the method comprises injecting or embedding a sensor for detecting or quantifying an analyte in the epidermis or interior skin. In some embodiments, the method includes bringing the measuring device in proximity to the sensor. In some embodiments, a reading of the measuring device is obtained using optical means. In some embodiments, the measured value obtained is associated with the concentration of the analyte.

[0296] In some embodiments, the fusion protein is fixed to a solid support. In some embodiments, binding affinity of the binding portion of the fusion protein is in a range that allows reversible analyte binding. In some embodiments, such fixed fusion proteins to construct measuring devices where said support containing the fusion protein is assembled with means for excitation and detection of energy emission. Such devices may be useful as sensors for detecting compounds in fluid samples, for example, for measuring blood sugar.

[0297] In some embodiments, a multitude of different fusion proteins being specific for different analytes and/or having different measuring ranges are assembled on one array. In some embodiments, upon contacting a sample to such an array, the array may for example be scanned with a combined excitation/detection means. Such a system may be of particular utility in automated or semi-automated high throughput screening of samples.

[0298] In some embodiments, the method comprises contacting a sample corresponding with a control sensor, whereby said control sensor corresponds to the fusion protein used for analysis with the exception that the binding portion is modified and therefore incapable of binding the analyte. In some embodiments, the method comprises supplying the control sensor with the same energy as the analyte binding indicator compound. In some embodiments, the method comprises measuring the energy emission of the control sensor. In some embodiments, the method comprises calibrating the energy emission measurement of the control sensor with the active sensor. In some embodiments, the method comprises calibration of the measurements of using the control sensor. In some embodiments, the term “control sensor” refers to a protein which corresponds to the active binding fusion protein except for a modification of the binding portion which renders it incapable of binding the respective analyte. Thus, apart from this, the control sensor has the same functional properties as the corresponding fusion protein with respect to the excitation and emission spectrum. In some embodiments, other characteristics are also identical such as solubility, isoelectric point, molecular weight, pH sensitivity, sensitivity to other factors such as ionic environment etc.

[0299] It is contemplated that parallel measurements using a control sensor may greatly refine the measurements conducted with the fusion protein of the invention because it excludes influences apart from analyte concentration that may affect energy emission of the fusion protein. Moreover, the overall protein structure of the fusion protein may be affected by other factors than analyte concentration such as ionic conditions.

[0300] In some embodiments, the method comprises detecting an analyte in a cell. In some embodiments, the method comprises supplying a cell which is genetically engineered with the nucleic acid molecule, the expression cassette or the vector of the invention and expresses the fusion protein of the indicator compound. In some embodiments, the method comprises (b) measuring the energy emission. In some embodiments, the method is performed on human or animal cells, this method is only applied ex vivo, i.e. outside the human or animal body. For intracellular analyte measurements, the fusion protein of the invention may be transferred into a cell by direct microinjection or by microinjection of RNA encoding the fusion protein and capable of expressing it in the cell. Apart from the way of introducing the fusion protein into the cell, this embodiment corresponds to the method for detecting an analyte in a cell described above, wherein the cells are genetically engineered with an nucleic acid molecule, expression construct or vector encoding and capable of expressing the fusion protein in the cell.

[0301] The following references are incorporated by reference in their entireties: Mita, M. et. al. (2019). Green Fluorescent Protein-Based Glucose Indicators Report Glucose Dynamics in Living Cells. Anal. Chem. (91) 4821-4830; Method of glucose or galactose detection with glucose/galactose binding protein. CA2336985C; Fusion proteins useful for detecting analytes. US20070136825A1; System and method for detecting bioanalytes and method for producing a bioanalyte sensor. US20050118726A1; Proteins, sensors, and methods of characterizing analytes using the same. U.S. Pat. No. 7,718,353B2; Compositions and methods for analyte detection. U.S. Pat. No. 6,485,703B1; Substrates and screening methods for transport proteins. US20090221442A1; In vivo biosensor apparatus and method of use. CA2352571C; Hu, H.; Wei, Y.; Wang, D.; Su, N.; Chen, X.; Zhao, Y.; Liu, G.; Yang, Y. RSC Adv. 2018, 8 (5), 2485-2489; U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,400,974; 6,794,195; 7,800,078; 7,713,745; 7,375,347; 9,717,413; 7,060,503; 7,157,723; 7,190,445; 7,227,156; 7,939,332; 7,405,387; 7,851,225; 7,822,450; 8,502,167; 8,143,068; 9,693,714; 9,681,824; 9,498,156; 9,717,413; 10,111,588 9,931,068; 9,414,775; 9,814,389; 9,867,540; 9,778,190; 9,743,869; 10,119,911; 10,662,333; and U.S. Application Publication No. 2014/0088383.

[0302] Some aspects of the embodiments discussed above are disclosed in further detail in the following examples, which are not in any way intended to limit the scope of the present disclosure. Those in the art will appreciate that many other embodiments also fall within the scope of the invention, as it is described herein above and in the claims.

[0303] A patient is selected as having diabetes mellitus (diabetes), or as being at risk of having diabetes, previously having diabetes, or not having diabetes. There is a need for the patient to monitor his or her blood glucose levels. A skin sample (e.g. a split-thickness skin graft) is taken from the patient and maintained in growth medium. The skin sample is genetically modified, such as by microinjection or AAV, to express one or more of the indicator compounds described herein comprising a glucose binding protein or binding portion thereof. The keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, Merkel cells, immune cells, macrophages, epithelial cells, or red blood cells that make up the skin sample are genetically modified. After successful modification, the skin sample is grafted back onto the patient, either at the original location or a new location, such as a region on the body that is easily observable. The modified skin region now luminesces or fluoresces according to the glucose in the microenvironment interstitial fluid, which correlates to blood glucose levels. The patient is able to use this signal to determine current blood glucose levels without the need for invasive blood sampling methods. Detection of the signal may be done with a device that is specifically calibrated for the patient.

[0304] A fiber optic sensor as disclosed in FIG. 10C was prepared. The optical part of the fiber optic fluorimeter was fabricated on a microbench using standard components. This assembling apparatus comprises a red LED, a dichroic beam splitter, a filter and a detector diode as a light source. Briefly, the fluorimeter comprises a light emitting diode that emits an excitation light beam that passes through a condenser containing an excitation filter and a beam splitter. The excitation beam is enters the optical fiber (e.g., the waveguide). When the fluorometer is in use, when querying the sensor placed percutaneously at the skin end with the axis of the skin sensor aligned so that the excitation light beam enters the sensor, the sensor emits light after excitation. Some of the optical signal obtained enters this optical fiber and is thereby transmitted into the fluorimeter. This fluorimeter also contains a reference detector diode from which a reference measurement of the excitation light emitted from the LED is obtained. These two integrated signals correspond to the background-corrected fluorescence signal and the background-corrected excitation light level (LED intensity). This fluorimeter is battery operated (typical power consumption is 150 mA at 9 v) and can be conveniently constructed with pen shapes and dimensions.

[0305] A glucose sensor as disclosed in FIG. 10C is implanted onto a diabetic patient. The sensor comprises a waveguide having the an indicator compound as disclosed in FIG. 2C embedded within the matrix material. The patient interrogates the sensor at various times throughout the day to determine his blood glucose level. The patient is able to monitor and control his blood glucose level by taking periodic readings using the sensor and a light emitting device that interrogates the sensor. The patient is better able to control his blood glucose than he previously had been able to using finger prick blood glucose measurements.

[0306] It is to be understood that the embodiments of the invention herein described are merely illustrative of the application of the principles of the invention. Reference herein to details of the illustrated embodiments is not intended to limit the scope of the claims, which themselves recite those features regarded as essential to the invention. The drawings are for the purpose of illustrating embodiments of the invention only, and not for the purpose of limiting it.

[0307] The invention is generally disclosed herein using affirmative language to describe the numerous embodiments. The invention also includes embodiments in which subject matter is excluded, in full or in part, such as substances or materials, method steps and conditions, protocols, or procedures.

[0308] In at least some of the previously described embodiments, one or more elements used in an embodiment can interchangeably be used in another embodiment unless such a replacement is not technically feasible. It will be appreciated by those skilled in the art that various other omissions, additions and modifications may be made to the methods and structures described above without departing from the scope of the claimed subject matter. All such modifications and changes are intended to fall within the scope of the subject matter, as defined by the appended claims.

[0309] With respect to the use of substantially any plural and/or singular terms herein, those having skill in the art can translate from the plural to the singular and/or from the singular to the plural as is appropriate to the context and/or application. The various singular/plural permutations may be expressly set forth herein for sake of clarity.

[0310] It will be understood by those within the art that, in general, terms used herein, and especially in the appended claims (e.g., bodies of the appended claims) are generally intended as “open” terms (e.g., the term “including” should be interpreted as “including but not limited to,” the term “having” should be interpreted as “having at least,” the term “includes” should be interpreted as “includes but is not limited to,” etc.). It will be further understood by those within the art that if a specific number of an introduced claim recitation is intended, such an intent will be explicitly recited in the claim, and in the absence of such recitation no such intent is present. For example, as an aid to understanding, the following appended claims may contain usage of the introductory phrases “at least one” and “one or more” to introduce claim recitations. However, the use of such phrases should not be construed to imply that the introduction of a claim recitation by the indefinite articles “a” or “an” limits any particular claim containing such introduced claim recitation to embodiments containing only one such recitation, even when the same claim includes the introductory phrases “one or more” or “at least one” and indefinite articles such as “a” or “an” (e.g., “a” and/or “an” should be interpreted to mean “at least one” or “one or more”); the same holds true for the use of definite articles used to introduce claim recitations. In addition, even if a specific number of an introduced claim recitation is explicitly recited, those skilled in the art will recognize that such recitation should be interpreted to mean at least the recited number (e.g., the bare recitation of “two recitations,” without other modifiers, means at least two recitations, or two or more recitations). Furthermore, in those instances where a convention analogous to “at least one of A, B, and C, etc.” is used, in general such a construction is intended in the sense one having skill in the art would understand the convention (e.g., “a system having at least one of A, B, and C” would include but not be limited to systems that have A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, and/or A, B, and C together, etc.). In those instances where a convention analogous to “at least one of A, B, or C, etc.” is used, in general such a construction is intended in the sense one having skill in the art would understand the convention (e.g., “a system having at least one of A, B, or C” would include but not be limited to systems that have A alone, B alone, C alone, A and B together, A and C together, B and C together, and/or A, B, and C together, etc.). It will be further understood by those within the art that virtually any disjunctive word and/or phrase presenting two or more alternative terms, whether in the description, claims, or drawings, should be understood to contemplate the possibilities of including one of the terms, either of the terms, or both terms. For example, the phrase “A or B” will be understood to include the possibilities of “A” or “B” or “A and B.”

[0311] In addition, where features or aspects of the disclosure are described in terms of Markush groups, those skilled in the art will recognize that the disclosure is also thereby described in terms of any individual member or subgroup of members of the Markush group.

[0312] As will be understood by one skilled in the art, for any and all purposes, such as in terms of providing a written description, all ranges disclosed herein also encompass any and all possible sub-ranges and combinations of sub-ranges thereof. Any listed range can be easily recognized as sufficiently describing and enabling the same range being broken down into at least equal halves, thirds, quarters, fifths, tenths, etc. As a non-limiting example, each range discussed herein can be readily broken down into a lower third, middle third and upper third, etc. As will also be understood by one skilled in the art all language such as “up to,” “at least,” “greater than,” “less than,” and the like include the number recited and refer to ranges which can be subsequently broken down into sub-ranges as discussed above. Finally, as will be understood by one skilled in the art, a range includes each individual member. Thus, for example, a group having 1-3 articles refers to groups having 1, 2, or 3 articles. Similarly, a group having 1-5 articles refers to groups having 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 articles, and so forth.

[0313] While various aspects and embodiments have been disclosed herein, other aspects and embodiments will be apparent to those skilled in the art. The various aspects and embodiments disclosed herein are for purposes of illustration and are not intended to be limiting, with the true scope and spirit being indicated by the following claims.

[0314] All references cited herein, including but not limited to published and unpublished applications, patents, and literature references, are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety and are hereby made a part of this specification. To the extent publications and patents or patent applications incorporated by reference contradict the disclosure contained in the specification, the specification is intended to supersede and/or take precedence over any such contradictory material.